CHAPTER-2: STONES

2.1 STONES AS A BUILDING UNIT

Stones are naturally compact, solid and massive materials that make the crust of the earth and
have no definite shape or chemical composition but are mixtures of two or more minerals.
Technically, the stones are called rocks. Those rocks that possess suitable properties often find
use in building construction. Such rocks are specifically termed as building stones.

Stones have been used in all types of construction since time immemorial. The Pyramids of
Egypt, Great Wall of China and hundreds of other historical buildings are made of stones. But
at present, the use of stones in building construction in the modern times is decreasing. This is
due to the advent of new easily available and manufactural building materials such as bricks,
concrete, prefabricated materials, etc. Besides, the stones are not available in all the parts of
the world, thus it might be very costly to transport from other places. This might be another
prevalent reason for the decreasing use of stones in building constructions.

2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS

The rocks from which stones are obtained can be classified on following three main bases:
A. On the basis of mode of formation (Geological Classification)
B. On the basis of physical structure (Physical or Structural Classification)
C. On the basis of chemical composition (Chemical Classification)

A) ON THE BASIS OF MODE OF FORMATION (GEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION)

On the basis of mode of formation, the rocks can be classified into three different types:
i) IGNEOUS ROCKS: These are the rocks formed by the cooling and solidification
of the molten lava or magma on or inside the earth’s surface during the volcanic
eruption. It is further classified into two types:
a) Volcanic or Extrusive rocks: These are the rocks formed by the rapid cooling of
magma on the earth’s surface during volcanic eruption. Rocks formed by such
process are non-crystalline in nature. E.g.: Basalt, etc.
b) Plutonic or intrusive rocks: These rocks are formed at great depths by the slow
cooling of magma beneath the earth surface. They are exposed on the surface by
erosion of the overlying secondary rocks with the passage of time. These are
crystalline in nature. E.g.: Granite, syenite, etc.

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 ii) SEDIMENTARY ROCKS: These are the rocks formed by gradual compaction and
cementation of sediments carried and deposited by different transporting medias like
water, air, etc. The sediments comprise of various materials and the small
disintegrated particles of preexisting rocks formed by the process of weathering. The
sediments are then converted into rocks over course of time. As they are formed by
the deposition of sediments, they show stratifications (i.e. distinct layers). E.g.:
Limestone, sandstone, shale, conglomerate, etc.
iii) METAMORPHIC ROCK: When the igneous or the sedimentary rocks are
subjected to great heat and pressure inside the earth, a new variety of rock with new
structure and composition is formed which is known as metamorphic rock and this
process of change is called metamorphism. For e.g. limestone changes to marble,
slate changes to gneiss, etc.

B) ON THE BASIS OF PHYSICAL STRUCTURE (PHYSICAL CLASSIFICATION)

On the basis of physical properties (the manner and arrangement of different particles), rocks
are classified as:
i) STRATIFIED ROCKS: These are the rocks which show the distinct layers
which can be separated. The plane along which the separation of the layers can be
done is called cleavage plane. E.g. Limestone, slate, sandstone, etc.
ii) UNSTRATIFIED ROCKS: In this type of rocks, there are no any such cleavage
planes. Thus, they cannot be separated along the distinct layers. They occur in large
massive forms.
iii) Foliated Rocks: Foliated rocks have a layered or banded structure that results from
pressure and heat exposure. Metamorphism produces the majority of metamorphic
rocks, which are classified as foliated rocks. Examples of the list of types of rocks
include Gneiss, schist, slate.

C) ON THE BASIS OF CHEMICAL COMPOSITION (CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION)

On the basis of dominant chemical composition, following three main types of rocks are found.
i) SILICEOUS ROCKS: These rocks have silica (SiO2) as the predominant
component that is more than 50% of the bulk composition of the rock. Some
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks are often entirely made up of silica. E.g. granites,
sandstones and gneisses.

