HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

ANIMAL PRODUCTION
AND MANAGEMENT
for

AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS
PROGRAM

DECEMBER 2024

Compiled by Amsalu Waktola

1. INTRODUCTION

The term ―animal‖ in this course represents ―livestock.‖ The term ―livestock‖ is generally used
to refer to the domesticated animals intentionally reared to provide many goods and services to
people, such as meat, milk, eggs, hides, feathers, fibres, traction and manure. They also serve
many social and financial roles in different societies. Livestock production is the farming of
domesticated animals to provide these goods and services. The different livestock species
include camels, cattle, sheep, goats, equines, pigs, poultry, etc.

Ethiopia has largest livestock population in Africa with diverse genetic resources, and agro
ecologies suitable for different kinds of livestock production. The most recent livestock census
indicates that the total livestock population of the country is estimated to be about 70.29 million
cattle, 43 million sheep, 52.5 million goats, 2.15 million horses, 10.8 million donkeys, 0.38
million mules, 57 million poultry, and about 8.15 million camels (CSA, 2021). The livestock
sector has been contributing considerable portion to the economy of the country, and still
promising to support the economic development of the country. Livestock plays an important
role in providing food (milk, meat and egg) and export commodities such as live animals, meat,
hides and skins to earn foreign exchanges to the country. The livestock sector contributes about
12–16% of the total GDP, and 40% of total agricultural GDP excluding the values of draught
power, transport and manure, and contributes to the livelihoods of about 60–70% of the
Ethiopian population. The sector also accounts for 12-15% of the total export earnings, the
second in order of importance (Ayele et al., 2003). Draught animals provide power for
cultivation, transportation and for crop threshing virtually all over the country. Furthermore,
livestock provides farmyard manure that is commonly applied to improve soil fertility and also
used as a source of energy. The large number of livestock in Ethiopia has a potential to
significantly contribute to the national development, including poverty reduction.

This course aimed to introduce students with the basic concepts of potentials and contribution of
livestock, production system and their management in Ethiopia. The course covers the roles of
farm animals in the Ethiopian agriculture, major aspects of nutrition, breeding, health care, and
housing and routine management aspects of tropical animals with major emphasis on dairy cattle,
beef cattle, small ruminant, poultry, and bee keeping.

1
1.1. Terminologies

Artificial insemination (AI): the technique of placing semen from the male into the
reproductive tract of the female by means other than natural service.
Body condition scores: numeric values assigned to an animal that estimates the degree of
fatness or condition that covers the animal‘s body. This score is assessed by palpating the spine,
transverse processes and ribs.
Breed: a group of animals with similar characteristics that distinguish them from other animals.
The characteristics are passed from the parents to the offspring.
Breeding: mating of the male and female individuals to obtain the offspring of the desired
characters.
Bull: a sexually matured male bovine which is maintained for the purpose of breeding.
Calf: a sexually immature young bovine of either sex.
Calving: act of giving birth in cow.
Colostrum: the milk produced by a cow just after calving up to 3-5 days.
Cow: a matured female bovine that has given birth at least once.
Dairy cattle (also called dairy cows): are cattle cows (adult females) bred for the ability to
produce large quantities of milk, from which dairy products are made.
Dairy products (milk products): are products obtained by processing milk. Dairy products
include yogurt, cheese, butter, cream etc.
Dystocia: calving difficulty.
Exotic species: a non-native animal species introduced by humans.
Farm: is a structure, facility or place where animals or farm animals are bred or kept.
Heifer: female cattle that is yet to give birth or that has not borne a calf. It is closer to maturing
than a female calf.
Lactation: span of time that a cow is giving milk, which is between the parturition or delivery of
calf and stoppage of milk secretion of a cow.
Livestock: refers the domesticated animals intentionally reared to provide many goods and
services to people, such as meat milk, eggs, hides, feathers, fibres, traction and manure.
Parturition: the act or process of giving birth to offspring.
Production system: is the scale, purpose and nature of the farming enterprise.
Ruminant animals: are animals having four compartment stomachs namely, rumen, reticulum,
omasum and abomasum. They are animals capable of ruminating or chewing curd.
Weaning: to separate nursing offspring from their mothers so that they no longer receive milk.

1.2. Animal Domestication

Even though domestication is probably studied for centuries, there is still no consensus about
its definition. Price (1984) defined ―domestication‖ as a process by which a population of
animals becomes adapted to man and to the captive environment by some combinations of
genetic changes occurring over generations and environmentally induced developmental
2
events recurring during each generation. Teletchea (2015) defined ―domestication‖ as a long
and endless process during which captive animals become gradually adapted to both humans
and captive conditions. However, all definitions of domestication recognize that
domestication involves a relationship between humans and target animal populations.

Three main pathways of domestication have been proposed for land animals: a commensal
pathway, a prey pathway, and a directed pathway. In the commensal pathway, the animals
themselves played the largest role. The animals come into initial contact with humans to feed on
refuse or to prey on other animals attracted to human settlements. Several domesticated species
have followed this path, among which are dog (Canis familiaris), cat (Felis catus), and chicken
(Gallus domesticus). In the prey pathway, humans have initiated domestication, perhaps as a
response to depletion of local stocks of prey animals that humans had hunted for thousands of
years, to enhance the yield or predictability of a resource (meat or hides). Over time and under
certain circumstances, these game management strategies developed into actual herd
management and, eventually, the controlled breeding of managed animals. The main species that
followed this pathway are sheep (Ovis aries), goat (Capra hircus), and cattle (Bos taurus and
Bos indicus). In the directed pathway, humans deliberately set out to domesticate a species. The
directed pathway is the final category of animal domestication. This pathway skips the early
phases of habituation and management and starts with the capture of wild animals with the
deliberate intention of controlling their reproduction. This pathway was the final category of
animal domestication, and occurred more rapidly and was accompanied by a dramatic
bottleneck. This fast-track to domestication begins when humans use knowledge gained from the
management of already domesticated animals to domesticate a wild species that possesses a
resource or a set of resources that humans see as desirable. The main species are horse (Equus
caballus), donkey (Equus asinus), and dromedary (Camelus dromedarius).

Domestication process was the major initiating event in the development of today‗s livestock
diversity, the subsequent dispersion and migration of domesticated species across the globe. This
process played a major role in the emergence of the current geographic distribution of livestock
diversity. The main factors at the root of the early dispersion of livestock species were the
expansion of agriculture, trade and military conquests. In general, domestication is a very
powerful process that has enabled humans to produce various domestic animals that now
constitute the bulk of what we eat, i.e. cattle, sheep and goat.

1.3. Origin, Domestication and Distribution of Cattle

The wild ancestor of cattle is a group of races of the now extinct aurochs Bos primigenius. The
aurochs, the formerly widespread wild species recently became extinct, with the last recorded
herd found in 1627 A.D. in Poland, had a very wide geographic distribution, which extended
from East Asia to Europe and North Africa. Traditionally, two major types of domestic cattle are
considered: zebu (Bos indicus) which have a prominent thoracic hump and taurine (Bos taurus),

3
which do not. Molecular evidence suggests that these two species came from two independent
domestication events: zebu cattle were domesticated in the Indus valley region ca. 8000–7500
B.P., whereas taurine cattle were domesticated in Anatolia 10,500–10,000 B.P.

The primary center of domestication of cattle is most probably in Western Asia known as the
―Fertile Crescent‖. Taurine cattle dispersed quickly after their domestication northwest from the
Fertile Crescent through Turkey into the Balkans and into northern Italy, either following a
Mediterranean coastline or a route partially along the Danube River, and subsequently dispersing
across Europe. Taurine cattle may have also migrated along the northern coast of Africa,
eventually crossing into the Iberian Peninsula and admixing with local cattle. Similarly, indicine
cattle (zebu cattle) also dispersed far beyond their domestication centre in the Indus valley,
reaching China and much of Southeast Asia. Additionally, a modern zebu cattle migration via
pastoralists into eastern Africa (~2,500-3,500 YA) and subsequently throughout central and
southern areas of the continent.

Today, cattle have spread over the globe. They are domesticated bovine farm animals that are
raised for their meat, milk, hides or for draft purposes. Some are specialized for dairy production,
others for beef.

1.4. Position of Cattle in the Zoological Scheme

In a biological sense, classification is the systematic grouping of organisms based on structural

or functional similarities or evolutionary history. Taxonomy is the classification of organisms
into a system that indicates natural relationships (evolutionary relationships); the theory and
practice of describing, naming, and classifying organisms into groups based on their similarities
and differences.
The following outline shows the position of the domesticated cattle in the zoological scheme.

 Kingdom: Animalia
Animals collectively; the animal kingdom.
 Phylum: Chordata
There is either a backbone in the vertebrates or rudiment of a backbone, the
chorda.
 Class: Mammalia
Mammals or warm blooded, hairy animals that produce their young alive and
suckle them for a variable period on a secretion from the mammary glands.
 Order: Artiodactyla
Even toed, hoofed mammals.
 Family: Bovidae
Ruminants having polycotyledonary placenta; hollow, non-deciduous, up-
branched horns; and nearly universal presence of a gall bladder.

4
  Genus: Bos
Ruminant quadrupeds, including wild and domestic cattle, distinguished by a
stout body and hollow curved horns standing out laterally from the skull.
 Species:
 Bos taurus
 Bos indicus
- Bos taurus includes ancestors of the European cattle and of the majority of cattle
found in the United States. They are humpless.
- Bos indicus is represented by the humped cattle (Zebu) of India and Africa and the
Brahman breed of America.

Table 1. Difference between Bos taurus and Bos indicus.

Characteristics Bos taurus Bos indicus
Ears Short and erect Long and drooping
Hump Absent Well-developed and fleshy
Hide Relatively tight and thick Very loose and thin
Subcutaneous fat Large amount Relatively small amount
Dewlap No pendulous dewlap Prominent dewlap
Udder Well suspended between and behind Poorly suspended and carried in
the hind leg front of the hind leg
Maturity Fast Slow
Hair Long and thick Short and thin
Call Bellow Grunt
Body Wide through barrel and hindquarter Narrower throughout
Temperament Relatively docile Nervous
Heat tolerance Poor Good
Cold tolerance Good Poor
Birth weight High Low

5
2. DAIRY CATTLE PRODUCTION
2.1. Dairy Cattle Breeds

A breed is a group of animals having related similar characters like general appearance; size,
features and configuration etc. A group of individual which have certain common characteristics
that distinguish them from other groups of individuals is known as ―species‖.

Cattle can be classified into indigenous and exotic breeds. The breeds which are originated and
domesticated in the native environment are known as indigenous breeds. The breeds which are
originated in other countries and imported for different purposes are known as exotic breeds.
Those imported for dairying are known as exotic dairy cattle breeds. Dairy cattle (also called
dairy cows) are cattle bred for the ability to produce large quantities of milk from which dairy
products are made. Dairy cattle generally are of the species Bos taurus.

The pure exotic dairy cattle breeds are high milk producers. For example, Holstein-Friesians can
give about 6,577 kg milk per cow per lactation; so many farmers might want to keep these ones.
However, the pure exotic dairy cattle breeds have some disadvantages. For instance,
 Exotic dairy cattle breeds usually consume a lot, thus can be expensive to maintain. They
require high levels of management, feeding, housing and veterinary care. If such
conditions are not provided, they cannot express their full genetic potential.
 They are low heat tolerant and less resistant to tropical diseases.
Indigenous cattle breeds are low milk producers. For example, a Zebu cow can give 880 kg milk
per lactation, thus income from milk sales is less than from exotic breeds. However indigenous
breeds have some advantages. For instance,
 They are low feed consumers, thus will cost less to maintain.
 Indigenous breeds are better adapted to local environments and have higher tolerance to
tropical bovine diseases.

2.1.1. Indigenous cattle breeds

There are many local cattle types/breeds in the country, which vary in size and color. All are
grouped under Bos indicus.

The general features of local cattle are:

 They are well adapted to tropical environment through natural selection.

 Cattle in the country are able to survive the harsh condition of irregular supply of not
only feed but also water.
 Are not well characterized.
 They are all multipurpose in their function (meat, milk, draft and for manure production).
 Named with reference to the place where they dominate. For example,
o Horro: around Horro Guduru Wollega.
6
 o Ethiopian Boran: southern part of Ethiopia around Borena.
o Fogera: northern part of Ethiopia around Fogera.

The recent DARGIS data base report indicated that the types/breeds of cattle identified in
Ethiopia are categorized into 8 distinct breed groups, these are:

1. Small East African Zebu (Adwa, Ambo, Bale, Goffa, Guraghe, Hammer, Harar, Jem-
Jem, Jijiga, Mursi, Ogaden Zebu, Smada, Baherie).
2. Large East African Zebu (Arsi, Barka, Ethiopian Boran, Somali Boran).
3. Zenga (Arado, Fogera, Horro).
4. Sanga (Aliab Dinka, Anuak, Danakil, Raya-Azebo).
5. Commercial Composites (Qocherie, Dembia, Wegera, Medenece, Semien).
6. Humpless Longhorn (Kuri).
7. Humpless Shorthorn (Sheko) and
8. West African Zebu (Red Fulani).

7
 Table 2. Indigenous cattle genetic resource of Ethiopia and their distribution.
Group Breeds Distribution Merits/Characteristics
Ogaden Zebu Somali region and eastern Hararghe Beef, milk and tolerance to drought
Adwa Adwa of Tigray Draft, animal but very poor milk
producer
Ambo Ambo, Ejere, Holeta Compact conformation
Bale (Highland zebu) Bale, Jem-Jem Short to medium humped draft
animals
Goffa Goffa, Sawla Very small size
Small East Guraghe (Highland zebu) Guraghe, Hadiya Inhabits proximity to tsetse infested
African Zebu areas
Hammer South Omo zone Milk animals
Harar Harar highlands Draft power
Jijiga Jijiga and neighboring area of eastern Milk and beef
Hararghe
Mursi South Omo zone Large humped, large and curved
horned animals
Smada (Highland zebu) Gayint, Smada highlands Draft
Jem-Jem (highland zebu) Highlands of Sidamo – Jem-Jem area, north Draft, milk and beef
Borana
Ethiopian Boran Borana, lowlands of Bale and part of Somali Beef, milk and tolerant to drought
Large East region
African Zebu Arsi Arsi, Bale and eastern Shoa Low maintenance requirement
Aggressive, draught animals
Barka Tigray and Gonder Considered to be good milk cattle
Horro Wollega (Horro Guduru), western Shoa, Milk, draft and beef
Keffa, Jimma and Illubabor
Fogera Around lake Tana, Gojam and Gonder Draft, milk, meat, tolerant to internal
Zenga parasites
Arado Northern Shire, Adwa, Agme Draft, milk and low maintenance
requirement
Danakil (Afar, Adal, North eastern lowlands, Afar, Rift Valley Drought resistance, milk
Kereyu) areas, north of Adama and north Shoa
Anuak (Abigar) Western lowlands, Gambella, Akobo, - Tolerant to trypanosomiasis
Sanga Adjacent areas of southern lowlands, - Tolerant to internal parasite
southern Omo
Raya Azebo Raya Azebo near lake Ashenge Draft power
Qocherie
Dembia
Commercial Wegera
Composites Medenece
Semien
Humpless Sheko (Goda, Shewa- Western SNNP - Tolerant to trypanosomiasis
Shorthorn Ghimira, Mitzan) - Small population
Humpless Kuri Djicao, Gambella region Endangered, small population
Longhorn
West African Red Fulani
Zebu

8
Of these, some characterized indigenous cattle are:

Barka
 Originated in west part of Eritrea, but abundant in Tigray and Gonder.
 Habitats in medium to high altitude.
 Coat colour is variable, but black pied is common.
 It is a tall animal with long legs.
 Head is small and short.
 Horns are variable in shape and short to medium in size.
 Hump is very large in the male and may fall to one side but small in females.
 Dewlap is large.
 Multipurpose type (meat, milk and draft).
 Considered to be good milk cattle.
 Weight at maturity is 290–310 for male and 230–250 kg for females.
 Selected Barka produces about 647 litres milk per lactation.

