Chapter: 2 Building stones

Course of study:
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Characteristics of good building stones
2.3 Selection and use of stone
2.4 Deterioration and preservation of stone
2.5 Natural bed of stone
2.6 Dressing of stone

Rocks:
Rock is the solid portion of the earth’s crust and has no definite shape and chemical composition. It is
generally very big in size. It is the mixture of two or more minerals.

Mineral:
Mineral is the substance which is formed by natural inorganic process and possesses a definite chemical
composition and molecular structure.

Classification of rocks on the basis of presence of minerals

1. Monomineralic: having only one mineral. Eg. Quartz, sand, magnesite, pure gypsum etc.
2. Polymineralic: having several minerals. EG. Granite, basalt etc.

Stone:
 Stone is derived from rock.
 The rock quarried from quarries is called stone. Quarried stone may be in the form of stone
blocks, stone aggregate, stone slabs, stone lintels, stone flags etc. Stone has to be properly
dressed and shaped before it is used.

Quarry:
Quarry is the place where stones are dug. Stone is used for constructing buildings, dams, weirs, bridges,
abutments, etc: also used as road metal and railway ballast; aggregate for concrete and used in interiors
of buildings.

Classification of rocks:

Rocks

Geological Physical chemical

Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic Stratified unstratified Foliated Seliceous Calcareous Argillaceous

Geological classification of rocks:
Igneous Rock:
 It is formed by cooling the molten lava on or inside the earth surface during the volcanic
eruption.
 The portion of lava, which comes outside the surface, cools quickly and forms the rock is called
trap or basalt.
 The rest of the portion of the lava which remains inside the earth undergoes cooling at a slow
rate and results in formation of rock called granite.

Sedimentary Rock:
 It is formed by the weathering, transportation and deposition of disintegrated rocks (debris,
sand, silt etc) over millions of years.
 They are formed in layers and called stratified rocks as well.
 Example: limestone, sandstone.

Metamorphic Rock:
 It is formed when sedimentary rocks and igneous
rocks are subjected to great heat and pressure for
millions of years
 Change of structure, realignment of minerals, change
the texture of the rock is called metamorphism
 Example
 Limestone changes to marble
 Granite changes to Gneiss
 Shale changes to slate
 Sandstone changes to quartzite
 Dolomite changes to marble

Physical classification of rock:

It is the classification based on general structure of rocks
1) Stratified rock
 Rocks containing planes of stratification or cleavage
 They can be easily split along these planes.
 Examples: limestone, slate and sandstone etc
2) Unstratified rock
 Rocks which do not show any layers of stratification or cleavage
 They cannot be split into slabs
 All igneous rocks of volcanic origin come under this category.
 Examples: granite, trap, marble etc
3) Foliated or laminated rock:
 Rocks comprising of thin laminations
 They can be split in definite direction and size
 Metamorphic rocks come under this category
Chemical classification of rocks:
It is the classification based on chemical composition:
1) Siliceous rocks
 Rocks consisting of silica as the main constituent
 They are hard and durable and are not affected by weathering agents
 Example: granite, quartzite, trap, basalt, sandstone etc

2) Argillaceous rocks:
 Main constituent is clay
 They are hard, durable, dense and brittle
 Example: laterite, slate, porphyry, etc

3) Calcareous rocks:
 Main constituent is calcium carbonate
 Example: limestone, marble, dolomite, kankar, etc

Common rock forming minerals:

 Silica: Quartz is pure or nearly pure silica and it is hard and glassy minerals. Hardness = 7,
specific gravity = 2.66. Due to the presence of small quantities of metallic oxide it has various
transparency and colours.
 Feldspar: These are silicates of alumina with alkaline substances like potassium, sodium &
calcium, Hardness= 6, specific gravity = 2.5 to 2.7
 Mica: It contains silicate of aluminium with potassium, hardness =2.5 & specific gravity = 3.
 Hornblende: It a complex silicate hardness 5.5 specific gravity = 3.2, colour varies from dark
green to black
 Calcite: It is a leading constituent of limestone and marble. Colour varies from white to grey.
Hardness = 3 and specific gravity = 2.7.
 Dolomite: It is CaMg( CO3)2 or magnesium carbonate. Commonly found in dolomite limestone
and dolomite marble. Stability and weather resistance is better than pure calcium carbonate.

Characteristics of good building stone:

To find the suitability of stones under different conditions, the following characteristics should be
considered:
1. Appearance and colour: Stones should have uniform and appealing colour and should be free
from flaws and clay holes. It should have ability to receive good polish.
2. Weight: Good building stone should be heavy, compact and less porous. Heavier stone resists
force of bigger magnitude.
3. Hardness and toughness: Stones must be adequately hard and tough so they can resist wear
and tear. This property is important for pavements, floors and aprons of bridges etc. The
hardness determined by the Mohr’s scale.
4. Toughness: It is the measure of impact that stone can withstand. The stone used should be
tough when vibratory or moving loads are anticipated.
 5. Porosity & absorption: Porosity depends on the mineral constituents, cooling time and
structural formation. A porous stone disintegrates as the absorbed rain water freezes, expands,
and causes cracking.
6. Fineness of grain: The stone which are fine grained are suitable for moulding work. If the stone
are crystalline they are likely to disintegrate under the action of natural agencies.
7. Compactness: Stone durability is decided by their compactness or density of composition. A
compact stone can withstand the effect of external agencies.
8. Fire resistance: For stone to be fire resistance:
 It should have homogeneous composition.
 Stones should be free from calcium carbonate, oxides of iron.
9. Electrical resistance:
 Electrical resistance decreases when stone gets wet.
 For stone to be electrical resistance it must be non- absorbent like slate, marble.
10. Strength: Stones used in the structure are usually subjected to compression so they should have
sufficient strength.
11. Durability: Stone is durable if it is
 More compact
 Homogeneous
 Free from any material affected by dilute HCl and H2SO4.
12. Workability (ease of working): Stones should be easily cut dressed carved and moulded.
13. Cost: Cost is important factor to be considered in selection of building stone.