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 ii) CALCAREOUS ROCKS: In these rocks, the dominant component is a carbonate,
generally of calcium. They are mostly sedimentary and metamorphic groups of rocks.
E.g. Limestone, dolomites, marbles, etc.
iii) ARGILLACEOUS ROCKS: They are mostly sedimentary and metamorphic rocks
having clay (alumino silicates) as the dominant components. They are generally soft
and are not so useful as building stones. E.g. shales, slates, etc.

2.3 INTRODUCTION TO COARSE AND FINE AGGREGATE

Aggregate are the important constituent in concrete. Aggregate are granular material,
derived from the most part from the natural rocks, crushed stones, or natural gravels and
sands. Aggregate generally occupy about 70% to 80% of the volume of concrete and can
therefore be expected to have an important influence on it properties.
Based on size aggregates are divided into fine aggregates and coarse aggregates.
i. Coarse aggregate: Aggregate which retained on the No.4 (4.75mm) sieve. The
function of the coarse aggregate is to act as the main load- bearing component of
the concrete.
ii. Fine aggregate: Aggregate passing No. 4(4.75mm) sieve and predominately
retained on the No.200 (75µ) sieve. The fine aggregate serve the purpose of
filling all the open space in between the coarse particles providing a smooth and
dense mix.

2.4 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF STONES

Stones are naturally occurring solids made up of mineral particles or a mixture of mineral
particles and organic material. They can vary greatly in physical and chemical properties
depending on their composition and formation. The following are some of the commonly
observed physical and chemical properties of stones:

Physical Properties:

1. Hardness: Hardness refers to the ability of a stone to resist scratching or abrasion.

Stones with a higher hardness are more durable and resistant to wear and tear. For example,
diamond is the hardest known mineral with a hardness of 10 on the Mohs scale, while talc
is the softest with a hardness of 1.

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2. Color: The color of a stone is determined by its composition and can vary greatly. Some
stones, like quartz, are transparent or translucent, while others, like granite, can be multi-
colored.

3. Density: Density is the measure of mass per unit volume of a substance. The density of
a stone is affected by its composition and porosity. Stones with a higher density are heavier
and more compact.

4. Porosity: Porosity refers to the amount of open space within a stone. Porosity affects
the stone's ability to absorb water and other substances, as well as its resistance to
weathering and erosion.

5. Texture: Texture refers to the surface characteristics of a stone, such as roughness or

smoothness. The texture of a stone can be influenced by its composition and how it was
formed.

6. Durability: The durability of a stone is influenced by its chemical composition and its
reaction to environmental factors like moisture, temperature, and air pollution. Some
stones are more durable than others and are better suited for use in outdoor applications.

Chemical Properties:

1. Acid Resistance: Some stones, like granite and quartzite, are highly resistant to acidic
substances. Acid resistance is an important property for stones used in kitchen countertops
and other applications where they may come into contact with acidic substances.

2. Chemical Reactivity: Some stones, like marble and limestone, are highly reactive to
acids and other chemicals. These stones can be damaged by exposure to acidic substances
or cleaning agents.

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 3. Thermal Conductivity: Thermal conductivity refers to the ability of a stone to conduct
heat. Stones with a high thermal conductivity, like granite, can be used in applications
where heat is generated, such as cooking surfaces or fireplaces.

4. Stain Resistance: Some stones, like quartz, are highly resistant to staining. Stain
resistance is an important property for stones used in applications where they may be
exposed to liquids or other substances that could cause staining.

In conclusion, the physical and chemical properties of stones are influenced by their
composition, formation, and environmental factors. Understanding these properties is
important for selecting the right stone for a particular application and for maintaining its
appearance and durability over time.

2.5 USES OF STONES IN CIVIL ENGINEERING WORKS

Stones are extensively used in various civil engineering works as they prove economic and
durable than other materials. Some of the uses of stones in civil engineering works are listed
below:
1. Construction of buildings, dams, weirs, abutments for bridges, etc.
2. Face work of structures and other ornamental purposes.
3. Used as road metal and railway ballast.
4. Used as aggregate in concrete.
5. Used for decoration exterior (front) and interior of buildings.