Arsi
 Dominate in the highland of the central region of Arsi and Bale.
 Small in body size.
 Average body weight is 232–245 for females.
 Selected Arsi produces up to 500 litres milk per lactation.
 Butter fat percentage is about 5.4–5.8%.

Fogera
 Found in the north-western part of the country around Fogera, Lake Tana, Gonder and
Gojam.
 Produce about 281 kg of milk per lactation.
 Average weight is about 232 kg.
 Butter fat percentage is about 5.8%.
 They are large sized being tall animal with long leg.
 The breed has black and white or black and grey coat.
 Muzzle and hoofs are almost always black.
 The horns and hump are very small and the animal is docile.
 They are used as meat, milk and draught animals.

Boran
 Is a famous Ethiopian breed.
 Originated in Borena, southern part of Ethiopia.
 Today it is also found in Somalia and Kenya.

9
  Has a good body conformation.
 Color is normally white or grey but also red or pied animals occur, males have black
color on their hump.
 They are drought and pest resistant and have ability to travel long distance.
 The hump is very well developed in the male and smaller in females.
 Horns are usually small, thick at the base, pointed and directed forward.
 Has been subjected to selection both in Ethiopia and Kenya.
 Produce good crosses with dairy breeds.
 Average weight varies from 318–680 kg for male and 259–54 kg for female.
 On the ranches they have been selected for beef and have potential for beef. It is found to
be excellent beef breeds in Africa.
 The breed is used by semi nomadic people primarily for milk and if selected for milk,
Boran cows are moderately good milker.
 Milk yield is 440 kg per lactation.
 Butterfat percentage is 6.0%.
 Average birth weight is 23.5 kg.

Horro
 Originated in the western part of the country in Horro Guduru, East Wollega; also found
in Western Shoa, Keffa, Jimma anf Illubabor.
 They have brown or reddish-brown coat color.
 Are medium sized.
 Mainly raised for meat and draft power.
 Selected Horro produce up to 543 litres per lactation.
 They have poor temperament.

Ogaden
 Originated in the eastern part of the country around Ogaden.
 Characterized by coat colour which vary from white to grey.
 They have compact body conformation, short horns, small head and long facial profile.

Sheko
 Found in the south western part of the country around Keffa. They are distributed in the
humid parts of southwestern Ethiopia around Bench-Maji zone.
 They do not possess hump. They are probably the only humpless short horned taurine
breed in east Africa.
 They are relatively tolerant to trypanosomiasis.
 They are polled or have floating type horns.
 They are brown or black and white and glossy-red in color.

10
2.1.2. Exotic dairy cattle breeds

Dairy cattle were originated in Europe. The European breeds of dairy cattle belong to the species
of Bos taurus. They are selected only for dairy purpose with beef production as a by-product.
The important exotic breeds of dairy cattle are Holstein Friesian, Brown Swiss, Guernsey,
Ayrshire and Jersey.

1. Holstein Friesian
Origin

The Holstein Friesian breed originated in the Netherlands. Development occurred in the northern
province of Friesland and in nearby northern Germany. It is not known when they became a
distinct breed. It is believed that selection and breeding that resulted in the Holstein-Friesian
breed started about 2,000 years ago.

Characteristics
 Holsteins are black and white. A recessive gene occasionally causes a red and white color
to appear. The Red and White coloring in some Holsteins is caused by a recessive gene
and appears when the dam (mother) and sire (father) are both carriers. The switch (tail)
has white on it.
 The horns incline forward and curve inward.
 Holsteins are the largest of the dairy breeds. Mature cows weigh about 680 kg and bulls
weigh about 998 kg.
 Cows have large udders.
 Holsteins are heavy feeders. They are poor grazers they need intensive feeding; they are
suitable for zero grazing.
 They produce vigorous calves distinguished by rapid growth, and early maturity (as they
get to puberty at 15 months and first calving is at 24-27months). They frequently calve in
their lifetime, so need less replacements.
 The cows are generally quiet and docile but the bulls can be mean vicious dangerous.
 Holsteins are adaptable to a wide range of conditions. However, they produce more in
cool regions; they are susceptible to high temperatures.
 They are the world‘s highest milk yielding breed through the fat percentage of milk is
low, compared to other dairy breeds. Holsteins rank first among the dairy breeds in
average milk production per cow at 6,577 kg.
 The average milkfat content in milk is 3.7% ranking fifth among the five dairy breeds in
average milkfat. The average protein content in milk is 3.2%.

11
2. Brown Swiss
Origin

The Brown Swiss breed originated in Switzerland. They are probably one of the oldest of the
dairy breeds.
Characteristics
 Brown Swiss are solid brown or grey brown, ranging from light to dark in color. They
have a dark tail switch, dark hooves, deep brown eyes and a black muzzle.
 The horns incline forward and slightly upward.
 They are larger dairy breed (second in size to Holstein). The Brown Swiss are large-
framed cattle. Mature cows weigh about 680 kg and bulls about 907 kg.
 The heifers mature more slowly than other dairy breeds.
 Brown Swiss have a quiet, docile temperament.
 They are considered to be good grazers.
 Brown Swiss are the longest lived of the dairy breeds.
 They have a high heat tolerance.
 Originally known as a dual purpose breed utilized for meat and milk. Bulls of this breed
have been used recently in beef crossbreeding programs.
 Brown Swiss are known for having very good feet and legs. Sound feet and legs were a
must for the beginnings of the breed in Switzerland grazing the mountain slopes.
 Brown Swiss have the longest gestation period of the dairy breeds that is 287 days. This
is 7 days longer than the average gestation of 280 days.
 Brown Swiss ranks second among the dairy breeds in average milk production per cow at
5,488 kg.
 The average milkfat content in milk is 4% ranking third among the five dairy breeds in
average milkfat. The average protein content in milk is 3.5%.

3. Ayrshire
Origin

The Ayrshire breed originated in the county of Ayr in the south-western part of Scotland. The
Ayrshire breed was developed during the last part of the eighteenth century.

Characteristics
 In color, Ayrshires are light to deep cherry red, mahogany, brown, or a combination of
any of these colors and white. They can also be nearly all white or all red Brindle and
Roan color patterns are also possible. Brindle is a coat coloring pattern in animals that is
sometimes described as ―tiger-striped.‖ The preferred color is a distinctive red and white.
 Ayrshires were once known for their horns. The horns would gracefully curve up and out
and could grow up to 2 feet or more in span; now they are dehorned.

12
  They have prominent strongly attached and balanced udders. The udders are attached
high behind and extend forward. The teats are medium in size.
 Ayrshires are hardy and aggressive cattle. They are adaptable to varied agro-ecological
zones.
 They perform better on pasture than large dairy breeds. They have excellent grazing
ability.
 They are easy calving. They produce calves with vigor and easy to raise.
 They are moderate sized dairy breed. Mature cows weigh about 544 kg. Mature bulls
weigh about 816 kg.
 Ayrshires rank third among the dairy breeds in average milk produced per cow at 5,307
kg.
 The average milkfat content in milk is 3.9% ranking fourth among the five dairy breeds
in average milkfat. The average protein content in milk is 3.3%.

4. Guernsey
Origin
The Guernsey breed originated in the Isle of Guernsey, which is located in the English Channel
off the Coast of France. The development of the breed began about 1,000 years ago..

Characteristics
 The Guernsey may be any shade of fawn to golden with white markings. The skin is
yellow.
 The horns curve outward and to the front.
 The Guernsey is an early-maturing breed.
 Guernseys are well known for having the minimum of calving complications.
 They are adaptable to a wide range of climatic and geographical conditions.
 They are excellent grazers.
 They have a gentle behavior. They are docile and have an ideal dairy temperament.
 They are medium-framed. Mature cows weigh about 499 kg and bulls about 816 kg.
 Guernseys rank fourth among the dairy breeds in average milk production per cow at
4,808 kg.
 The Guernsey cows are known for producing high butterfat and high-protein milk. The
average milkfat content in milk is 4.7% ranking second among the five dairy breeds in
average milkfat. The average protein content in milk is 3.4%.
 Guernseys produce high quality milk that is golden in color. Their milk color is due to
high levels of beta carotene (a source of vitamin A) in the milk.

13
5. Jersey
Origin

The Jersey breed originated on the Isle of Jersey, which is located in the English Channel off the
coast of France.

Characteristics
 Jerseys vary from a very light gray to a very dark fawn or a shade that is almost black in
color. Some animals have white markings. The muzzle is black. The switch can be black
or white.
 They are the smallest of all the dairy breeds. Mature cows weigh about 453 kg and bulls
weigh about 725 kg.
 The horns curve inward and are inclined forward.
 Jerseys are known for their well-shaped udders and strong udder attachments.
 They are adaptable to a wide range of climatic and geographical conditions.
 They are tolerant to heat than larger breeds.
 Jerseys have excellent grazing ability even on poor pastures. They are efficient users of
feed.
 The Jersey's hard black feet are much less prone to lameness.
 They are known for high fertility rate and low dystocia rate (calving difficulty) but have a
high rate of hypocalcemia (milk fever). Milk Fever is a disorder that occurs following the
cow giving birth when milk production exceeds the cow‘s ability to mobilize calcium.
 They are of fairly good temperament but the cows may be somewhat nervous and the
bulls can be mean very aggressive.
 They live longer and are the fastest at maturing compared to other dairy breeds.
 Jerseys rank fifth among the dairy breeds in average milk production per cow at 4,536 kg.
 Jerseys generally produce milk with the highest fat and protein content. As a result,
Jerseys are often called the ―cheese breed‖ because of the high yield of cheese from its
milk.
 The average milkfat content in milk is 4.9% ranking first among the five dairy breeds in
average milkfat. The average protein content in milk is 3.8%.

2.2. Dairy Production Systems in Ethiopia

Dairy production is an important component of livestock farming in Ethiopia. There are around
13 million cattle keeping households. Dairying is practiced almost all over Ethiopia involving a
vast number of small or medium or large-sized, subsistence or market-oriented farms. Based on
climate, land holdings and integration with crop production as criterion, dairy production
systems are recognized in Ethiopia. Stakeholders have identified four major dairy production
systems in Ethiopia, including the commercial, the urban/peri-urban, the mixed crop-livestock,

14
and the pastoral/agro-pastoral systems. The latter two systems are classified as rural dairy
production systems.

1. Commercial dairy production system

The specialized commercial dairy systems involving higher levels of investment are concentrated
in the central highland plateau. In terms of scale of operation, the farms are classified as large
scale, small scale or medium scale. Being licensed farms with operational business plans, they
are market oriented specifically targeting consumers in urban areas. Producers tend to have a
good understanding of dairy management.

The commercial dairy system is labour and input intensive relative to other systems. The animals
do not provide draft power but their manure is used as fertilizer.

 Number of farms: the exact number of commercial dairy farms is not known but they
represent a small fraction of total dairy farmers.
 Geographic location: mainly in the central highlands near major cities and towns.
 Average herd size: >100 milking cows for large-scale; 30–100 for medium-scale; and
<30 for small-scale farms.
 Typical breeds: purebred exotic, high-grade or crossbred dairy animals.
 Feed type: hay, concentrated dairy mix, industrial by-products, mainly purchased, though
some farms cultivate own pasture.
 Animal health: vaccination/deworming is practised. Common health problems include
mastitis, infertility, and bTB (bovine tuberculosis).
 Water sources: taps or boreholes.
 Housing: standard housing or simple shelter may be provided.
 Milk yield: 15–20 litres per day per cow.
 Marketing: milk and milk products are usually sold at kiosks or supermarkets. Small
proportions are used for home consumption.
Driven by the unprecedented increase in demand for milk and other dairy products, commercial
dairy is a growing sub-system in Ethiopia. However, it is constrained by shortage of inputs
particularly feed, genotypes, and veterinary services.

2. Urban/peri-urban dairy production system

The urban/peri-urban production system is an expanding production system, largely found in the
highlands and is concentrated in the Addis Ababa milk shed area as well as around the regional
capital cities where an adequate market for fresh milk is readily available. There are about 5,200
dairy farms in Addis Ababa alone with an average herd size of 12 (Bogale et al., 2000; 2014). It
is practiced by many landless urban and sub-urban poor households. However, some
businessmen and retired civil servants also keep some dairy animals depending, wholly or partly,

15
on hired labour. Producers are market oriented and respond to improved technical, input supply
and marketing services.

 Number of farms: the number of urban and peri-urban dairy keepers is not accurately
known; along with commercial producers they may account for a mere 1 percent of dairy
cattle population.
 Geographic location: concentrated in the Addis Ababa milk shed area and around
regional capital cities.
 Average herd size: 5–10.
 Typical breeds: high-grade or crossbred animals.
 Feed type: crop residues, hay, concentrated dairy mix, industrial by-products, mainly
purchased.
 Animal health: vaccination/deworming is practised. Common health problems include
mastitis, infertility, and bTB.
 Water sources: tap, river, borehole, and rain water.
 Housing: standard housing or simple shelter may be used.
 Milk yield: 10–15 litres per day per cow with a lactation period of ~200 days.
 Marketing: The bulk of produced milk is sold to neighbours through informal channels or
to cafes and restaurants; a small amount is used for home consumption.

This is also a growing dairy production system in Ethiopia. However, it is constrained by

shortage of inputs particularly feed, genotypes, and veterinary services. Milk handling is very
poor as re-used plastic bottles and jerry cans that are difficult to clean are used for transport, and
milk delivered through this system is mainly fed to infants and children. Nowadays, urban
smallholders are facing pressure from municipalities to shut down their farms because of health
and environmental issues.

3. Mixed crop–livestock dairy production system

Mixed crop–livestock dairy production is subsistence oriented farming system concentrated in
the mid and high-altitude agro-ecological zones where cereals and cash crops are dominant farm
activities. Cattle are primarily kept to supply draft power needed for crop production. However,
milk production is an integral part of the production system. The bulk of the total milk produced
nationally and about three quarters of the liquid milk processed commercially is generated here.

 Number of farms: approximately 9.6 million.

 Geographic location: mid- and high- altitude areas of Ethiopia.
 Average herd size: 4.
 Typical breeds: indigenous.
 Feed type: natural pasture, crop residues, and weeds and crop thinning.
 Management is mostly low-input, low-output traditional extensive system.
16
  About 65 percent of the total milking cows are found in this system and produce about 72
percent of the national annual milk output.
 Animal health: vaccinations against major diseases (anthrax, lumpy skin disease,
contagious bovine pleuropneumonia, pasteurellosis, and blackleg) are provided by the
public sector; individual households may use drugs sourced through both formal and
informal outlets.
 Water sources: rivers, and rain water.
 Housing: open kraal, partition within family house or share the same room with humans.
 Milk yield per cow is 1.9 litres per day, on average.
 Marketing: smallholder farmers either sell excess milk informally to individual
consumers and milk collectors or process it into butter and cottage cheese for sale.
Dairy production in the mixed crop-livestock system is pivotal to supplying the bulk of milk and
milk products to the Ethiopian population. However, it is not market oriented and productivity
per unit of land and per head of animal is extremely low. At the same time, poor service delivery
systems, particularly veterinary services, makes it prone to disease outbreaks and losses due to
mortality and morbidity.

4. Pastoral/agro-pastoral dairy production system

Pastoral/agro-pastoral production is the major system of milk production practiced in the lowland
regions of Ethiopia where livelihoods are heavily dependent on livestock. Cattle dominate the
livestock population followed by camel, goats, and sheep. Cows constitute about 40 percent of
the herd. Major pastoral areas extend from the north-eastern and eastern lowlands (Afar and
Somali) to the southern and south-western lowlands (Borana and South Omo).

 Number of farms: cattle keeping pastoral/agro-pastoral households are approximated to

be 3.1 million.
 Geographical location: lowland arid/semiarid areas.
 Average herd size per household: usually in the range of 10–20 heads of cattle but large
herds of >200 heads are common too particularly among the Borana.
 Typical breeds: entirely indigenous breeds are kept.
 Population of milking cows in this system accounts for ~34 percent of the national
milking cow population.
 Feed type: predominantly communal rangeland pastures; crop residues are used to a
limited extent in agro-pastoral areas.
 Animal health: vaccinations against major diseases (anthrax, lumpy skin disease,
contagious bovine pleuropneumonia, pasteurellosis, and blackleg) are provided by the
public sector; individual households may use drugs sourced through both formal and
informal outlets.
 Water sources: boreholes, deep wells, dams, rain water, and rivers.

