Machines:

Machines help us to perform daily activities in a better efficient way.

Functions and uses of simple machines: Machines perform the following functions, and they
are useful to us in the following four ways:

1. In changing the point of application of effort to a convenient point

2. In changing the direction of effort to a convenient direction

3. For obtaining a gain in speed

4. In lifting a heavy load by applying a less effort

Machines help us to perform daily activities in a better and efficient way.

A machine can be defined as a device by which we can either overcome a large resistive
force (or load) at some point by applying a small force (or effort) at a convenient point and
in a desired direction or by which we can obtain a gain in speed

Terms related to Machines

The resistive or opposing force to be overcome by a machine is called load (L)

The force applied on the machine to overcome the load is called effort (E).

The ratio of the load to the effort is called the mechanical advantage of the machine.

Mechanical Advantage = Load/Effort

MA greater than one: In a machine used to overcome a certain load, the effort needed is
less than the load.

MA less than one: In a machine used to overcome a certain load, the effort needed is
greater than the load

MA equal to one: The effort needed is equal to the load.

A machine with MA greater than one works as a force multiplier, while the machine with
MA less than one gives the gain in speed

The machine with MA equal to one is generally used to change the direction of effort as
there is no gain in force or speed

Unit: Because MA is the ratio of two similar quantities, it has no unit (same for VR)

Velocity Ratio (VR)

The ratio of the velocity of effort to the velocity of load is called the velocity ratio of a
machine.
Velocity Ratio = Velocity of Effort/Velocity of Load = dE/dL

VR is also defined as the ratio of the displacement of effort to the displacement of load.

A machine works as a force multiplier if its VR is more than one.

VR of a machine is equal to one if the displacement of load is equal to the displacement of
effort. Such a machine changes the direction of effort.
The work done on the machine by the effort is called the work input

Work input = Work done by the effort

The work done by the machine on the load is called the work output.

Work output = Work done on the load

It is the ratio of the useful work done by the machine to the work put into the machine by
the effort. In other words, efficiency is the ratio of the work output to the work input. It is
denoted by (eta)

Efficiency = Work output/Work input x 100%

Principle of a Machine

The point at which energy is supplied to a machine by applying effort is called the effort
point, and the point where the energy is obtained by overcoming the load is called the load
point. The input energy is given as Input energy Work done at the effort point Effort
displacement of the point of application of effort. The output energy is given as Output
energy Work done at the load point Load displacement of the point of application of load.
From the law of conservation of energy, the useful work done by a machine (i.e. output
energy) can never be greater than the work done on the machine (i.e. input energy). Thus,
no machine can have efficiency greater than 1. An ideal machine is one in which there is no
loss of energy in any manner. The work output is equal to the work input, i.e. the efficiency
of an ideal machine is 100%. In an actual machine, the output energy is always less than the
input energy as there is some loss of energy during its operation. The loss in energy can be
due to the following reasons: I. The moving parts in it are neither weightless nor smooth (or
frictionless). II. The string in it (if any) is not perfectly elastic. III. Its different parts are not
perfectly rigid.

Efficiency, MA and VR

MA of a machine is equal to the product of its VR and efficiency

Efficiency = MA/VR

LEVERS

The axis about which the lever turns passes through a point of the lever called the fulcrum.

A lever works on the principle of moments. Moment of load about the fulcrum = Moment of
effort about the fulcrum. The two moments are always in opposite direction.

Load x Load arm = Effort x Effort arm

Thus, we have MA of a lever as the ratio of length of its effort arm to the length of its load
arm. This is known as the law of levers.
If effort arm = load arm, then MA = 1.

II. If effort arm < load arm, then MA < 1.

III. If effort arm > load arm, then MA > 1.

Kinds of Levers

In case of Class I levers, the fulcrum F is in between the effort E and the load L.

For Class I levers, MA and VR can have any value—either greater than 1 or equal to 1 or less
than 1.

In case of Class II levers, the load L is somewhere in between the effort and the fulcrum F.

In case of Class II levers, the fulcrum F is in between the effort E and the load L.

For Class II levers, the effort arm is always longer than the load arm.

MA and VR of Class II levers are always more than 1

Class II levers always act as a force multiplier.

In case of Class III levers, the effort E is in between the fulcrum F and the load L, and so the
effort arm is always smaller than the load arm.

Therefore, MA < 1, and because MA is equal to VR for an ideal lever, VR < 1 for these levers.
MA and VR for Class III levers are always less than 1.

With levers of Class III, we do not get gain in force, but we get gain in speed.

Class I lever: Action of nodding of the head.

Class II lever: Raising the weight of the body on the toes.

Class III lever: Raising a load by the forearm.

PULLEY

A single pulley or a combination of two or more pulleys fixed in a frame is called a block,
while a string (rope or chain) which winds around the pulleys in different blocks is known
as tackle.

Single fixed Pulley

A pulley which has its axis of rotation fixed in position is called a fixed pulley. It is used for
lifting a small load.

MA, VR and Efficiency of a single fixed pulley

MA = 1

VR = 1

Efficiency = 100%

Single Movable Pulley

A pulley whose axis of rotation is not fixed in position is called a movable pulley. MA, VR
and Efficiency of a single movable pulley
MA = 2
VR = 2

Efficiency = less than 100%

Way to change the direction of effort using a movable pulley

With a single movable pulley, the effort has to be applied in the upward direction

However, it is inconvenient to apply effort in an upward direction; therefore, a movable

pulley is used along with a single fixed pulley to change the direction of effort.

Combination of Pulleys

Using several fixed pulleys in two blocks (the block and tackle system)

If the total number of pulleys used in both the blocks is n and the effort is being applied in
the downward direction, then the tension in n segments of the string supports the load;
therefore, we have

MA = n

The effort required to balance the load is

Effort = Load/n

VR = nd/d = n

Thus, VR is always equal to the number of strands of tackle (or sections of the string)
supporting the load.

Effect of weight of pulleys on MA, VR and Efficiency

Consider a system of n pulleys. Let w be the total weight of the lower block along with the
pulleys.
In the balanced position,

MA = LOAD/EFFORT = (nE – W)/E = n - w/E

Thus, MA is less than the ideal value n. VR does not change.

Therefore, efficiency is reduced due to the weight of the lower block of pulleys.