2.6. CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD BUILDING STONES

A building stone should possess following characteristics for their application in civil
engineering.
i. Appearance and Color: The stones used for decoration and aesthetic purpose should have
uniform and appealing color and should be free from flaws and clay holes. Stones
containing much iron should be discouraged as the formation of iron oxide disfigures them
and bring about disintegration.
ii. Hardness: The stone should be sufficiently hard and tough so that they can resist wear and
tear due to friction.
iii. Strength: Stones used in construction should possess adequate compressive strength to
resist the anticipated load throughout its service period. Generally, all the stones possess

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 reasonable degree of strength for their use in building works but for heavy structures only
those stones having high strength are suitable.
iv. Durability: Stones used should be durable. They are durable if it is compact, homogeneous
and free from materials affected by dilute hydrochloric and sulphuric acids.
v. Weight: The specific gravity hence the weight of stones should be high as heavier stones
can resist loads of bigger magnitude.
vi. Porosity and absorption: Stones having higher porosity are unsuitable for building
construction. As the rain water seeping into pores contains acids and fumes absorbed from
atmosphere which destroys stone. During cold weather the water in pores freezes and splits
the stone.
vii. Compactness: Compact and dense stones are more strong and durable.
viii. Resistance to fire: Stone free from calcium carbonate or oxide of iron and having
homogeneous composition are resistant to fire.
ix. Texture: Texture of stone is indicated by size and shape of grains; fine grained stones are
suitable for moulding works (decorative works). Stones with crystalline texture are strong
and durable hence are suitable for building constructions.

2.7.SELECTION AND USE OF STONE

When the cost of quarried stone to cost of finished stone is considered, it will be found that
the labour cost is far greater than the price of the stone. Thus a difference in the price
between two alternative stones is unimportant and it would be unwise to reject a more
durable stone on the grounds that it was costly. For a highly carved design if, by mistake, a
harder stone such as granite is selected the cost will be affected. Colour, arrangement and
shape of mineral constituents greatly influence fashion or ornamental value. One of the first
factors influencing the selection of stone for a particular work will be colour. It is very
important to select a stone according to its exposure conditions.
SN. Types of work Stone recommended Reason
1. Heavy engineering works Granite It is heavy, strong
such as bridge, piers and durable and is capable of
abutments, break water, docks resisting large thrust
and light houses, retaining
walls
2. Building facing the sea Granite, fine grained These are not affected by
sandstone the weathering action of

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 sand particles blown by
wind
3. Building in industrial areas Granite, compact These are restraints to
sandstones acid fumes and smoke
4. Arches Fine grained Strong, durable
sandstone
5. Building facework, carved Marble, closed They are light weight,
works, ornamental works and grained sandstone soft and easy to work and
statues have pleasing colour and
appearances.
6. Fire resisting structure Compact sandstone Fireproof
7. Road metal and aggregate for Granite, basalt, Hard, tough and has high
concrete quartzite abrasion resistance
8. Railway ballast Coarse grained these are hard and
sandstone, quartzite compact
9. Electrical switch board Slate, marble Poor conductor of
electricity

2.8 DETERIORATION AND PRESERVATION OF STONE

Deterioration
i. Rain:
ii. Lichens:
iii. Wind:
iv. Temperature variations:
v. Frost:
vi. Alternative wetness and drying:
vii. Impurities in atmosphere:
viii. Vegetable growth:
ix. Chemical agents:
x. Mutual decay:

i. Rain: rain water acts both physically and chemically on stones.

ii. Lichens: these destroy limestone but act as protective coats for other stones.

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 iii. Wind: the wind contains fine particles of dust. It is blowing with high velocity thus
the stone surfaces will be decayed. The wind allows rain water to enter pores of
stones with force. Such water on freezing expands and splits the stones.
iv. Temperature variations: the rise and fall of temperatures are frequent, the stones are
easily deteriorated.
v. Frost: in hill stations or cold places, the moisture present in the atmosphere is
deposited in pores of stones.
vi. Alternative wetness and drying: wear out quickly.
vii. Impurities in atmosphere: acids, fumes etc are predominant in industrial town
which cause the deterioration of stone.
viii. Vegetation growth: roots of trees and weeds that grow in the masonry joints keep
the stones damp and also secrete organic and acidic matters which cause the stones
to deteriorate.
ix. Chemical agents: smokes, fumes, acids and acid fumes present in the atmosphere
deteriorate the stones containing caco3, mgco3 are affected badly.
x. Mutual decay: when sand stone is used under limestone, the chemicals brought
down from limestone by rain water to the sandstone will deteriorate.