17
  Housing: night enclosures (kraals).
 Milk yield: ~1.5 litres per cow per day.
 Marketing: milk is produced for home consumption but excess milk or milk products are
sold to nearby towns or highlanders.
Due to an erratic rainfall pattern, an important factor that determines availability of feed and
water, milk production per unit area is low and highly seasonal. However, milk is usually
produced in excess during the wet season and is either sold fresh to nearby urban centres or
processed into butter to be traded with the highlanders in the peripheral markets for grains. The
reliance of the agro-pastoral and pastoral systems on the overgrazed natural resource base makes
them most vulnerable to climate change.

2.3. Dairy Production Constraints in Ethiopia

In Ethiopia, the large and diverse livestock genetic resources, existence of diverse agro-ecologies
suitable for dairy production, increasing domestic demand for milk and milk products, better
market opportunity, and proximity to international markets indicate the potential and
opportunities for dairy development in the country. However, dairy development in the country
has been hampered by multi-faceted constraints including:

 Shortage of feed and water: shortage of feed in sufficient quantity and quality, shortage
of improved forage and feed high cost. Access to water during the dry season is also a
major constraint.
 Low genetic potential of the indigenous cattle: low genetic merit of local cattle and
poor animal breeding practices. The number of pure and crossbred dairy cows is very low
and is mainly concentrated in and around major urban and peri-urban centres.
 Shortage of land: shortage of land is a major problem in urban and peri-urban areas for
fodder cultivation, for expansion and grazing.
 Human population: high population growth has forced people to cultivate more and
more land. The necessity to extend the cropping areas to support the increasing
population in the highlands, the carrying capacity of the land is stretched beyond its
limits, which resulted in low production performance of the livestock.
 Disease problem: incidence of diseases and parasites.
 Marketing constraints: limited access to markets due to poor infrastructure, poor
transportation facilities, lack of market information, seasonality of dairy marketing
particularly the low demand during fasting time.
 Poor access to inputs and services: includes poor extension, poor animal health
(veterinary) services, lack of credit service, poor training, inadequate AI service, and lack
of dairy inputs.
 Poor management practices: traditional husbandry practices like poor animal handling
and lack of record keeping.
 Inadequate research support
18
  Poor government attention: absence of clear policy support to the sector.
 Low adoption of improved technologies
 Shortage of skilled manpower
 Adulteration of milk and milk products: both natural and artificial adulteration.
 Lack of strong cooperatives and involvement of private sector: most available
cooperatives lack clear vision and goal, are inefficient and ineffective, have limited
knowledge and skill in dairy husbandry and dairy business, lack transparency and
accountability and tend to be more dependent on support from the public sector and
NGOs. In addition, involvement of private sector in collection, processing and marketing
of dairy products is very weak.
 Waste disposal: waste from dairy farms is a serious problem, particularly in urban
production system. If not properly managed, manure is a source of bad odour and flies,
source of conflict with neighbours, and source of zoonotic diseases. Dairy producers from
urban dairy system complained that manure disposal incurs cost.

2.4. Dairy and Dairy Product Marketing in Ethiopia

In the African context, markets for agricultural products would normally refer to marketplaces
(open spaces where commodities are traded). Conceptually, however, a market can be visualized
as a process in which ownership of goods is transferred from sellers to buyers who may be final
consumers or intermediaries. Therefore, markets involve sales, locations, sellers, buyers and
transactions.

There are two milk and milk products marketing systems in Ethiopia, namely informal marketing
and formal marketing. The term ‗informal‘ is often used to describe marketing systems in which
governments do not intervene substantially in marketing. The term ‗formal‘ is thus used to
describe government (official) marketing systems. Liquid milk, and milk products (such as
butter, fermented or soured whole milk (ergo or itittu), cottage cheese (ayib) and buttermilk
(arera)) in Ethiopia are channelled to consumers through both formal and informal marketing
systems.

Informal Marketing

About 95 percent of the marketed milk at national level is channelled through the informal
marketing system. In this marketing system, milk and milk products may pass from producers to
consumers directly or through one or more market agents (unlicensed traders or retailers)
through mutual price negotiation. Producers sell the surplus milk produced to their neighbours
and/or in the local markets, either as liquid milk or in the form of butter and/or cottage cheese
(ayib). This system is characterized by no license to operate, low cost of operation, high producer
prices as compared with formal market and no regulation of operation. The hygienic condition of
milk and milk products channelled through this system is also poor. This is mainly due to the

19
prevailing situation where producers have limited knowledge of dairy product handling coupled
with the inadequacy of dairy infrastructure such as cooling facilities and unavailability of clean
water in the production areas.

Formal Marketing

In the formal system, milk is collected at the cooperative or private milk collection centres and
transported to processing plants (which process the liquid milk into different dairy products and
channel the products to consumers, supermarkets and retailers). In this system, milk quality tests
(principally acidity using alcohol and clot-on-boiling test, and density) are performed on
delivery, thereby assuring the quality of milk. This has encouraged the producers to improve the
hygiene conditions, storage and transportation of the milk in order to avoid rejection of the
product on delivery to the collection centre. The formal milk market appears to be expanding
during the last two decades with the private sector leading the dairy processing industry in Addis
Ababa and other major regional towns.

Milk and Dairy Products Exports and Imports

Ethiopia is not known to export dairy products. Almost all milk and milk products are
domestically marketed. However, some insignificant quantities of milk and butter are exported to
a few countries. Butter is mainly exported to Djibouti and South Africa (targeting the Ethiopians
in Diaspora), while milk is solely exported to Somalia from the South Eastern Region of the
country. Also, small quantities of cream are exported to Djibouti from Dire Dawa. Some
imported dairy products from abroad are powdered milk, butter, yoghurt, cream and different
varieties of cheeses.

20
3. BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION
3.1. Breeds of Beef Cattle

Beef cattle are those cattle bred and selected primarily for the production of meat. They carry
considerable muscle especially around the loin and hind quarters, where it has greatest monetary
value. They have round (rotund) appearance and have large frames. They have compact and deep
body. Beef cattle breeds are categorized as into two: British breeds and Continental European
breeds.

British breeds
British breeds are breeds that were developed in the British Isles. Angus (Black and Red),
Hereford (Horned and Polled), and Shorthorn are the primary British beef breeds. When
compared to Continental European breeds, British breeds are generally smaller in mature size,
reach mature size at an earlier age, have less growth potential, excel in fertility and calving ease,
attain higher quality grades, and yield carcasses with a lower percentage of saleable product.

a) Angus
The official name of the Angus breed is Aberdeen-Angus. The breed originated in Scotland in
the shires of Aberdeen and Angus. The breed has increased in popularity in the range areas.
Today, Angus is found in everywhere world. Angus cattle are black and red in color. They have
a smooth hair coat and are polled. They are an alert and vigorous breed. Angus cattle perform
well in the feedlot. They produce a desirable carcass of high-quality, well-marbled meat. Nearly
all Angus are pure for the dominant polled gene. When used in crossbreeding, nearly all the
calves are polled. A few Angus carry a recessive gene for the red color. Sometimes, a red calf is
born to black parents. Red Angus is similar to Black Angus except for their color. Because red
absorbs less heat than black, the Red Angus can tolerate warmer temperatures somewhat better
than Black Angus. Important traits include excellent meat quality (nicely marbled), calving ease,
good mothering and they are hardy.
b) Hereford
Herefords originated in the county of Hereford in England. The early breeders selected for a high
yield of beef and economical production. Hereford cattle have white faces and red bodies. They
have white on the belly, legs, and switch. Herefords are a horned breed. They are docile in nature
and easily handled. They have superior foraging ability, vigor, and hardiness. They produce
more calves under adverse conditions than do many other breeds. When Herefords are used in
crosses, the white color pattern tends to dominate. Mature Hereford bulls weigh about 1,840
pounds. Mature Hereford bulls weigh about 1,840 pounds (834 kg). Mature cows weigh about
1,200 pounds (544 kg). Herefords are popular for their general producing ability. Polled
Herefords have the same traits as Herefords except for the horns. All are descended from

21
purebred horned Herefords. They are known for their longevity, and for being docile, easy
calvers, good milkers, and good mothers.

c) Shorthorn
The Shorthorn breed of cattle originated in the North East of England. The breed was developed
as dual-purpose, suitable for both dairy and beef production; however, certain blood lines within
the breed always emphasised one quality or the other. Over time, these different lines diverged,
and by the second half of the twentieth century, two separate breeds had developed – the Beef
Shorthorn, and the Milking Shorthorn. In conformation, the Milking Shorthorn is more angular
and less thickly fleshed than the Beef Shorthorn. Both Shorthorn cattle are coloured red, white,
or roan, although roan cattle are preferred by some, and completely white animals are not
common. These cattle are early maturing, excellent milkers, and known for their good
disposition. They are also known for adaptability, mothering ability, reproductive performance,
longevity, and good feed conversion.

Continental European breeds

Continental European breeds include Charolais, Chianina, Gelbvieh, Limousin, Maine-Anjou,
Salers, and Simmental. In comparison to British breeds, Continental European breeds are
generally larger in mature size, later maturing (reach mature size at an older age), produce
carcasses with less fat and a higher percentage of saleable product, have lower quality grades,
and produce more calving difficulty when mated to cows of the British breeds.

a) Charolais
The Charolais breed is one of the oldest of the French breeds of beef cattle. It was developed
around Charolles in central France. Charolais cattle are white to light straw color with pink skin.
They are a large, heavily muscled breed. Mature bulls weigh 907 to 1,134 kg. Mature cows
weigh 680 to 816 kg. Charolais cattle can be horned or polled. Most are naturally horned. Horns
are white, slender, and tapered. Charolais have a high feed efficiency. They are heavily muscled
in the round and loin because of generations of selection for this trait. The Charolais are well
adapted to many areas. Charolais do well under a variety of environmental conditions. They
graze aggressively in warm weather, withstand the cold, and have heavy calves. They are used in
many crossbreeding programs. Animals may be registered after five generations of crossing with
a Charolais bull.

b) Chianina
The Chianina (pronounced Key-a-nee-na) breed originated in the Chiana Valley in Italy. It is one
of the oldest breeds of cattle in Italy and probably one of the oldest in the world. Chianina are
used in many crossbreeding programs. The original Chianina cattle were white with a black
switch. The skin pigment is black. The color, type, and size vary considerably because of the
different kinds of crosses used. They have a high heat tolerance, gentle disposition, and they

22
improve the growth rate of the offspring. Chianina are probably the largest breed of cattle.
Mature bulls can grow to 1.8 m at the withers. They can weigh as much as 1,814 kg. Mature
cows can grow to 1.5 m at the withers. They can weigh as much as 1,088 kg. In addition, they
are good foragers and good mothers, well adapted to hot and cold climates, rough terrain, and
have a high degree of tolerance to insects and diseases. Chianina have fine-textured meat.

c) Gelbvieh

This breed originated in Baravia, in southern Germany. Gelbviehs were originally horned.
Gelbvieh cattle are single-colored and vary from cream to reddish yellow. They are of medium
weight and size, have good milking ability, and produce a very acceptable carcass. They are
known for high fertility, ease of calving, being good mothers, and having quick-growing calves.

d) Limousin
Limousin cattle were named after the province in west-central France where they originated.
Purebred Limousin cattle can be red or black. Both fullbloods and purebreds can be polled,
scurred, or horned. The Limousin head is small and short with a broad forehead. The neck is also
short. Mature bulls weigh from 907 to 998 kg. Mature cows weigh from 544 to 635 kg. Limousin
cattle are noted for their feed efficiency, carcass leanness, and large loin area.

e) Maine-Anjou
The Maine-Anjou breed originated in France. The breed is the result of crossing English
Shorthorns and French Mancelle cows. The Maine-Anjou is today considered an excellent beef
producer. Maine-Anjou cattle are dark red and white in color. Some animals are roan in color.
They have a lightly pigmented skin. They are a horned breed, with medium size horns that curve
forward. They are considered docile and are easily handled. Other traits include a fast growth
rate and well-marbled carcass. Mature bulls weigh about 1,247 kg.

f) Salers
The Salers (pronounced Sa’ lair) breed of cattle are native to the Auvergne region of south-
central France. The Salers is a horned breed. They are a dark mahogany red in color. There is a
strain of Salers that are naturally polled and some are black in color. This genetic diversity adds
to their value in crossbreeding programs. Salers cows are noted for their ease of calving and
good maternal ability. Other desirable characteristics of Salers cattle include good foraging
ability on poor range, high weaning weights, and excellent carcass quality that meets current
market demand for beef. Salers cattle are also used in crossbreeding programs.

g) Simmental
The Simmental breed originated in the Simmen Valley of Switzerland. It is an old breed, dating
back to the middle ages. It required a performance pedigree for milk and conformation (physical
appearance). Meat and carcass traits have since been added to the performance pedigree. About
one-half of the cattle in Switzerland are Simmentals. It is the most popular breed of cattle in
Europe. They are a horned breed with medium-size horns. The Simmental is a large-bodied
23
animal and is noted for being docile. Mature bulls weigh from 1,043 to 1,179 kg. Mature cows
weigh about 658 to 816 kg. They will milk about 4,082 kg of milk per lactation, and the milk
will test about 4 percent butterfat. Simmentals make extremely rapid growth, gaining about 1.4
kg per day on roughage. They are thickly muscled and produce a carcass without excess fat.
They are adaptable to a wide range of climates.

3.2. Beef Cattle Production System in Ethiopia

There is no specialized beef production system in Ethiopia; however, fattening of cattle is an

important and lucrative activity. Fattening or conditioning of animals for slaughter usually takes
place at well-organized commercial feedlots or simply in the backyard of smallholder farmers.
Young or old oxen are fattened depending on the supply source. Farmers close to pastoral areas
tend to purchase younger stock for feeding but in the heartland of the highlands older oxen are
fattened at the end of their productive life. Feedlot operators, on the other hand, generally fatten
young and intact males. There are four types of beef production system in Ethiopia: the
commercial feedlot system, peri-urban small-scale fattening, backyard fattening in the mixed
crop-livestock system, and the pastoral/agro-pastoral livestock production system.

1. Commercial feedlot

Many feedlot operations are concentrated in the central Rift Valley particularly in East Shoa
zone. Animals are entirely confined in a yard fitted with watering and feeding facilities for a
finishing duration of 3–6 months. Feedlot operators prefer the Boran cattle breed due to its high
market demand; highland Zebu originating from Arsi, Bale and Hararghe highlands are also used
to a limited extent. Commonly, intact young males are fattened based on the demand in the live
animal export market. Crop residues such as teff and barley straw form the bulk of basal diets
while industrial by-products such as wheat bran, oilseed cakes and molasses are used as
supplementary feeds.

 Number of operating feedlots: ~300.

 Geographic location: predominantly East Shoa, Oromia Region.
 Minimum and maximum number of animals kept on feedlot per batch: 100 and 1500.
 Typical breed: Boran.
 Feed type: agro-industrial by-products (oilseed cakes, milling by-products, and crop
residues).
 Animal health: vaccination/deworming.
 Water source: borehole or tap.
 Housing: open shelter fitted with watering and feeding troughs.
 Productivity: carcass yield per animal is 110 kg on average with a dressing percentage of
45–48. However, higher dressing percentage (e.g. 54–57) and hence higher carcass yield
were reported for breeds such as Boran and Begait.
24
  Annual value of production: ~ USD 211 million export revenue.
 Marketing: Targets both domestic and export markets.

The sector is currently attracting some foreign investors. For instance, Verde Beef Processing
Plc. and Allana Group, both located at Adami Tullu near Zeway, are two world-class beef
operators owning fully integrated facilities with irrigated feed production capacity and a state of
the art abattoir production facility. They are the largest cattle feedlot operators in the region with
a capacity to feed, process and sell (including export) more than 130,000 and 73,000 carcasses
per year, respectively.