Selection and use of stone

S.No. Uses Stone Reason for selection
Exposed part of building, Granite, marble, Hardness due to presence of
1
ornamental and craved works sandstone silica
2 General building works Sandstone Hard and durable
Heavy engineering
Strong, durable, capable
3 works(bridges, piers, retaining Granite and gneiss
resisting thrust
walls)
Granite and compact
4 Building in industrial town Acid and smoke proof
sandstone
Hard, tough and abrasive
5 Road and railway construction Granite and basalt
resistance
6 Manufacture of cement, lime Limestone Quick decomposition
7 Fire proof construction Compact sandstone Better fire resistance
Poor electricity conductance
Ease in cutting to any shape
8 Electrical switch boards Slate and marble slabs
and size
Quality of taking good polish
Compact and hardness due
9 Building exposed to high winds Granite and sandstone
to presence of silica
10 As flux in manufacture of iron Limestone Special characteristics
Deterioration and preservation of stone:
Deterioration of stone: The various natural gents such as rain, heat etc and chemicals deteriorate the
stones with the time

Causes of deterioration of stone:

1. Rain: Rain water acts both physically and chemically on stones. The physical action is due to
erosion and transportation powers and chemical action is due to decomposition, oxidation and
hydration of the minerals.
2. Temperature change: Frequent temperature change causes expansion and contraction that
deteriorates the stones or rocks, since stone is composed of different minerals of different
coefficient of linear expansion
3. Wind: Wind carries dust particles; the abrasion caused by these deteriorates the stones.
4. Physical action: Alternate wetting by rain and drying by sun causes internal stresses in the stone
and consequent deterioration.
5. Chemical action: In industrial areas, acid rain reacts with constituents of stones leading to its
deterioration.
6. Frost: In cold places, frost pierces the pores of the stone where it freezes, expands and creates
cracks.
7. Vegetation growth: Roots of trees and weeds absorb moisture and keeps stone damp and also
secrete organic and acidic matters which cause the stones to deteriorate.
8. Mutual decay: When different types of stones are used together, mutual decay takes place. Eg.
When sand stone is used under limestone the chemical brought down from limestone by rain
water to sandstone will deteriorate it.
9. Living organisms: Holes are bored by certain insects in stones and make them weak.

Preservation of stones:
Preservation means making the stone strong enough to face the atmospheric agencies which are the
root cause of its deterioration. If stone is preserved properly, it durability uses.

Methods of preservation of stones

 Filling up the pores (Szerelmy’s liquid -solution of silicates of potash/soda and solution of CaCl 2)
 Providing the stone with a coat of preservative (coal tar, Linseed oil baryta solution (Barium
Hydroxide) solution of alum and soap, Paraffin, paint) to prevent the ingress of moisture into the
pores
 The use of stones, containing carbonate of lime in industrial area should be discouraged
 In a structure, as far as possible, limestone and sandstone, magnesium limestone and granular
limestone shouldn’t be laid close to each other.(mutual decay)
 Growth of plants and trees on the stone should be checked
 Plastering

Natural bed of stone:

It is the original bed, plane or position occupied by a stone during its formation in a sedimentary rock.
In the case of metamorphic rocks the plane of foliation or the plane of cleavage very is assumed to be its
natural bed. It is difficult to trace the natural bed in
case of igneous rocks, so it is not given due attention. It
may not necessarily be horizontal. The right placement
of stone with regard to the load line is necessary. It
should be placed in such a fashion that the load or
thrust acts perpendicular to the natural bed of stone. In
doing so, stone suffer maximum resistance to crushing
and disintegration by frost and rain. If kept parallel,
stone will get destroyed by the effect of frost and rain.

Dressing of stone:
Dressing is the art of giving required shape and size to stone before use in various filed of construction.
Stone blocks obtained from quarries are in irregular shapes and sizes and cannot be used as it is in
masonry work without dressing.

Objectives of dressing:
 Reducing the size of stone blocks to portable units
 Giving required shape and size to the stone
 Providing good appearance to masonry
 Taking advantages of softness in dressing due to presence of quarry sap in freshly quarried
stone.

Types of dressing:
1. Pitched dressing: Only the edge of the block of stone are made levelled with the skilful use of
hammers. The surface is left in the original cut.
2. Hammer dressing: Edges as well as faces are reduced to an even regular surface so as to fit well
in the masonry.
3. Chisel dressing: Straight grooves are made with the help of chisel at all the four edges. The
super fluous stone from the centre is removed by chisel. Chisel drafted stones are specially used
in plinths and corners of the building.
4. Rough tooling: The edges are made square by using chisel and hammer. Then a series of
grooves of variable width are developed over the surface of the stone.
5. Punched dressing: It is done to the stone that have already been rough tooled. A series of
parallel ridges are made on the stone surface using hammer and chisel. This is also called
furrowed finish.
6. Closed picked dressing: This is an extreme type of dressing in which almost every type of
projecting irregularities is removed from all the four sides of stone. Its surface gives fine finish
and appealing look.
7. Fine tooled dressing: Close picked stone are further dressed for ashlars work. All projection is
removed and a fairly smooth surface is obtained.