2.9 PRESERVATIONS OF STONE

i. Coal tar: it preserves stone. But the colour of coal tar produces objectionable
appearance and surface coated with coal tar absorbs heat of the sun.
ii. Linseed oil: Raw oil and boiled oil can be used. Raw oil does not disturb the original
shade of stone. But it requires frequent renewal.
iii. Paint: The paints changes the original colour of stone.
iv. Paraffin: it can be used alone or it may be dissolved in neptha and then applied on
the stone surface. It changes the original colour of stone.
v. Solution of alum and soap: The alum and soft soaps are in proportaion of about
0.75N and 0.50N respectively and they are dissolved in a litre of water.
vi. Solution of baryta: A solution of barium hydroxide.

2.10 PRODUCTION, STORAGE AND HANDLING OF STONES

2.10.1NATURAL BED OF STONE
The natural bed of stone indicates the plane or bed on which the sedimentary stone was
originally deposited. The stone can easily be split along this plane. For sedimentary rocks,

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 it is easy to observe and locate the natural bed as it lies along the plane of stratification. The
natural bed can occur in case of only sedimentary type of rocks. In stone masonry, the
direction of natural bed of all sedimentary stones should be perpendicular to the direction of
pressure. This arrangement ensures maximum strength of stone work. In arch work, the
stones are placed with their natural beds radial.

2.10.2 QUARRYING OF STONES

Quarrying is the process or art of extraction of suitable stones from their natural place
of occurrence for use. Quarrying is different from mining, in a way that mining is used chiefly
for extraction of ores we go deep below the surface and the surface is left intact but in quarrying
we start from the surface. A quarry means a type of open pit mine from which rocks or
minerals are extracted and the quarry site is the place or site from where the stones are
taken out.

2.10.2.1 LOCATION OF QUARRY

A good location of quarry should fulfill the following requirements:
i. A large quantity of good quality stones should be available.
ii. It should be located nearby roads and railway lines and should not be too far from
the construction site.
iii. There should be proper and adequate space for the installation of crushers, storage
of stones and other materials.
iv. There should be proper provision for drainage of rain water.
v. If quarrying is to be done by blasting, the quarry site should be located far away
from permanent structures and built-up populated areas.
vi. The quarrying should be economical.

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 vii. Enough manpower and electricity should be available at site.

2.10.2.2 METHODS OF QUARRYING

The various methods of quarrying can be listed as follows;
i. Quarrying with Hand-tools
ii. Quarrying by blasting
iii. Quarrying by channeling machines

i. QUARRYING WITH HAND- TOOLS

1. Digging or excavation
In this method, skilled persons remove blocks of rocks with the use of hand tools such
as crowbars, pickaxe, hammer, etc. Only those rocks which occur in separate units can
be recovered by this method.
2. Heating
In this method, fuel is collected on the exposed surface of rock to be removed and fire
is set for several hours continuously. Due to this differential expansion of rock in
exterior and interior mass, the cracks are developed leading to the separation of rock
from the parent mass. The detached portion is removed with quarrying tools like quarry
sledge hammer, priming needle, tamping bars, pickaxe, crowbar, axe, etc. and then
broken into small pieces as per the requirement.

3. Wedging
This method is employed for the rocks which are in the form of layers (stratified) which
can be splitted along these layers. If the rock contains cracks, then wedges are driven
through such cracks by means of sledge hammer. If the rocks are hard, the holes are
made at short intervals manually or mechanically. Blunt wedges (plugs) are inserted in
the hole along with feathers as shown in fig. below. The plugs are then subjected to
hammer blows almost simultaneously. Due to this, the blocks are shifted laterally
forming cracks. The stone blocks are now removed with the help of hand tools like
crowbars, etc.