2. Small-scale cattle fattening in peri-urban areas

Smallholder farmers and landless households around urban areas fatten a few animals at a time.
The animals are often tethered and stall-fed. The fattening exercise is mostly done after the oxen
have retired from farm work/ploughing in order to replace them with younger animals. Crop
residues (teff, wheat, and barley straws) are used as basal feed whereas milling and oil industry
by-products and atela (a residue from traditional distilling and brewing) are heavily used in
fattening diets.

 Geographic location: urban/peri-urban centres in the mid-altitude areas.

 Average number of animals fattened at a time: 5 (range 1–8).
 Typical breed: indigenous Zebu.
 Feed type: mainly crop residues supplemented with traditional brewery by-products
(atela) and household leftovers.
 Housing: simple shelter or tethered in open area.
 Animal health: vaccination/deworming.
 Water source: tap or borehole.
 Yield and productivity: carcass yield per animal is 110 kg on average.
 Marketing: domestic consumers particularly during Ethiopian holidays.

It is an emerging system mostly practiced by landless households or unemployed youth or

women‘s groups. The most critical challenges include shortage of land and feed, and lack of
rewarding market outlets.

3. Cattle fattening in mixed crop–livestock production system

Traditional backyard cattle fattening is a deep-rooted and widely practiced cattle enterprise in
highland areas although it is largely a seasonal undertaking. Old oxen that retire from ploughing
are commonly conditioned and finished. Usually, marketing of fattened animals is synchronized
with Ethiopian holidays. Cattle fattening in this system almost entirely relies on locally available

25
resources to minimize finishing costs. In areas like Hararghe, farmers buy young oxen from the
adjacent lowland pastoralists and use them for ploughing for few years after which they fatten
and sell them before they become old and emaciated.

 Number of farms: 9.6 million practising mixed crop-livestock production.

 Geographic location: mid- and high-altitude areas of the country.
 Average herd size: small number of animals (1 to 4) are stall-fed per cycle. Duration of
fattening period and cycles/year ranges from 2–12 months and 1–3 times, respectively.
 Typical breed: indigenous Zebu.
 Share of cattle population in the mixed crop-livestock system is ~74% of the national
total.
 Feed type: crop residues, green grass, agro-industrial by-products (a very recent practice),
and household leftovers.
 Animal health: vaccinations against major diseases (anthrax, lumpy skin disease,
contagious bovine pleuropneumonia, pasteurellosis, and blackleg) are provided by the
public sector; individual households may use drugs sourced through both formal and
informal outlets.
 Water source: mainly river and rain water.
 Housing: usually kept in a compartment that is part of the family‘s residence to protect
from theft, adverse weather and predators.
 Yield and productivity: 110 kg carcass per slaughtered animal on average.
 Marketing: domestic consumers particularly during Ethiopian holidays.

Crop cultivation and livestock production are strongly integrated in the mixed crop-livestock
system, the two sectors complement each other well – livestock provides power, natural fertilizer
(manure) and capital for crop production while the crop cultivation provides feed. Cattle are
primarily kept to supply draft power needed for crop production. Despite the contribution of
livestock to the economy and to smallholders‘ livelihoods, the production system is not
adequately market-oriented. The typical Hararghe system is largely based on cut-and-carry
feeding of individually tethered animals and hence it requires a significant amount of labour.

4. Pastoral/agro-pastoral

The pastoral/agro-pastoral cattle production system is a rangeland based livestock production

system aimed at exploitation of the natural or semi-natural vegetation via domestic animals, in
particular ruminants. The main product is milk and the main function of livestock is subsistence,
although social and cultural functions are also important. Excess young males are sold off to
highlanders, where they are used as draught oxen, or to feedlot operators. Herd size is maximized
(depending on labour for herding, water drawing etc.) to ensure the highest chance of being left
with a viable core herd after drought. Other risk aversion strategies used include keeping a mix

26
of different animal species and splitting herds into different management units. Emphasis is put
on a high proportion of females among all species to maximize milk production and the
reproductive potential of the herd to recover after a decline. 95% of the livestock exported from
Ethiopia is supplied by the pastoral and agro-pastoral areas of Boran, Afar, and Somali.

 Geographical location: lowland arid/semiarid areas.

 Average herd size: 10–20; large herds of >200 heads are common too. Cattle population
accounts for ~25% of the national herd.
 Typical Breeds: indigenous breeds.
 Feed type: predominantly communal rangeland pastures; crop residues are used to a
limited extent in agro-pastoral areas.
 Animal health: vaccinations against major diseases (anthrax, lumpy skin disease,
contagious bovine pleuropneumonia, pasteurellosis, and blackleg) are provided by the
public sector; individual households may use drugs sourced through both formal and
informal outlets.
 Water sources: boreholes, deep wells, dams, rain water, and rivers.
 Housing: night enclosures (kraals).
 Marketing: collectors for feedlot operators, exporters, highland farmers. Households do
not usually slaughter for home consumption.

Livestock management is characterized by the adaptation of the feed requirements of the

animals to the environment through migration. Land tenure is communal. Major challenges
include seasonality of rainfall and the resulting unavailability of adequate feed and water,
land degradation and deterioration of the range ecosystem due to overgrazing and invasive
plant species.

3.3. Constraints of Beef Cattle Production in Ethiopia

The major constraints for cattle production in Ethiopia are feed shortage, diseases and parasites,
drought, market constraints, poor veterinary services, inadequate extension services and other
infrastructures. Among those constraints inadequate supply of quality feed, drought, diseases and
parasites were the main reasons for low productivity of the indigenous cattle breeds and are the
major factors limiting cattle productivity in Ethiopia.

1. Shortage of feed resources: In the lowland pastoral areas, available forage is deficient in
quality and insufficient for the number of grazing animals, particularly in the dry season. In
the mixed crop-livestock farming system of the highlands, increasing population pressure and
demand for cropland has diminished areas for grazing. Cattle largely depend on rangeland
grazing or crop residues which have poor nutritive value. There is a seasonal fluctuation in
the availability and quality of feed. The ruminants may though have access to enough forage

27
 during the rainy season; it becomes a great deal of challenge to efficiently feed the animals
during the dry season.

2. Diseases and parasites: The widespread prevalence of a wide range of diseases and
parasites in all agro ecological zones of the country causes direct economic losses through
high mortality of animals and contributes to the poor productive and reproductive
performance of the animals. There is no adequate veterinary service. Live animal export is
highly affected by the prevalence of different diseases.

3. Low genetic potential of local cattle: The capacity for the high level of production has
remained low. According to recent data of CSA (2021), the total cattle population in Ethiopia
is estimated to be about 70.29 million. About 97.4 percent of the total cattle in the country
are local breeds. The remaining are hybrid and exotic breeds that accounted for about 2.3
percent and 0.31 percent, respectively. However, the productivity of indigenous cattle is very
low.

4. Lack of appropriate animal breeding systems: Conditions that contribute to lack of

appropriate breeding systems include lack of institutions to improve the genetic makeup of
indigenous animals, animal breeding and development research are not adequate in the
country, traditional livestock keeping and breeding system (characterized by uncontrolled
grazing and breeding system where different classes of livestock are allowed to graze
together), breeding is carried out in the same field without selection or controlled breeding.
There is no livestock breeding and development policy and strategy in the country. This has
greatly affected the development of livestock as there is no direction on the breeding, and
breed development aspects for improved production and productivity.

5. Marketing constraints: In Ethiopia, livestock and livestock product markets are not
developed and organized. Shortage of specialized transport system for live animals and
animal products, poor marketing infrastructures, absence of market information are the major
problems that affect the animal marketing. Local livestock traders and exporters are also
facing marketing problems including lack of adequate supply of good condition animals, lack
of adequate sanitary services to support exports, and problems with airfreight transport
services. The government efforts to export livestock and livestock products are affected by
frequent bans imposed by importing countries. Due to lack of market infrastructure in the
pastoral areas, the pastoralists sell their animals at the border markets at lower prices to
traders from neighbouring countries, which also affects the foreign exchange earnings of the
country.

6. Shortage of trained manpower: With few exceptions, all disciplines in the proper livestock
development are not treated with proper training requirement and are not adequately staffed

28
 and lack updated knowledge in disseminating appropriate technology. There is also frequent
movement of staff due to restructuring and looking for better job opportunity. Hence, this has
created a negative impact on the development of livestock.

7. Shortage of capital: Shortage of capital (especially lack of initial capital) was reported to be
the major constraint to cattle fattening in Ethiopia. Smallholder farmers need support of
working capital if they are to be engaged in cattle fattening investment program. Farmers
who are willing to involve in beef cattle fattening program are not able to purchase animals
due to lack of capital.

3.4. Beef Cattle and Beef Products Marketing in Ethiopia

All business activities facilitating the exchange are included in marketing. Livestock marketing
involves the sale, purchase or exchange of products such as live animals, and livestock products
of milk, meat, skins, wool and hides for cash or goods in kind.

Generally, the livestock marketing structure follows a four-tier system, in which different actors
are involved in buying and selling of beef cattle in the market system. The main actors of the
first tier are local farmers and rural traders who transact at farm level with very minimal
volume, 1–2 animals per transaction. Some traders may specialize in either small or large
animals. Those small traders from different corners bring their livestock to the local market
(second tire). Traders purchase a few large animals for selling to the secondary markets. In the
secondary market (third tier), both smaller and larger traders operate and traders and butchers
from terminal markets come to buy animals. In the terminal market (fourth tire), big traders
and butchers transact larger number of mainly slaughter type animals. From the terminal markets
and slaughterhouses and slabs, meat reaches consumers through a different channel and a
different set of traders/businesses. Brokers are major one of the major actors in livestock markets
in Ethiopia. They act as intermediary price negotiators between buyer and seller and get a
commission from the sale of the animal. Although they are often criticized for creating a
communication gap between buyer and seller, in many instances brokers are useful
intermediaries. The Ethiopian meat and live animal value chains have developed through time
into a series of complex constituents involving various actors that include producers, collectors,
small private and cooperative fatteners/feedlots, various middlemen, and livestock trading
cooperatives, individual traders and exporters.

Consumers get meat through one of the three channels. They may purchase live animals directly
from the terminal market and slaughter by themselves or they may get meat from markets, which
by-pass the formal procedures through abattoirs; or they may access from butchers who process
the meat via abattoirs. In the former two cases, consumers‘ health may be at risk of zoonotic
diseases and the government is also denied revenue from service charge from abattoirs.

29
Livestock are generally traded by ‗eye-ball‘ pricing, and weighing livestock is uncommon Prices
are usually fixed by individual bargaining. Prices depend mainly on supply and demand, which is
heavily influenced by the season of the year and the occurrence of religious and cultural
festivals. Ethiopia‘s livestock supply is heavily influenced by the severity of the dry season; but
supply peaks after rainy season. Low sales volume occurs during fasting periods.

Livestock markets are generally under the control of local authorities. Livestock market locations
in primary and secondary markets are typically not fenced; there are no permanent animal routes
and no feed and watering infrastructures. Yet, buyers and sellers are subjected to various service
charges by the local authority.

Official exports Livestock and livestock products are the major foreign exchange earners, only
second to coffee. The Middle Eastern countries have been a traditional export market for
countries in the Horn of Africa including Ethiopia. Although live animals make a considerable
contribution to the economy in terms of export earnings, a great number of the country‘s
ruminants have been illegally smuggled to neighbouring countries. Illegal cross-border live
animal trade is carried out in the eastern, western and southern and northwestern border lands of
Ethiopia. The ban on import by Middle Eastern countries has led to increased illegal sale of
livestock through Somalia and Kenya, and to a lesser extent, through Sudan and Djibouti. Some
of the reasons identified as contributing to illegal exports are excessive regulations involving
several ministries and agencies and related fees. Overall transaction costs in dealing with these
agencies for export clearance are also apparently high both in terms of time and money.

In general, the structure and performance of the live animal market both for domestic
consumption and for export, is generally perceived to be poor. Underdevelopment and lack of
market-oriented production, lack of adequate information on livestock resources, inadequate
permanent animal route and other facilities like water and holding grounds, lack or non-provision
of transport, ineffective and inadequate infrastructural and institutional set-ups, prevalence of
diseases, illegal trade and inadequate market information (internal and external) are generally
mentioned as some of the major reasons for the poor performance of this sector.

30
4. CATTLE FEEDS AND FEEDING

The feeding or nutrition of animals is the most important factor affecting performance. Poor
nutrition results in low rates of production, growth and reproduction. It also affects the immune
system and the ability of an animal to fight disease. In extreme conditions of malnutrition, death
can occur. On the other hand, proper feeding allows the animal to perform well and express their
genetic potential. For a better understanding how feeds are used, it is important to understand
digestive system and the digestion process in ruminants.

4.1. Digestive System of Ruminants

Cattle are ruminants and can digest foods not suitable for humans or other animals with a simple
(single) stomach. Ruminant animals are animals having four compartment stomachs namely,
rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum. They are animals capable of ruminating or chewing
cud. They eat and digest forages or plant-based feed by swallowing it first and allowing it to get
moistened in the rumen which is the first compartment of the complex stomach. The swallowed
feed is later regurgitated by the animal and re-chewed to break down the plant materials for
digestion. This process is called rumination or chewing the cud. The cud is then swallowed again
where it will pass into the next three compartments—the reticulum, the omasum and the true
stomach, the abomasum. The cud is a semi-solid and semi-degraded digesta usually in a bolus
form which is regurgitated from the reticulorumen of the animal.

The main difference between ruminant animals and non-ruminants is the anatomy of their
stomach. The ruminant stomach is divided into four compartments or chambers (rumen,
reticulum, omasum and abomasum) unlike the simple stomach of the non-ruminants that has no
division. Ruminants have an advantage of the ability to eat and utilise low quality fibrous feed
that cannot be eaten by human or non-ruminants. Most of the carbohydrate that is stored in plant
material is the form that cannot be digested by simple stomach animals (mono-gastrics). Another
major physical difference is the possession of split hooves by ruminant animals.

Figure 1. The four compartments of ruminant stomach.

31
Three steps are involved in ruminants obtaining nutrients from their diet:
Ingestion: taking food into the body.
Digestion: food is mechanically and chemically broken down.
Absorption: nutrients pass from the digestive system into the ruminants‘ blood stream.

Digestion in the Mouth and Oesophagus

The whole process of digestion starts from the mouth of the animal. The combination of the
tongue and the lips help ruminant animals to pick and roll the plant material into the mouth. The
teeth help in the mastication or chewing of the plant material. The mouth has salivary gland that
secret saliva with pH of about 8.2. Saliva has several roles: it makes chewing and swallowing
easier, but primarily it contains sodium (Na) and potassium (K) salts that act as buffering agents
against acidity. The volume of saliva secreted depends on the time spent eating and ruminating.
It stabilizes the pH of the mouth and reduces the acidity in the subsequent chamber called the
rumen. The oesophagus is a tubular column through which feed is swallowed and regurgitated
for re-chewing. It has no sphincter valves and the muscles contracts in both directions to allow
movement of feed.

Digestion in the Stomach

The stomach forms the greater proportion of the ruminants‘ digestive system. It has four
chambers. The first is the rumen, while the second is reticulum, omasum is the third and
abomasum the fourth.

Digestion in the Rumen and Reticulum

The rumen, also known as a paunch, is the largest stomach compartment in ruminants and the
larger part of the reticulorumen. Because of its size, the rumen acts as a storage or holding vat for
feed. It is also a fermentation vat. A microbial population in the rumen digests or ferments feed
eaten by the animal. Conditions within the rumen favor the growth of microbes.

The digesta moves through the oesophagus into the rumen. A thin wall separates the rumen and
the reticulum and the contents always mix. Hence the two chambers are called reticulorumen. It
is in the rumen that fermentation of the plant materials takes place. The rumen harbours billions
of microbes for this function. These microbial population needs energy and protein for growth
and multiplication. If either of these nutrients is in short supply, microbial growth is retarded,
and so is the rate of digestion (the digestibility) of feed. Fermentation is crucial to digestion
because it breaks down complex carbohydrates, such as cellulose and hemicellulose, and enables
the animal to utilize them. The rumen microbes function best in a warm, moist, anaerobic
environment with a temperature range of 38 to 42°C and a pH between 6.2 and 7.0 (ideal for all
rumen microbes). Under normal conditions, the pH of the contents of the rumen and reticulum is
maintained in the range of 6 to 7. It may be lower in grain-fed cows. The stable pH range is

32
maintained by continual removal, via the rumen wall, of acidic end products of microbial
fermentation, and by the addition of bicarbonate from the saliva.

The walls of the rumen and reticulum move continuously, churning and mixing the ingested feed
with the rumen fluid and microbes. The contractions of the rumen and reticulum help the flow of
finer food particles into the next chamber, the omasum.

Fibers, especially cellulose and hemicellulose are primarily broken down in these chambers by
microbes (mostly bacteria, as well as some protozoa, fungi, and yeast) into the three volatile fatty
acids (VFAs): acetic acid, propionic acid, and butyric acid. The animal later uses these VFAs for
energy. The rumen absorbs most of the VFAs produced from fermentation of feedstuffs by
rumen microbes. Absorption of volatile fatty acids and some other products of digestion is
enhanced by a good blood supply to the walls of the rumen. Tiny projections called papillae line
the rumen and increase the surface area and the absorption capacity of the rumen. Rumen
microbes make vitamin K and all B vitamins. Microbes make enough of these vitamins for
ruminant growth and maintenance.

The reticulum is colloquially referred to as the honeycomb, because the tissues in the reticulum
form a network similar to a honeycomb. The main function of the reticulum is to collect smaller
digesta particles and move them into the omasum, while the larger particles remain in the rumen
for further digestion. Heavy or dense feed and metal objects eaten by the ruminants drops into
this compartment. Nails and other sharp objects may work into the tissue and cause ―hardware
disease.‖ Leaving it untreated may lead to infection and possibly death.

The major end products of microbial fermentation are:

- Volatile fatty acids, the products of fermentation and the ruminants‘ main energy source.
- Ammonia, used to manufacture microbial protein. Bacteria are 60% protein, making them
the major source of protein for the ruminants as they leave the rumen and are digested in
the abomasum and small intestine.
- Gases such as carbon dioxide and methane, sources of wasted energy, as they are belched
out regularly.

33
 Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the ruminant digestive tracts.

Digestion in the Omasum

After fermentation, the digesta flows into the omasum chamber. The omasum is called the
manyplies containing leaves of tissue (like pages in a book). The omasum is a spherical organ
with muscular laminae and in this chamber, water and inorganic substances are absorbed before
the digesta is passed into the true stomach. Feed material (ingesta) between the leaves will be
drier than ingesta found in the other compartments. The laminae are covered in papillae which
direct the flow of food particles towards the next chamber, the abomasum.

Digestion in the Abomasum

This is the true stomach and the first glandular portion whereby digestion by enzymes take place.
The abomasum is the compartment most similar to a nonruminant stomach. The abomasum is the
only compartment lined with glands. These glands release gastric juice containing hydrochloric
acid and digestive enzymes such as pepsin, renin and lipase needed to breakdown feeds. The pH
of these gastric juices varies from 1 to 1.3 making the abomasum very acid, with a pH of about 2.
The acidity in the abomasum kills the rumen microbes. The pepsins carry out the initial digestion
of microbial and dietary protein in the abomasum.

Digestion in the Small Intestine

From the abomasum the digested food moves to the small intestine. Secretions of bile, with a
very high pH, change the digesta from acidic to alkaline, allowing digestion of different feed

34
nutrients. There, enzymes continue the digestion of feeds and microbes. Most nutrient absorption
occurs in the small intestine.

Further breakdown of the feed digesta occur at the upper part of the small intestine. Secretions
from the pancreas and gallbladder aid in digestion within the small intestine. Here, pancreatic
juice and bile assist in the digestion process while absorption of the end product takes place in
the lower portion of the intestine through a finger-like structure called villi. Active nutrient
absorption occurs throughout the small intestine, including rumen bypass protein absorption.
From the villi the nutrients enter into the blood and lymphatic systems.

Digestion in the Large Intestine

The large intestine is made up of the caecum and colon. They are the site of secondary
fermentation, particularly of fibre. In this part of the gastro-intestinal tract, some of the feed
residues are deposited for further fermentation in the caecum which has a blind end containing
some microbes. About 10% to 15% of the energy used by the cow is absorbed from the large
intestine. The absorption of water, minerals and other nutrients continues in the colon. The
digesta moves until it reaches the rectum and anus. The undigested feed material forms a solid
mass in the colon and it is eventually expelled through the anus.

4.2. Nutrients

Nutrients are those substances, usually obtained from feeds, which can be used by animals for
maintenance and production. Nutrients used by animals for maintenance, growth, production and
reproduction. There are six nutrients found in feedstuffs, namely water, carbohydrates, fats
(lipids), protein, minerals, and vitamins. Energy is not a nutrient but is derived from the
breakdown of carbohydrates, fats, and protein. A major constituent of most feedstuffs is water.
The other nutrients are said to compose the ―dry matter‖ of a feedstuff and largely determine its
feeding value. Dry matter is the feed remaining after all water is removed. All animals need
suitable amounts of a range of nutrients to remain healthy and achieve expected levels of
production and reproduction. Nutrients must be balanced. High levels of one nutrient do not
compensate for low levels of another.

Water
Water is the most critical of all nutrients required by animals, and yet it is an often forgotten
nutrient. Water is necessary for all life functions including digestion of food. The animal‘s body
is 70% water. Inadequate water supply will dramatically decrease the production of livestock.
They will eat less, digest feedstuff poorly, and are more prone to digestive and metabolic
problems. The animal body can lose nearly all fat and over half of its protein and still live.
However, if the animal loses 20% of its body water, it will die. The daily requirement of water is
influenced by a number of factors such as animal breed, type of feed offered (dry matter
content), physiological state of the animal (lactating, pregnant), environmental temperature and
35
humidity, temperature of drinking water, dry matter intake (DMI), water quality and pH of the
drinking water, etc. Water functions in the animal body in a number of ways: helps to digest
food, regulates body temperature, lubricates tissue, transports nutrients around the body, and
transports waste from the body. An animal obtains water from three sources: drinking water,
water present in feed and metabolic water. The latter is formed during metabolism by oxidation
of hydrogen (H) containing organic nutrients.

Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates are sugars and starches derived from cereal grains, tubers, roots,
and other substances such as cellulose and lignin from plant cell walls, vessels and woody
tissues. Sugars and starches are much easier to digest than cellulose and lignin (fibers). Fibers are
very important for the functioning of the rumen and for production of milk rich in butterfat.
Starch is the major component of grains and is readily available for digestion by both
monogastrics and ruminants. Cellulose is often referred to as fiber and is not broken down by
mammalian enzymes. Cellulose is degraded by enzymes produced by micro-organisms in the
rumen. Roughages (hay, straw, browse, etc.) contain fiber and are not rich in available energy as
are concentrates. The fiber in roughages can be used to provide energy through microbial
fermentation in the rumen. Most livestock feeds are derived from plants and, thus, animal diets
contain high proportions of carbohydrates. Most plant carbohydrates, due to their chemical
nature, are used more effectively by ruminants such as cattle, sheep and goats than by
monogastric animals. Carbohydrates do mainly provide energy for maintenance and production.
Animals need a supply of carbohydrates in the diet at all ages. Carbohydrates consumed in
excess of an animal‘s requirements are converted and stored as fat.

Fiber contains most of the indigestible part of the diet. Cows require a certain amount of fiber for
rumen function. It ensures that the cow chews its cud (ruminates) enough and therefore salivates.
Saliva buffers the rumen against sudden changes in acidity. Both the length and the structure of
the fiber are important. These determine how much chewing a feed requires. Feeds which need
extra chewing increase the flow of saliva. Fiber in the cow‘s diet also slows down the flow of
material through the rumen and thus gives the microbes more chance to digest the feed. Products
of fiber digestion are important for the production of milk fat. Cows need a certain amount of
fiber in their diet to ensure that the rumen functions properly. Low-fiber, high-starch diets cause
the rumen to become acid. Grain poisoning (acidosis) may occur. Adding buffers such as sodium
bicarbonate to the diet reduces acidity and hence reduces this effect. Buffers are usually
recommended when grain feeding per day exceeds 4 to 5 kg grain/cow. Buffers are not a
substitute for fiber.

Fats: Fats are concentrated forms of energy that are generally present in small quantities in
feeds. Fats are important in the diet to increase the energy value. Roughages have a low fat
content. Feedstuffs derived from oilseeds (e.g. soya, cotton) have a relatively high fat content.
Fat deposited during periods of good feed supply may be mobilized at times of shortage as a
source of energy.
36
Proteins: Animals require a considerable amount of protein because their bodies and products
(meat, milk) are composed of high levels of protein. Every animal must have a constant supply
of protein in order to remain healthy. Protein is used in cell functions, to repair old tissues and to
build new tissues. Most common feeds are low in protein, and supplying proteins to livestock is a
major challenge. Protein is costly, and the higher the percentage of protein in a feed, the greater
the cost. Legume forages usually have a good protein level.

Minerals: Minerals are inorganic elements. Although required in small quantities, minerals are
very important to the living organism. They form part of the structure of the skeletal system and
play a role in most body processes. They are needed for teeth and bone formation, milk
production, blood coagulation, energy transfer, carbohydrate metabolism, protein production,
and enzyme, nerve, cartilage and muscle function or formation. Plants obtain their minerals from
the soil. The mineral composition of a feedstuff largely depends on the mineral composition of
the soil. Mineral composition of plants is affected by plant species and stage of growth. Young,
leafy materials generally have a good supply of all the essential minerals, particularly calcium.
Cereal grains have satisfactory amounts of phosphorus and potassium but are poor sources of
calcium. Roots and tubers are poor in all minerals. Minerals must be adequately supplied to the
animal to prevent mineral deficiency nutritional disease. Calcium and phosphorous must be well
supplied in the livestock ration for bone development and milking.

Minerals are divided into two groups, macro-minerals, those required at large amounts in the
diet; and micro-minerals, those required at very small amounts. Macro-minerals include calcium,
phosphorus, sodium, potassium, chlorine, sulphur, and magnesium. Micro minerals include iron,
copper, cobalt, manganese, zinc, iodine, selenium, molybdenum, and others. Mineral deficiencies
can lead to decreased growth and reproduction.

Vitamins: Vitamins are compounds necessary for normal growth, health, bone formation and
reproduction. Vitamins stimulate the body‘s function or metabolism. Vitamins are classified as
fat soluble or water soluble. The water soluble vitamins include vitamin C and the B vitamins.
The fat soluble vitamins include vitamins A, D, E and K. Vitamin A is a general growth
promoter and helps the stock resist infection while vitamin D is important mainly for
maintenance of healthy bones.

37
4.3. Nutrient Requirement of Cattle

Major factors affecting animals‘ nutrient requirements are:

 Breed  Growth rate

 Species  Stage of gestation
 Weight  Level of milk production
 Body condition  Level of activity
 Age  Environmental conditions
 Sex  Disease and stress
 Physiological state

The nutrient requirements can be broken down into four principal components such as
maintenance, lactation, growth, and reproduction.

Maintenance
An animal is in a state of maintenance when the amount of nutrients in the feed will maintain the
animal in equilibrium i.e., its body composition remains constant and is not growing, not
working or giving no product as milk or meat. This minimum demand of feed is referred to as
the maintenance requirement. If this need is not met, animals are forced to draw upon their body
reserves to meet their nutrient requirements for maintenance, commonly revealed by a loss in
weight and to various other undesirable consequences. The maintenance component includes all
the nutrients required for the animal to breath, move, digest feed, keep warm, repair tissues, and
maintain body weight. Weight, age, breed, physiological status, activity, and environmental
conditions are the primary variables affecting maintenance requirements. An animal that is used
for work requires more nutrients for work in addition to its maintenance requirement. The larger
the animal, the greater its maintenance requirement, especially energy and protein. Extremely
heavy muscled breeds will have greater maintenance requirements than light muscled breeds.

Growth
Growth measured as an increase in body weight. Most rapid early in life, declines gradually until
puberty, then even slower rate until mature size is reached. Requirements for growth are
determined by actual weight, average daily gain (growth rate), and weight at maturity, and
composition of gain. Composition of gain simply means whether animals are putting on more
muscle or more fat. A young growing heifer which is also pregnant requires nutrients for
maintenance, its own growth and the growth of its calf.

Reproduction
Adjustments to requirements for reproduction are based on expected birth weight and stage of
gestation. Requirements include development of maternal tissue as well as the fetus. Nutrient
deficiencies prior to breeding may result in low fertility or failure to maintain pregnancy.
38
Underfeeding during growth can result in delayed sexual maturity. Energy and protein are the
major nutrients required in the greatest amounts and should be in the topmost priority in order to
optimize reproduction in dairy cattle. Minerals and vitamins also cannot be neglected and must
be balanced in the diet. A pregnant cow needs extra energy for the maintenance and development
of the calf inside her. Nutrient requirements for pregnancy become significant only in the last
four months. This means, the calf does not increase its size rapidly until the sixth month, at
which time the nutrient requirement becomes significant. The calf doubles its size in the ninth
month, so at that stage a considerable amount of feed is needed to sustain its growth.

Production
Nutrients are essential for lactation/milk production and meat production. Heavy lactation has
greater nutrient demands than any other production state. Nutrient requirements for lactation are
based on the amount of milk at peak lactation and the composition of the milk (i.e. fat and
protein content). Animals that produce more milk, and milk with more fat and protein, will have
higher nutrient requirements. To regain body weight lost in lactation and during the dry period,
the cow will also require additional nutrients.

Water requirement
The body of livestock composed of 60-70% water. Milk is about 87% water. Water leaves the
body with urine, faeces, milk, through sweating; and by evaporation from body surfaces and the
respiratory tract. Therefore, an abundant, continuous and clean source of drinking water is vital
for dairy cows. A shortage, or uneven supply of drinking water, has a direct consequence on the
DMI. In order to maximize DMI, ad lib supply of fresh water should be available to the animal
for 24 hours per day.
A lactating dairy cow in the tropics require 60 to 70 L of water per day for maintenance, plus an
extra 4 to 5 L for each litre of milk produced. Water requirements rise with air temperature. An
increase of 4°C will increase water requirements by 6 to 7 L/day. High yielding milking cows
can drink 150 to 200 L water/day during the hot season.

Energy requirement
Animals need energy for most body functions and for work. Energy comes from the breakdown
of basic components of feeds—carbohydrates, lipids (fats and oils), and proteins. Feed intake is
regulated by an animal's energy needs. Adequate energy concentration in the diet allows cattle to
utilize other nutrients such as protein, vitamins, and minerals. The microbes that occupy the
rumen need energy to digest all the protein being ingested by the animal. If the microbes do not
get enough energy, protein is converted to urea and is passed through urine. Dairy cows use
energy to function (walk, graze, breathe, digest, maintain temperature, grow, lactate, maintain a
pregnancy, gain body condition). Energy is the key requirement of dairy cows for milk
production. It determines milk yield and milk composition. For beef production, in addition to
maintenance, the animal requires energy to deposit flesh whereas dairy cattle require more
energy for pregnancy and production of milk.
39
Protein requirement
Protein is necessary for muscle growth and development within the animal. It is also a key
element of enzymes that are needed throughout the body to conduct all of the functions of life.
Protein is the material that builds and repairs the body‘s enzymes, hormones, and is a
constituent of all tissues (muscle, skin, organs, foetus). Protein is needed for the body‘s basic
metabolic processes, growth and pregnancy. Protein is also vital for milk production.
Proteins are made up of nitrogen which is bound into various amino acid molecules. Amino
acids are the building blocks for the production of protein for milk, tissue growth and
the development of the foetus during pregnancy. Essential amino acids must either be
supplied in the diet (as dietary protein) or as a product of the digestion of the microbes in the
rumen (microbial protein). Protein is usually measured as crude protein. Nutritionists commonly
use terms like rumen degradable and undegradable dietary protein and bypass protein. The
amount of protein a cow needs depends on her size, growth, milk production and stage of
pregnancy.