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 QUARRYING BY BLASTING

This method is employed for quarrying large volume of hard and compact stones. It
involves the series of systematic operations of boring, charging, tamping and firing.
1. Boring
Blast holes of required diameter and depth are driven manually or mechanically at
predetermined location on the body of rock. The blast holes are then cleared of all the
obstructions and broken materials.

2. Charging
After the blast holes are drilled and made clear, precalculated quantity of explosives
(gunpowder, dynamite, cordite, blasting powder, etc.) are inserted into it. A fuse cord
is placed in position along with the explosives before charging, it should be ensured
that the hole is thoroughly dry.

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 3. Tamping
It involves the filling of blast holes with stiff sandy clay (inert and non-combustible
material) by using tamping rod after the insertion of explosives and fuse wire. The main
purpose of tamping is to prevent the escape of gases, produced on ignition, through the
hole without doing the breaking job.

4. Firing
It involves the ignition of the explosives filled up in the charged hole with the help of
safety fuse or by electric detonators. Electric detonators are preferred if the explosive
is dynamite.

Notes:
i) An explosive is essentially a chemical compound in solid or semi-solid (jelly like)
state which upon ignition changes instantaneously to gaseous state causing
tremendous increase in its volume accompanied by generation of lots of energy and
heat. The gas so produced escapes to atmosphere causing cracks and fractures along
their route.
ii) When a fully charged shot is made to explode the thrust of shot is directed towards
the line of shortest distance to free side of the quarry. This is called the line of least
resistance. In other words, it is the route to the free side of quarry which offers
least resistance to explosion.
iii) A safety fuse is essentially a thin strain of gunpowder properly wrapped in a cotton
thread which burns from one end to another end at fixed speed generally 100 to 130
seconds per meter run.

Precautions during blasting

1) The blast holes should be cleaned properly before charging explosives inside it.
2) Before blasting, warning signal or siren should be given to inform the workmen and
move to safety.
3) Smoking should be strictly prohibited.
4) After the insertion of fuse in the detonator, it should be fixed by clips or nippers.
5) Proper signaling should be arranged to avoid occurrence of accidents.

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ii. QUARRYING BY CHANNELING
In this method, special machines called channellizers are used. They cut the stone with a cutting
edge that traverse back and forth. The machines are power driven and are provided with cutting
tools. Holes are drilled horizontally from the free side to meet the groove at the back at its base.
The blocks are now separated from the rock by using wedges and steel bars.

2.10.2.3 PREPARING BUILDING UNITS FROM STONES

The stones obtained from the quarrying may not be used directly. They require further
processing’s to make them fit for use. It involves following processes:

A) DRESSING OF STONES
It is the process of giving proper size, shape and finish to the roughly broken stones as obtained
from the quarry. It is done either manually or mechanically. Dressing should be done as quickly
as possible after quarrying because a freshly quarried stone contains moisture (known as
quarry sap) which makes it soft. The dressing of stones is done at quarry itself. It has following
advantages:
1) Freshly quarried stones are comparatively soft since they contain moisture. So they can
be easily dressed.
2) Cheap labor is available at site.
3) It is possible to sort out stones for different works.
4) Irregular and rough portions of stones can be removed quickly reducing their weight
and thereby facilitating economy in transportation.

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 The different tools used in dressing are:
i. Soft stone Chisel vi. Drafting Chisel
ii. Crow Chisel vii Scrabbling Hammer
iii Punch Chisel vii
. Fare Hammer
iv
. Mason Hammer ix.
i. Mallet
v.
. Spalling Hammer

B) SEASONING
The stones obtained directly after quarrying should be left in air for sufficient time so as
to remove the quarry sap and gain sufficient hardness and strength. The gain in strength
and hardness is supposed to cause by the fact that the quarry water contained in the stone
holds certain amount of cementing materials which as evaporates binds the particles more
firmly. So the stones should be cut soon after it is taken from the quarry and if any carving
is to be done it should be done before the stone becomes dry, otherwise the hard crust will
be broken off. The normal period of seasoning is 6-12 months after quarrying and
dressing.

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