Vitamin requirement

Vitamins are organic compounds that all animals require in very small amounts. The vitamin
needs of most ruminants are met under normal conditions by natural feeds, microbial activity in
the rumen, and tissue synthesis.The B-complex group vitamins and vitamin K are synthesized by
rumen micro-organisms and in the tissues, and hence there is no need to supply them through the
feed. Thus, vitamins A, D and E should routinely be included in mineral mixes, but they usually
present in adequate amounts in quality forage. Even, vitamins A and D are not a major concern
in the tropics where animals generally have access to pasture or rangeland. All farm animals can
synthesize vitamin C and will not experience a shortage. Vitamins are normally expressed in
international units (IU). Vitamin deficiencies are rare in normal forage feeding situations.
Although only small amounts of vitamins are required by the cow, deficiencies of these nutrients
can cause major problems.

Water soluble vitamins are not stored in the body tissue and therefore must be provided in the
diet every day. Fat soluble vitamins can be stored by the animal in large quantities for several
months. This makes day to day variation in their intake less of a problem, but makes toxicity
more likely if dietary levels are too high. To the best of current knowledge, an oversupply of
water-soluble vitamins will not harm cows. Any excess is simply excreted in the urine. However,
fat-soluble vitamins are stored in the cow‘s body, and an oversupply of Vitamin A or D can
cause poisoning or death.

Mineral requirement

Mineral deficiencies are less likely if forages constitute the major part of the diet. High-
producing herds fed diets high in cereal grain or maize silage may require added minerals. The
mineral content of feed is expressed in units of weight: gram (g) or milligram (mg). Macro-
40
minerals are those required in quantities of grams per kilogram of dry matter (g/kg DM) or
percent DM. They include calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, sodium, sulfur and
chlorine. Calcium and phosphorus are necessary for maintenance, milk production, reproduction,
and growth. Most rations will require supplementation with calcium and phosphorus as they are
not adequately supplied by most feedstuffs. Calcium requirements are higher during lactation as
the cow excretes calcium in the milk. Micro-minerals are those required in quantities of
milligrams per kilogram of dry matter (mg/kg DM), or parts per million (ppm). They include
cobalt, copper, iron, iodine, manganese, zinc, selenium and molybdenum.

4.4. Feedstuffs

The various feeds and fodders used in livestock feeding are broadly classified as roughages,
concentrates, feed supplements and feed additives.

Feeds are classified according to the amount of specific nutrients they supply. Two main classes
of feedstuff are roughages and concentrates.

a. Roughages: these are bulky feeds containing relatively large amounts of poorly digestible
material, that is, more than 18% crude fiber. They can be of two categories, namely
succulent and dry based upon their moisture content.

 Succulent: feeds usually contain more than 60% moisture, and include: green
pastures, green cultivated fodder crops, tree leaves, root crops, silage, etc.
 Dry roughages: contain only 10–15% moisture and include: hay and crop residues
(straw).

b. Concentrates: are feed or feed mixtures which have high amounts of protein, carbohydrates
and fat, contain less than 18% crude fiber and are usually low in moisture. Concentrates are
rich in either energy or protein and are thus expensive. They can also be categorized as:
Energy-rich concentrates: Feeds with high levels of energy but low in protein content.
These can be of the following types:
- Cereal grains, roots and tubers. They are best energy sources but generally
expensive due to use as human food.
- Cereal grain by-products (mill by-products): cheaper and widely used (e.g. brans,
shorts).
Protein-rich concentrates:
o Oilseed cakes: The by-products left after extraction of oil from oilseeds (soybean,
cottonseed, peanut (groundnut), linseed, sunflower, etc.).
o Brewer‘s grain: These are by-products of the brewery industry. Dried brewer‘s
grains contain about 18% crude protein and 15% crude fiber.
o Fish meal, meat meal, blood meal, hatchery waste, etc.

41
c. Feed supplements: are the compounds used to improve the nutritional value of the basal
feeds so as to take care of any deficiency. Commonly used feed supplements are:
 Vitamin supplements
 Mineral supplements

d. Feed additives: are the non-nutritive substances usually added to basal feed in small quantity
for the fortification in order to improve feed efficiency, health and productive performance of
the animals. Some commonly used feed additives are:
 Antibiotics
 Enzymes
 Hormones
 Probiotics
 Biostimulators
 Antioxidants

42
5. REPRODUCTION IN CATTLE

Reproduction is the process by which organisms give rise to offspring. It is one of the defining
characteristics of living things. The survival of species largely depends on its ability to replace its
own kind. There are two basic types of reproduction: asexual reproduction and sexual
reproduction. Asexual reproduction is the process of creating new individual using one parent
organism. Sexual reproduction is the process of creating new individual using two parent
organisms. All of the common farm animals reproduce by sexual reproduction. Sexual
reproduction begins with the mating of the male and female.

Puberty is defined as the age at which the female or male gonads become capable of releasing
the gametes (Oocytes or Spermatozoa). Puberty in females is defined as the age at which they
first express estrus with ovulation. The onset of puberty is the result of a series of complex
events that occur within the reproductive endocrine system. Sexual maturity is the age at which
the male or female attains full reproductive capacity after puberty. Different animals reach
puberty at different ages. Age at puberty mainly depends on breed, nutrition, rate of growth,
environment, etc. The exotic breeds of animals which have been provided with a very good
nutrition reach puberty at their early age when compared to local animals. A cow maturing at
early age will calve at early age and produces more milk in her life time. Delayed sexual
maturity has a profound effect on the economics of animal farm.

Reproductive system of male

The reproductive tract of the bull consists of the testicles, secondary sex organs, and three
accessory sex glands. These organs work in concert for formation, maturation and transport of
spermatozoa, which are eventually deposited in the female reproductive tract. The secondary sex
organs are the epididymis, vas deferens and penis. The three accessory sex glands include the
seminal vesicles, prostate and bulbourethral gland (Cowper‘s gland). The bladder, which collects
and excretes the urine, is closely connected with the reproductive tract.

Reproductive system of female

The female reproductive organs consist of the ovaries, oviducts, uterus, cervix, vagina, and
vulva. The ovaries are the primary reproductive organ of the female. The bladder discharges into
the vagina.

Estrus or heat

Estrus or ―heat‖ is a period during the reproductive cycle when female animals become sexually
receptive, signaling they are ready for mating. In other words, estrus or heat period is the time
during which the female will accept the male for copulation or breeding. The female mammal
begins to have estrus periods when it is old enough to be bred. The estrus cycle begins when a
43
follicle on the ovary begins to develop. The hormone estrogen is produced and causes the animal
to show the signs of estrus. The heat period lasts on average 18 hours with a range of 6 to 30
hours. About 90% of cows stay in heat from 10 to 24 hours. Tropical breeds, like zebus, have
shorter heat periods than European breeds. The most important part of the heat period is called
the standing heat period. This is when the cow stands still when she is mounted by herd mates or
a bull.

Heat detection

Effective heat detection is economically important to dairy producers. Failure to detect heat early
in the breeding season or improper timing of insemination due to heat detection errors can result
in an extended time between calving and additional costs for semen and labor. Heat detection has
a major influence on the length of the calving interval.

A bull will always notice a cow in heat and will serve her if there are no boundaries between the
bull and cow. Some cows have heat signs that are difficult to notice for humans. The signs of
estrus in cattle that humans can see include:
 Standing when mounted by herd mates (best indicator for time to breed)
 Nervousness and restlessness
 Reddening and swelling of the vulva
 Frequent urination
 Clear mucus discharge from the vulva
 Mounting other cattle (but cattle not in estrus may do this)
 Regular sniffing at reproductive organs of other cows
 Chin resting
 Frequent bellowing
 Bending backbone, loin part downward and sacrum upward
 Less appetite
 Low milk production
 Slightly higher body temperature

The signs of heat are obviously shown better when more cows are in heat at the same time.
Loose housing without slippery floors and enough space is an advantage in detecting heat signs.
Heat can be detected by heat detection techniques such as visual observation of behavioral signs,
using a teaser bull, and by heat detection aids.

Servicing a cow at the end of the standing heat period or at the start of the late heat period
ensures the best results, as is illustrated in Figure 3 below. Estrus lasts approximately 18 hours
with ovulation occurring around 12 hours after the end of standing estrus. Inseminating when the
cow is still in early heat is useless. Where the insemination is done by an AI technician, all cows

44
which were seen in heat in the morning, should be inseminated later that day. Cows that are still
in heat the next morning should be re-inseminated. When heat is first seen in the afternoon or
evening, insemination can safely be postponed until the next morning (AM-PM rule). Where a
farm staff carries out the inseminations, cows should be served about 12 hours after they were
first seen in heat. The same applies for bull services.

Figure 3. The optimum time for insemination or bull service.

The oestrus cycle of the cow

The oestrus cycle (also called ovarian cycle) is defined as the period from the beginning of one
heat to the beginning of the next. With the cow this period lasts on average 21 days (18-24 days).

The ovaries of a cow contain numerous (many thousands) ova (= eggs), most of which are in
resting stages. During each oestrus cycle several of these eggs become active. Fluid-filled
cavities are formed, each containing an egg; they develop and enlarge and eventually form
blister-like structures called follicles. One of these follicles matures into a structure called
Graafian follicle. The remaining follicles regress.

During heat, the pituitary starts secreting luteinizing hormone (LH). Under the influence of LH,
the Graafian follicle bursts open about 10 to 14 hours after the visible heat signs have
disappeared and the egg is released. The Graafian follicle has another, important function. The
cells lining its wall produce ‗female hormones‘ = estrogens, which enter the blood and have
profound effects on the behaviour and physiology of the female. In addition to heat inducement,
the female hormones cause:

 growth and development of the female reproductive tract

 growth of the muscle cells lining the uterus

45
  increase of the blood supply throughout the tract (at the time of oestrus)
 contraction of uterine muscles (stimulation)
 production of mucus in the cervix and the vagina (stimulation)
 development and maintenance of secondary sex characteristics (‗femininity‘)

Phases of the oestrus cycle

The estrus cycle is hormonally controlled and for purposes of understanding may be broken
down into four phases: proestrus, estrus, metestrus, and diestrus. The proestrus and estrus periods
are primarily under the influence of estrogen and are associated with growth of the follicle.
Metestrus and diestrus are associated with growth of the corpus luteum and are primarily under
the influence of progesterone.

Proestrus

The proestrus period occurs about 2 to 3 days prior to the onset of estrus in the cow and is
characterized by follicular growth and estrogen (estradiol) production. Rising levels of
estrogen cause the blood supply to the reproductive tract to increase resulting in swelling
of the entire tract. Glands of the cervix and vagina are stimulated to increase secretory
activity yielding a thin vaginal discharge.

Estrus

At the end of proestrus, estrus, the period of sexual desire, appears. These behavioral
manifestations are a result of estrogens acting on the central nervous system. During this
time the cow becomes very restless. She may bellow, lose her appetite, and drop off in
milk production. Blood supply to the reproductive tract is increased and glandular
secretion is stimulated yielding clear viscid mucus which may be observed being
discharged from the vulva. After about 14 to 18 hours these clinical signs of estrus begin
to wane.

The cow is different from most other animals in that she has a very short period of sexual
receptivity in which she accepts the bull or stands to be mounted by other cows. Further,
cows do not ovulate until 12 to 16 hours after the end of estrus. Consequently, signs of
estrus activity in cows can be easily missed, unless observed frequently.

Metestrus

The period immediately following estrus (the period of sexual receptivity and activity) is
metestrus. The cow does not ovulate until after she goes out of estrus. Therefore,
metestrus is the period in which ovulation occurs. As the egg is released from the follicle
(the process of ovulation), blood and luteal cells fill the follicular cavity and begin to
organize and develop to form the corpus luteum (CL).
46
 Metestrus lasts only about 2 to 3 days. It is not uncommon to observe a blood-stained
mucus discharge during this period. It results from blood engorgement of the
reproductive tract tissues which occurs during estrus. When observed it indicates that the
cow was likely in heat 1 or 2 days before. It is also during this time that the egg is being
gathered in by the infundibulum of the oviduct and is beginning its course toward the
uterus (roughly 5 to 7 days).

Diestrus

This is the most lengthy period in the estrus cycle. This is the period of corpus luteum
function. Formation of a CL begins to occur immediately following ovulation. Whether
pregnancy results or not, the CL will develop itself into a fully functional organ
elaborating large amounts of progesterone. If a fertilized egg reaches the uterus, the CL
will be maintained throughout the pregnancy. If, on the other hand, the egg which reaches
the uterus is not fertilized the CL will remain functional only up to about day 17 or 18
after which time it will degenerate thereby permitting a new estrus cycle to be initiated.

In summary, the estrus cycle can be broken down into four phases: the estrogenic phases
(proestrus and estrus) and the pregestational phases (metestrus and diestrus). Estrogen dominates
only about 4 days of the 21 day cycle, whereas progesterone dominates about 17 days.

Ovulation

The rupture of the Graafian follicle and the release of its egg is called ovulation. Ovulation takes
place about 10-14 hours after the end of oestrus (= after the visible heat signs have disappeared).
The egg is trapped in the funnel of the oviduct and carried into the canal of the oviduct. It is in
this canal that fertilization takes place; in other words: where the egg meets the male cells.

Formation of corpus luteum (CL)

The cells which lined the cavity of the Graafian follicle continue to grow in size and to multiply
in number until they fill the cavity; they now form the ‗corpus luteum‘ CL (= ‗yellow body‘).
The corpus luteum secretes progesterone, the ‗pregnancy hormone‘; the progesterone release
starts 2 to 3 days after the end of the heat period. The preparation of the uterus for pregnancy that
was begun by oestrogen is continued by progesterone. If the cow conceives (becomes pregnant),
the corpus luteum remains active and continues producing progesterone during the period of
pregnancy. Progesterone has the following functions during pregnancy:

 it prevents the cow from coming on heat.

 the function of the hormone oxytocin is blocked, thus preventing the start of labour.
 it regulates the changes in the mucous membranes in the uterus.
 it plays a role in the formation of udder tissue.

47
Oestrogens are produced by the placental membranes from about 3 to 4 months of pregnancy.
These hormones are important for the growth of the foetus and for parturition.

If the cow has not become pregnant, the corpus luteum regresses (shrinks) and the uterus returns
to its normal condition. At this time the pituitary starts releasing follicle-stimulating hormone
(FSH) and a few days later the cow comes on heat again.

A schematic review of the oestrus cycle is given below:

Figure 4. The oestrus cycle in the cow.

Methods of impregnation

Getting cows pregnant promptly is an important part of having a profitable dairy operation.
Natural service (NS) and artificial insemination (AI) are two widely popular breeding programs
adopted by cattle breeders and dairy producers throughout the world to improve reproductive
performance in dairy cows.

a. Natural Service
Natural service is the natural breeding method where the cow and the bull are allowed to mate by
natural means without any technological means. It‘s the natural breeding process wherein the
bull and the cow are allowed to mate as they naturally show heat. Natural service is the most
important component of a good reproductive management on the farm. Natural mating has one
perceived advantage over artificial insemination in that it can reduce the need for heat detection.
Thus, on dairy farms, bulls are often used alongside AI in an attempt to increase the rate at which
cows get pregnant. Many farmers believe that pregnancy rates are higher when a bull is used
than when artificial insemination is used. However, when heat detection is accurate and the
insemination is properly performed, artificial insemination and natural service give similar
breeding success.

b. Artificial Insemination (AI)

Artificial insemination is the technique in which semen with living sperms is collected from the
male and introduced into female reproductive tract at proper time with the help of instruments.
Artificial insemination is a common procedure that involves a trained technician placing semen
48
from a bull into the body of the uterus of a cow at the time of heat. The biggest advantage of AI
is having access to thousands of sires instead of just one or two on the farm with a natural service
program. Another benefit is the genetic progress that is available with using AI.

Artificial insemination is not merely a novel method of bringing about impregnation in females.
Instead, it is a powerful tool mostly employed for livestock improvement. In artificial
insemination, the germplasms of the bulls of superior quality can be effectively utilized with the
least regard for their location in faraway places. By the adoption of artificial insemination, there
would be a considerable reduction in both genital and non-genital diseases in the farm stock.

Artificial insemination has the following advantages over natural breeding:

Advantages

 Allows for widespread use of genetically superior sires that would normally not be
available to breeders because they are too expensive to purchase.
 Allows for faster and increased genetic improvement in cattle allowing for improved herd
performance and productivity. e.g. milk production.
 Allow for the practical use of gender selected semen where high percentage of progeny
(> 90%) born are either male or female.
 Allows for accelerated progeny testing of sires to determine their genetic potential.
 Allows for control of venereal disease within a herd.
 Allows for the elimination of dangerous dairy bulls from the farm.
 Reduces number of bulls needed for natural service.
 Allows the producer to use larger and heavier bulls on smaller animals without the danger
of injury to the females.
 Progeny derived from the insemination process can be worth more money.
 Introduction of new genetic material via importation of semen from outside the country.
No expensive handling, quarantine, and shipping costs of live animals.
 Frozen semen can be stored and used long after the donor or sire is dead. It also allows
for the use of semen from an injured sire that is unable to breed naturally.
 Allows for more efficient use of estrous synchronization, the process of breeding cows
over a 3 to 7 day period compared to 21 days in unsynchronized animals.

Disadvantages

Despite many advantages over natural breeding processes, artificial insemination has the
following disadvantages.

 Most semen is inexpensive. However, semen from popular bulls can be expensive.
 The labor is required for estrus detection.
 It requires well-trained operators and special types of equipment.
 Management skills are necessary to effectively implement an AI programs.
49
  Improper cleaning of the instruments and insanitary conditions may lead to lower
fertility.
 Market for the bulls is reduced while that for the superior germplasm is increased.
 If the bull is not properly tested, the spreading of genital diseases will be increased.
 Facilities that allow proper restraint of cattle are required so that cattle can be
inseminated. Adequate physical facilities and nutritional resources are also required to
handle a large number of cattle during the time period when cattle are being AI.

Fertilization

Fertilization means the fusion (or union) of the ovum (egg) with a male cell. The male cell
actually penetrates the ovum. The fertilized ovum is the beginning of a new individual in
which one-half of the chromosomes come from the sire (bull) and one-half from the dam
(cow). The genetic materials of the male cell and the egg have united to give the new
individual the normal number of chromosomes needed for its development. Fertilization
normally takes place in the upper third of the oviduct.

When a bull serves a cow, millions of male cells are ejaculated in the vagina, close to the
entrance of the cervix. Part of the cells move through the cervix into the uterus, and then to the
oviducts.

In the uterus and oviduct, male cells can survive for about 20 hours. Ovulation takes place 10
to 14 hours after the heat period. The mature egg can only survive for about 6 hours and
therefore fertilization must take place within 6 hours after ovulation. Because of the limited
time male cells can survive in the oviduct, service must not take place when the heat period
starts. If fertilization does not occur, the egg and sperm cells are absorbed by the body. The
estrus cycle will repeat itself until the animal becomes pregnant.

Gestation

The gestation period is the time during which the animal is pregnant. During pregnancy, the fetus
develops in the uterus. After fertilization, the fertilized egg splits into two cells. These two cells
split up into four, these four into eight, etc. The cell division continues and after a few weeks the
organs of the new animal are formed. In the meantime the embryo is being moved through the
oviduct into one of the uterine horns. In the cow, this process takes about 3 to 5 days, after which
the embryo attaches itself to the uterine wall for nutrition and further development. The fetus
grows within the uterus, where it remains until parturition. The uterine wall contains glands that
secrete a substance called ‗uterine milk‘ and a hormone. The ‗milk‘ nourishes the embryo
between the time of conception and the time the foetal membranes begin to function. The wall of
the uterus has small, raised, button-like areas called caruncles. These caruncles gradually
develop after the egg has been fertilized. The foetal membranes are tightly attached to these
caruncles; by means of these caruncles the cow passes nutrients on to the developing calf.

50
The developing fetus grows within a layer of membranes called the placenta, through which
nourishment from the dam diffuses. The placenta (or afterbirth) is the name given to the
membranes that transfer nutrients from the cow to the calf before the calf (fetus) is born. These
membranes and blood vessels are made by the calf and connect to the blood supply in the uterus
of the cow or heifer. The cotyledons (buttons) of the placenta ―hook up‖ to the caruncles of the
uterus. It is across this thin connection between the membranes of the cow and the membranes of
the calf that essential materials pass to the developing calf. These essential materials include
oxygen, blood sugar (glucose), amino acids (the building blocks of proteins), fats, calcium,
phosphorus, vitamins, trace minerals and all the other essential components of life. The fetus
grows slowly. Most of its growth is in the last one-third of the gestation period. Early in the
growth period, the head, nervous system, and blood vessels develop. The bones and limbs are
developed later. The position of the fetus shifts and changes during the gestation period.

Parturition

Parturition is the process of giving birth to a new animal. Near the end of the gestation period,
the corpus luteum reduces the production of progesterone. There is an increase in the amount of
estrogen in the body. The hormone oxytocin helps the uterus contract. This causes the uterine
muscles to contract. The contraction of these muscles begins the process of birth. Powerful
contractions of the uterus begin and these are supported by voluntary contractions of the belly
muscles. The result is that the calf is pushed through the birth channel, normally within a few
hours.

51
6. CATTLE MANAGEMENT

Different categories of cattle include calves, replacement heifers, dry cows, pregnant cows,
lactating cows, and breeding bulls. The husbandry system that meets all essential needs of the
animals and high standards of handling are very important.

6.1. Pregnant Cow Management

Pregnancy is the stage when a developing young is present is the uterus of a cow. Gestation
period is the time from conceiving to calving/ parturition i.e. 285 days with range of 275-295
days. For some breeds, the average gestation length of 280 days is common. Under this stage the
cow needs appropriate management. Immediately the cow holds on to service i.e. become
pregnant, it must be separated if it is a farm where separate pens are available for pregnant cows.
Otherwise, it must be kept under the watchful eye of the attendant to prevent fighting or any
action that can lead to abortion.

The cow is confirmed to be pregnant if it is checked through either of the following pregnancy
diagnosis methods:

i. Non-return of heat
 A cow not returning to heat 21 days after insemination may be presumed pregnant.
 However, a cow may not return to heat because of an ovarian cyst or failure to notice that
the cow came in heat.
 Thus, when no other diagnostic tools are available, a cow is usually declared pregnant if
no heat has been observed for at least 60 days (the time of about three normal cycles).
 This is a traditional method to determine pregnancy.

ii. Rectal palpation

 May be used 35 days after insemination to detect the fetus in the uterus, other structures
associated with pregnancy, and the presence of a corpus luteum on the ovary.
 The trained technician or a veterinarian wears a glove and inserts his/her hand into
genitals through the rectum of the cow and gently palpate or feel the development of the
foetus.
 Rectal palpation should be performed with care to avoid damaging the fetus and the
cow‘s rectum.
 Is probably the most commonly used method.

iii. Progesterone level testing

 Progesterone levels may be tested using blood or milk samples at least 21 - 24 days post
breeding.
 However, a high progesterone level does not always mean a pregnancy is present.

52
  False positives can occur at certain times during the cow‘s cycle. In other words, the cow
may simply be between heats.
 Test kits are used to test pregnancy.

iv. Ultrasound
 Detection of pregnancy through the use of ultrasound may be beneficial during the later
stages of pregnancy (day 30 and later).
 Organs of the reproductive tract, as well as a developing fetus, can be viewed using
ultrasound technology.
 A veterinarian can see the heartbeat of the fetus as well as the presence of twins.
 The sex of the fetus can also be determined at 55-70 days after breeding.
 The age can also be estimated more accurately.

v. Pregnancy-associated glycoprotein (PAG) testing

 During pregnancy, certain cells in the placenta and uterus produce PAGs.
 Blood or milk samples are tested for the presence of PAGs.
 Cows must be at least 90 days postpartum and 30 days post breeding.
 Due to the long amount of time that these PAGs remain in the body, testing prior to 90
days postpartum may result in a false positive result.

The good care and managemental practices given to pregnant cow will give good calf and also
high milk yield during the successive lactation.

 Adequate feed and water, good health care and gentle handling must be given the cow at
the first trimester of pregnancy to prevent abortion. Abortion can be due to different
reasons: infectious (virus, bacteria, fungi and protozoa) or non-infectious (e.g. physical,
nutritional, toxicological and genetic). When it occurs in late pregnancy, it can cause
dystocia.
 Cows that are fed and managed well before calving are less likely to have problems with
metabolic diseases such as milkfever, ketosis, retained placenta, metritis, abomasal
displacement or death.
 Slippery floor must be avoided to prevent falling and dislocation.
 Mild exercise is needed for a pregnant cow. Pregnant cow must not be allowed to walk
long distances to prevent stress that may lead to abortion. Walking on uneven surfaces
should also be avoided.
 Narrow doors and crowding should be avoided.
 The pregnant cow should not be allowed to mix with other animals that have aborted or
that are suffering from or carriers of diseases like brucellosis.
 Care should be taken to prevent injuries by mounting cows or bulls. Fighting with other
animals should be avoided.
53
  Balanced ration should be provided to a pregnant cow depending on the stage of
gestation.
 A lactating pregnant cow should be dried off 40-60 days before calving. Drying off has
advantages to giving rest of milk secretory organ, allowing use of nutrient in fetus
development and permitting built up of reserve of body flesh before calving.
 Pregnant animals should have enough space for standing and lying down comfortably.
 The expected day of calving should be calculated and the cow should be isolated in
calving pen 1 or 2 weeks before parturition. Towards parturition, the pregnant cow must
be well monitored. A calving pen should be thoroughly cleaned/washed, disinfected and
well-bedded with fresh bedding materials. Towards parturition, cows and heifers often
become more restless, the udder becomes bigger, the vulva also swells, mucus discharge
can be observed and the ligaments around the tail head drops.

6.1.1. Management at calving

 Observation of cows and heifers before and during the calving season is necessary to
ensure a good calf crop. Cows should be checked at least once daily during the calving
season, and heifers should be checked more frequently, perhaps several times a day.
 Most calf losses at birth are due to abnormal or difficult deliveries. At least half of the
losses at calving time can be prevented by proper observation and assistance when
needed. First-calf heifers and second-calf cows should be given special attention because
most calving losses occur with this age group.
 If the calf is in normal position, some assistance may be given by pulling with ropes that
have been carefully attached to the forelegs. Always pull downwards rather than straight
out of the cow. Pull only when the cow strains and do it in a careful way.
 Abnormal presentations of the calf occur sometimes. In this case, veterinary assistance
may be needed. Some abnormal presentations are:
- only one front leg appears.
- the forelegs appear but without the head.
- the hindlegs appear first.
- the tail appears first.
 Other abnormalities that can occur during calving include:
- the uterus contractions are not strong enough or cervix fails to dilate or area of
bony pelvis is too small.
- the calf is too big for one reason or another; in this case surgery may finally be
necessary to deliver the calf.

54
Stages of parturition

Stage 1: Dilation of the cervix

- Uterine muscular activity is quiet during this stage as the cervix softens, and the
pelvic ligaments relax.
- Hormones such as oxytocin are released which helps in the contraction of the uterus.
- At this time a thick clear mucus ―string‖ hang from the vagina may be seen.
- Uterine muscle contractions begin by the end of stage one, pushing uterine contents
against the cervix, causing further dilation.
- Cervical dilation begins some 2 to 24 hours before the completion of parturition (2 to
6 hours would be most common).

Stage 2: Delivery of the calf

- Begins with the appearance of membranes (water bag) at the vulva and ends with
expulsion of fetus.
- Lasts for 30 min to 4 hours.
- If any delay/difficulty occurs or foetus comes with wrong presentation, veterinarian
assistance is required.
- Normal presentations of fetus are either anterior or posterior.

Stage 3: Expulsion of the placenta or fetal membranes

- After the calf is born, uterine contractions continue and they free the foetal membranes
from the uterus and expel them.
- Placenta normally leave female uterus within 2-4 hrs.
- If not expelled after 8-12 hrs, manual interference should be done by veterinarian.
- The placenta should be shed within 8 to 12 hours of the calf‘s delivery.
- If retained (by definition, placenta not shed after 12 hours), do not forcibly remove it.
It is bad practice to remove the afterbirth with force! Manual removal can leave
portions of the placenta in the uterus and serve as a source of infection.
- A retained placenta putrefies rapidly and may cause toxemia (blood poisoning).

After parturition:
- Giving the cow clean warm water to compensate the fluids losses in calving.
- Giving the cow easily digested feed.
- Washing external gentalia, buttocks and around udder with warm water and antiseptic
(KMnO4).
- Keeping the cow with the calf in calving pen for few days to enhance maternal filial
bond.

55
6.2. Calf Management

Young stock rearing is an important part of beef cattle and dairy cattle production. Calf is the
foundation of the future high-yielding beef or dairy herd. Young stock rearing has proven to be
of great influence on future performance. The purpose of rearing young stock is to raise well-
developed heifers, able to calve at an early age, without calving difficulties. The advantages of
calving at an early age are lower rearing costs, early productivity and consequently a higher life-
time milk production, thus making the cows more profitable. For the prevention of calving
difficulties it is essential that the heifers are well-developed. The optimal time for first
insemination of a heifer depends more on bodyweight than on age. Some heifers achieve the
desired weight at about 14 months, whereas others do not reach it before 16 months of age.
Therefore, the proper age for insemination and consequently for calving is determined by the
development of the heifer. Through good young stock rearing it is possible to inseminate the
heifers at an average age of about 14-15 months, which results in an average age at calving of
about 24 months. A good feeding and management program will result in lower death rate
(mortality), replacement heifers that start production early and fast growth resulting in rapid
genetic improvement.

Calf management includes:

 Neonatal calf care (just after birth)
 Housing and environment
 Colostrum feeding
 Feeding milk or milk replacer
 Feeding roughages and concentrates
 Weaning
 Diseases management
 Vaccinations
 Management practices

Neonatal calf care (just after birth)

 Good calf rearing starts before the calf is born. A hygienic environment during the birth
process is essential to prevent rearing diseases, such as scour. A calving pen should be
clean and disinfected.
 When the calf is born, the mucous and phlegm should be cleaned from the nose and
mouth by clean hands.
 If calf does not breathe, it should be held from the rear legs and lifted from the floor with
the head down or alternate compression and relaxation of the chest will often start the
calf breathing. Breathing can also be stimulated by blowing air into the nose.
 Normally the cow licks the calf immediately the birth. This helps‘ dry off the calf and
helps in stimulating breathing, circulation, first stand of the calf, and first urination and
56
 defecation. When the cow does not lick, the calf should be wiped with clean coarse cloth
to hasten drying.
 Navel should be dipped in tincture iodine.
 Remove all the wet bedding from the cow pen and wash cow udder with clean water and
dilute potassium permanganate solution.
 If normal, the calf will stand on its leg and suckle within 30 minutes. If fails, assistance
should be given in getting first feeding.

Housing and environment

 The house environment should be stress free and facilitate physical and behavioural
comfort of calves.
 Thermal comfort of calves should be kept in environment which is neither too hot nor too
cold.
 Feed and water should be easily accessible.
 Preferably young calves should be individually housed for about 3 weeks, because they
tend to suck each other. This sucking allows easy transmission of diseases. Calf crates,
pens or movable hutches can be used for individual housing.
 The housing should be constructed in such a way that the calf gets enough fresh air
without draft and good protection from cold winds and rain.
 Calves need a clean environment with dry bedding.
 After the period of individual housing, the calves can be housed in groups of 3-5 calves
per pen, preferably on straw bedding. It is important to ensure that there is enough space
for each calf and the houses are dry and comfortable to lie down.

Colostrum feeding

 A newly born calf does not have antibodies for protection against diseases and therefore
depends entirely on its mother‘s colostrum for protection.
 Due to weak immune system, calves are more susceptible to harmful pathogens and
diseases. In order to enhance the immune system, colostrum feeding is important because
it contains antibodies.
 For this reason, it is essential that the calf receives about 1-2 litres of colostrum in stages
from its own mother within half an hour after its birth.
 Feeding colostrum throughout first 24 hours is ideal to ensure they received many
immunoglobulins.
 If no colostrum is available from the mother, colostrum from another freshly calved older
cow should be used.
 In case there is no other freshly calved cow available, it is advisable to store some
colostrum in the freezer.

57
  Feeding of colostrum must continue for at least three days after birth and should be done
about 3 to 4 times daily. With each feeding, about 1.5-2 litres should be given.
 It is possible to leave a newly born calf with its mother for the first 12-24 hours to allow
sucking. An advantage of this method is that the milk is always at body temperature.
 The colostrum can also be fed in a bucket or a bottle fitted with a rubber teat.

Feeding milk or milk replacer

 Three days after birth there can be a gradual change to twice daily feeding of whole milk
or milk replacer. It is better to teach to drink the milk from the pail or bucket. The milk
should be warmed to body temperature.
 Whole milk with a fat content of about 4% can be fed to an amount of 4-5 litres per day
during the first month.
 Milk replacer has a lower fat content of about 2% and should be fed at a rate of 5-6 litres
per day.
 Every day feeding of milk should be done at regular intervals.
 When the calf is about four weeks of age, the amount of milk may gradually be decreased
to about 2-3 litres per day at the age of two months.

Feeding roughages and concentrates

 From the first week onwards, the calves should have access to high-quality roughage,
such as excellent hay or high dry matter grass silage. This is important to stimulate the
development of the rumen at an early age. High-quality roughage should always be
available at free choice. The feeding of hay in a rack will keep it clean, which is
important for the prevention of diseases.
 Together with roughage a handful of palatable concentrates of at least 16% digestible
crude protein (calf starter pellets) should be supplied as an appetizer from the first week
onwards.
 Let the calves get used to eating concentrates by placing a handful of pellets against their
mouths after milk has been fed. They will lick the pellets and soon they will be eating
concentrates.
 Gradually increase the amount of concentrates to about 1 kg per day after a period of six
weeks. Afterwards the amount can be further increased to about 1½ kg per day.
 Never leave old feedstuffs behind in the trough or buckets. They will get mouldy and
become a source of contamination.
 The calf starter concentrates should be replaced by palatable weaner pellets with a
digestible crude protein content of 14-15% and the amount should gradually be increased
to about 2 kg per day. Continue feeding high quality grass silage or hay.

58
Weaning

 Weaning is a critical point in calf‘s life because the amount of stress occurs during this
period.
 Stress at weaning affects a calf‘s immune system for at least two weeks after weaning.
This can make calves more susceptible to disease, particularly pneumonia, and can
reduce growth rates.
 To reduce weaning stress, avoid stressful procedures at/around weaning, such as
vaccination, disbudding and castration.
 A successful weaning programme will reduce stress and disease and ensure minimal
disruption to growth rates.
 Weaning should be done gradually by reducing milk over a period of 7–14 days. This
will increase concentrate intakes and minimizes weaning distress.
 Healthy calves should be weaned based on concentrate intake – not on weight, size or
age. From a nutritional perspective, the most suitable time to wean a calf is when it is
consuming enough concentrate. Because, concentrate intake is a good indicator of rumen
development.
 Weaning is recommended when calves eating, for three consecutive days, at least 1 kg of
starter concentrate if calf starter is >22% crude protein or 2 kg if calf starter is <20%
crude protein.
 Calves weaned before 5 weeks of age tend to be more susceptible to disease.
 Weaning can take place at the age of about 2-2½ months or, better still, when the calves
are weighing about 75 kg and they start eating about 1 kg of concentrates per day.
 Only wean healthy calves that are growing well. Weaning should be delayed for ill calves
or for those with poor intakes.
 Clean, fresh, ad-lib water must be provided from birth to encourage rumen development
and concentrate intake and to increase daily weight gains.
 After weaning, feeding of high quality roughage and concentrate remains important in
order to achieve the recommended rates of growth.
 In beef cattle production, particularly in cow-calf production, weaning should be done
early enough to allow cows sufficient rest prior to their next calf. A two- to four-month
rest between calves will allow the cow to regain condition lost during lactation and
improve her mothering ability with the next calf. Cow-calf production is a type of beef
cattle operation with the purpose to produce calves that will become either future
breeding cows or breeding bulls, or calves that will be raised for meat production. The
goal of a cow-calf operation is to have each cow produce and raise one calf per year.

Disease management

 Due to poor immune system calves may be affected by many diseases. Diarrhoea and
scours are most common diseases which occur in less than 30 days of age.
59
  There are few vaccines which prevent diarrhoea.
 Calf diseases should be prevented and should also be treated.

Vaccinations

 Due to calf‘s immature immune system, effective vaccination is essential.

 Different vaccines are given for diseases which are mostly occurring in young calves.
 The incidence of diseases like diarrhea, rotavirus, E. coli etc. may be reduced by
immunization.

Management practices

 Identification: should be done at an early age (preferably just after birth) by either ear
tagging, tattooing, hot iron or ear notching methods.
 Dehorning: hornless cattle require less space in transit, in the feedlot and at the feed
bunk. They fight less and inflict fewer injuries to each other. There are several effective
methods of dehorning, depending on operator preference and age of the animals. These
include hot iron methods, chemical dehorning, etc.
 Castration: bull calves should be castrated if not intended to be retained for breeding
purposes. Castration is done to control mating by preventing inbreeding and inferior
males from breeding, for production of good quality carcass and faster body weight
gains, and it reduces male aggression and thereby makes males easier to handle.
Castration can best be done when the calf is quite young. Castration of male calves in
early life is less stressful to calves than castration performed later. Some commonly used
castration methods are surgical castration, the use of burdizzo and elastration.

6.3. Lactating Cow Management

To get high milk during any lactation, the lactating animal should be properly fed and necessary
care and management practices should be followed.

 Lactating dairy cows must consume large quantities of dry matter to provide the nutrients
needed to maintain high levels of milk production. The consequences of low dry matter
intake are lower peak milk yields, lower total milk production, excessive loss of body
weight and poor reproductive performance. Rations should be formulated for lactating
cows to provide the proper balance of nutrients.
 Individual attention to feed each animal according to its production is a must. For this
purpose maintain individual production records. Keep up regularity of feeding.
Concentrate mix is fed before or during milking, when as roughage after milking.
 It is advisable to provide fresh feed available to cows immediately after milking. Feeding
directly after milking is often recommended as the teat canal is open after milking and
60
 standing while eating may prevent the penetration of microorganisms into the mammary
gland.
 Provide plenty of fresh and clean water in areas easily accessible to cows.
 It takes at least 30 days after calving for a cow's reproductive tract to return to normal.
With proper feeding and care, a cow will come to heat within 45-60 days of calving. The
shorter the interval between calvings, the more efficient the animal.
 Grooming of the cows before milking help in clean milk production. Daily brushing will
remove loose hair and dirt from the coat. Grooming will also keep the animal hide
pliable.
 Never frighten or excite the animals. Always treat them gently and with kindness.
 Cows should be trained to let down milk without calf suckling. This will hold to wean the
calves early.
 Regularity in milking is essential. Rapid, continuous, dry hand milking should be
practiced without undue jerking of teats. Milking should be done with whole hand, but
not with thumb and index finger. Milking machine can also be used.
 Common ailments should be properly detected and treated. Check for mastitis regularly.
 Provide at least 60-90 days dry period between calvings. If the dry period is not
sufficient, the milk yielding of subsequent lactation will be reduced.
 Vaccinate the cows- against important diseases and also guard against insects and pests.
 Every animal should be numbered and particulars pertaining to milk, fat percentage, feed
taken, breeding, drying and calving dates should be recorded.
 Feed troughs should be cleaned daily.

6.4. Dry Cow Management

Dry cow management is critical to a cow‘s performance and health in the next lactation.
Metabolic disorders, feed intake after calving, fertility and milk production and composition are
strongly influenced by feeding in the dry period. Important aspects of the dry period are:

 The main aim of the dry period is to prepare the mammary gland or to regenerate milk-
secreting tissue for the next lactation. The ideal length of the dry period is 60 days.
 When preparing for a dry period, it is advisable to begin with accurate breeding records
so that a calving date can be predicted and a date can be set for drying off. With a 12 to
13 months calving interval, a dry period of 45 to 65 days is recommended.
 The dry period consists of a drying-off time of 4 to 14 days, a dry period of 30 to 46 days,
and a pre-calving period of 10 to 14 days.
 The recommended drying off method is to stop milking abruptly. Reduce feed intake,
especially grain by 50–70% for 2–3 days to reduce nutrient supply and reduce milk
synthesis.
 After the last milking, all quarters should be treated with an approved dry cow mastitis
treatment. Dry cow therapy not only helps prevent new infections but also is more
61
 effective in clearing up existing cases of mastitis. About 70% of existing infections can
be eliminated using dry cow therapy. This is the only time staphylococcus infections can
be cured effectively.
 Maintaining (or increasing) body condition during the dry period is the key to ensuring
the cow has adequate body reserves for early lactation. If cows calve in poor condition,
milk production suffers in early lactation because body reserves are not available to
contribute energy. The cows should be fed to maintain body condition through the dry
period. Dry cows of in good condition are — BCS of 5–5.5 out of 8 and this condition
score should be maintained until calving. Dry cows should not gain or lose more than
0.50 of a condition score during this period.
 If the cow is too fat or too thin at calving, subsequent milk production and fertility will
suffer. Fattening cows in the dry period can lead to health problems including displaced
abomasum, udder oedema and ketosis at calving.

6.5. Heifer Management

Better care and management of heifer will give high quality replacement stock to the dairy farm.
Because replacement heifers represent the future genetic investment of any dairy herd, their
management is critical to herd survival and longevity. Understanding of heifer development
principles is useful to improve heifer rearing practices and management. The following care and
management practices are recommended for a heifer:

 Feed the heifer sufficiently to produce normal growth. During the early stage relatively
more protein than energy is needed. Most heifers grow well if excellent hay is given as
much they can eat. The amount of growth depends upon the quality of forage fed. Proper
feeding management for adequate growth is necessary to ensure puberty has occurred
before breeding age.
 Heifers less than 1 year of age should be fed to maximize growth without achieving
excess body condition.
 Body condition scoring (BCS) is useful in evaluating heifer nutritional status as calving
approaches. It can be easily evaluated in the pasture. Heifers are still growing and have
higher nutrient requirements than mature cows, so they should be managed to calve at a
body condition score of 6 (where 1 = extremely thin and 9 = extremely fat).
 Excessive energy intake leading to overconditioning should be avoided, especially
postbreeding because of potential dystocia and metabolic disease. Furthermore,
overconditioned heifers do not reproduce well and will not produce milk to their genetic
potential.
 Adequate shade during hot months of the year prevents low birth weights and subsequent
poor milk yield and reproductive performance after calving. The heifers should be
provided with a dry shelter free from drafts. A loose housing system with a shelter open
to one side is sufficient.
62
  The size rather than the age of a dairy heifer at breeding time is important. Breeding
under sized animals is never profitable. Inseminate the maiden heifers at a body weight of
about 350 kg with semen of a proven sire, which is known for its ease of calving. Though
the heifer that is bred to calve at an older age yields higher milk yield in the first
lactation, the total milk produced by such a cow will be less when compared to the
heifers that freshens at an early age.
 Attempts to reduce age at first calving much less than the recommended 23–24 months
should be avoided. Unless grown adequately, heifers calving at younger ages (< 22
months) are more likely to experience dystocia and are subsequently 3–4 times more
likely to have a retained placenta, metritis, reduced reproductive efficiency, and are likely
to be culled from the herd. In addition, first lactation milk yields may be compromised.
 Regardless of when first breeding begins in heifers, once get pregnant, heifers should be
fed to calve in good body condition. Without adequate body reserves of fat, it becomes
very difficult to achieve good first-lactation milk yields.
 Precautions should be taken to prevent disease and injury to gestating heifers. Place the
heifer in a separate shed about 6-8 weeks before calving time.
 Before calving, let the heifer becomes accustomed to handling and to the procedures used
in the milking herd.
 Maintenance of health among heifers is very important for proper growth. The health
among the heifers is maintained by hygienic housing, water, balanced feeding and taking
necessary preventive steps against common diseases.

6.6. Breeding Bull Management

Bull is very important as it said a sire is half the herd as it used for fertilization of the whole herd
cows either natural or by artificial insemination. The care and proper management of breeding
bull is important for the success of breeding program. The following management techniques are
recommended to ensure that bulls are given the best opportunity to contribute their fullest
production potential and to reduce the chances of low fertility:

 Bulls must be under the watchful eye of the stockman to ensure they do not sustain an
injury to their body.
 The breeding bulls should be selected from good pedigree. The bulls used should have
acceptable genetic potential for economically important traits such as growth, milk
production and calving ease.
 Adequate nutrition should be provided from weaning age through maturity. The properly
balanced ration should be given which contains adequate energy, protein, minerals and
vitamins should be provided to bulls. Adequate nutrition is vital, since it allows young
bulls to more completely express genetic potential for growth, which predicts potential
performance of eventual offspring. More important is that good nutrition also helps

63
 puberty begin on time. It is always recommended to provide adequate quality forage,
clean water and high-quality mineral for bulls year-round.
 Bulls should be maintained in good body condition throughout the year, becoming
neither excessively thin nor fat. Bulls that are either under- or over-fed will have lower
sexual activity. A body condition score of 6 (where 1 = very thin and 9 = obese) is a good
target for bulls at the beginning of breeding. Over-conditioned bulls at the start of the
breeding season will have low sperm counts and display lower breeding activity than a
bull in ideal condition. Bulls that are thin at the end of the breeding season may need
some supplementary grains to help with weight recovery.
 Bulls should be housed in clean, well-lit, and ventilated buildings or outside in facilities
that protect them from inclement conditions and allow them to remain clean and dry.
Bulls need appropriate housing to provide protection during severely cold or hot weather
– both of which can lead to temporary fertility problems. A breeding bull should be
housed separately with sufficient area of floor and proper covering. Adequate space
should be provided to allow the bull to get exercise.
 Exercise is needed to keep normal appetite, retain breeding power and good health. Males
which received plenty of exercise produce larger ejaculation containing more sperms of
higher activity. Exercise is important because during the breeding season the bull may
travel several miles per day and maintain long periods of physical activity. If given ample
area, bulls will usually exercise themselves.
 The hooves must be trimmed regularly to prevent overgrow, foot rot or lameness.
 Veterinary examination of bulls should be made at least a month before the bulls start
work. Examinations range from a simple physical exam, to a serving ability test, or a full
assessment of semen quality.
 An annual breeding soundness exam (BSE) should be conducted on all breeding-age
bulls about six to eight weeks before the start of breeding. Do not use bulls that fail a
BSE.
 Bulls should not be overworked. Practically bull to cow ratios vary greatly depending on
bull age, mating ability, semen quality, libido of individual bulls, the capability of
individual bulls and the situation they are placed in (e.g., synchronized or
nonsynchronized herds). Typically, most managers will use a ratio of 20 to 25 cows per
bull. However, if a synchronization program will be implemented, the ratio may need to
be lowered to ensure enough bull power to cover all the cows, as they will all cycle in a
very short time span. Yearling bulls have a lower serving capacity than older bulls.
Therefore, it is important to remember that young bulls should be utilized at a lower bull
to cow ratio than older bulls.
 The safety of humans and animals is the chief concern underlying bull management
practices. By virtue of their size and disposition, bulls may be considered as one of the
most dangerous domestic animals. Management procedures should be designed to protect
human safety and to provide for bull welfare.

64
 Fighting among bulls should also be avoided.
 Bulls should be culled for poor vision, lack of desirable conformation, low quality semen,
low sexual libido and inadequate serving capacity.
 The temperament of bulls can change and an initial quiet bull may become aggressive
and dangerous over time. No matter how good the quality of calves or the number of
calves that a bull produces, an aggressive and dangerous bull must always be culled from
the herd.

65