CSM 153 Circuit Theory

Akwasi Acheampong Aning

KNUST, GHANA

January 24, 2023

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Outline I

1 Syllabus, Assessment,Recommended Books, Basic Terms

Course Outline, Assessment and Recommended Books

2 Unit One
Charge and Matter
Force, Energy and Power
Resistors, Capacitors and Inductors
Inductors
KNUST COVID-19 AWARENESS
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Maintain ‘safe’ physical distancing
Avoid crowds and confined/poorly ventilated spaces
Virus is changing itself with even more serious ramifications, so
it is important we all adhere to the safety protocols
Circuit Theory Introduction

Course Outline
Unit 1: Basic Concepts and Elements
Charge and Matter
Force, Energy and Power
Resistors, Capacitors and Inductors
Unit 2: Direct Circuit Analysis
Ohm’s law
Series Circuit
Parallel Circuit
Methods of Analysis
Unit 3: Networks Theorems
Superposition Theorem
Thevenin’s Theorem
Norton’s Theorem
Delta and Wye Networks
Circuit Theory Introduction

Course Outline
Unit 4: Magnetism
Field and Force
Electromagnetics
Ampere’s Law
Biot-Savart Law
Unit 5: AC Circuits
Alternating Currents and Voltages
R, L and C Elements
Power in AC Circuits

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Circuit Theory Introduction
Assessment

Exam = 70%
Quiz, home works, attendance and Mid-semester Exam = 30%

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Circuit Theory Introduction
Recommended Books

Giancoli, D. C. Physics: Principles with Applications 7th Edition.

2014.
Randall D. Knight, Physics for Scientists and Engineers a
Strategic Approach with Modern Physics 4/e, 2017
Raymond A. Serway and John W. Jewett Jr., Physics for
Scientists and Engineers with Modern Physics, 10th Edition,
2019
Allan H. Robbins and Wilhelm C. Miller, Circuit Analysis: Theory
and Practice, Fifth Edition, 2013
William H. Hayt, Jr., Jack E. Kemmerly and Steven M. Durbin
Engineering Circuit Analysis, 8th Edition, 2012
John Bird, Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology Sixth edition,
2017
Any University Physics Book

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Circuit Theory Introduction
Course Objectives

To introduce electric circuits and its analysis

To impart knowledge on solving circuit equations using network
theorems
To develop a clear understanding of the important parameters of
a magnetic circuit
To introduce the phenomenon of resonance in coupled circuits.

Learning Outcomes

To be able to understand basic electrical properties

Use node and mesh analyses methods for the analysis of linear
circuits
Analyze circuits by utilizing Superposition, Thevenin’s and
Norton’s theorems.
To be able to understand basic magnetic properties
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Circuit Theory Introduction

UNIT ONE
Basic Concepts and Elements

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Circuit Theory

Basics
method

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Circuit Theory Introduction
Charge and Matter

The Structure of the Atom

Sub-atomic particles make up
atoms, which make up ordinary
matter
Thus, matter is made up of
several sub-atomic particles
(protons, electrons and neutrons)
The protons and neutrons
(nucleons) are closely packed to
form the nucleus
If the nucleus is considered a
sphere, its diameter is of the
order of 10−14
The total charge of electrons
balance the total charge of
protons
The atom as a whole is
electrically neutral (no charge)
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Circuit Theory Introduction
Charge and Matter

The Structure of the Atom: The Neutron

It has no electrical charge so it is electrically neutral
It cannot be deflected by electric and magnetic fields because it
has no charge
They are more penetrating than the electron or the proton
The Structure of the Atom: The Electron
The electron has negative charge of 1.6x10−19C
It can be deflected by electric and magnetic fields
It is always deflected towards the positive plate in an electric field
The Structure of the Atom: The Proton
It has a positive charge equal in magnitude to the charge on the
electron
It can be deflected by electric and magnetic fields
It is always deflected towards the negative plate in an electric
field
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Circuit Theory Introduction
Charge and Matter

The Structure of the Atom

The protons and neutrons of an atom share a very small volume
of space called the nucleus of the atom
The electrons are attracted to the nucleus by a force called the
electrostatic force or Coulomb force
This force exists because the electrons and nuclei have electric
charges of opposite sign
The electron is negatively charged and the nucleus is positively
charged
The positive charge of the nucleus is entirely due to the charges
of protons, since the neutrons do not have any net electric charge
The charge of an object can be regarded as the algebraic sum of
all the elementary atomic charges which make up the object
The electric charge is an intrinsic property of the elementary
particles, such as electron or proton, just as mass is an intrinsic
property of matter
Circuit Theory Introduction
Charge and Matter

The Structure of the Atom

Thus, electric charge is a property (characteristic) associated
with fundamental particles wherever they exist
Mass can create a gravitational field g, which in turn can exert a
force mg on a body of mass m
Thus, mass m can create gravitational force Fg = mg
Electric charge, like mass, is an important inherent property of
matter which can be present in both large and small bodies
Electric charge q can create electric field E in space, which can
also exert a force qE on another body of charge q
Thus, electric charge q can create electric or electrostatic force
F E = qE
These fields in turn transmit forces to other charged bodies and
thereby affect their motion
Therefore, the region in space around the charged body, where
electric forces can be experienced defines electric field
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Circuit Theory Introduction
Charge and Matter

The Structure of the Atom

Another important feature of charge is that electric charge is
always conserved
In any interaction or reaction, the initial and final values of the
total electric charge must be the same. Thus, total electric
charge is neither created nor is it destroyed
Matter or solid state materials may be classified into insulators,
semiconductors and conductors
Insulators
From atomic point of view electrons in insulators are firmly
(tightly) bound to the nucleus
Thus unable to move under applied potential difference for
electrical conduction
Therefore, electrical conduction in insulators is by the
mechanism of dielectric conduction
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Circuit Theory Introduction
Charge and Matter

Semiconductors
Electrons in semiconductors are relatively not firmly (tightly)
bound to the nucleus
Thus only few electrons are able to move under applied potential
difference for electrical conduction
However, electrons can be generated to take part in electronic
semi-conduction
Conductors
In metallic conducting materials some of the electrons are very
loosely bound to the nucleus
Thus electrons can move about freely within the crystal structure
Such electrons are called free electrons or conduction electrons
Therefore, electric current through metals is by electronic
conduction

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Circuit Theory

Force, Energy
and Power
method

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Circuit Theory Introduction
Force, Energy and Power

Force
The electrical force between two stationary charged particles is given by
Coulomb’s Law
The force is directly proportional to the product of the charges, q1 and q2 ,
on the two particles and inversely proportional to the square of the
separation, r between the particles and directed along the line joining
them
The force is attractive if the charges are of opposite sign
The force is repulsive if the charges are of like sign
The force is a conservative force
Mathematically the Coulomb’s law is:
q1 q2
Fe = ke (1)
r2
The SI unit of charge is the coulomb (C), ke is called the Coulomb
1
constant, that is: ke = = 8.9875x109 N.m2 /C 2 , and ε0 is the
4πε0
permittivity of free space with a value of: ε0 = 8.8542x10−12 C 2 /N.m2
Circuit Theory Introduction
Force, Energy and Power

Force
The electrical force between the electron and proton is found from
q1 q2
Coulomb’s law Fe = ke 2 = - 8.2x10−8 N
r
This can be compared with the gravitational force between the
electron and the proton given by
me m p
Fg = G 2 = 3.6x10−47 N
r
Potential
Electric potential V at a point in an electric field is defined as the
potential energy per unit charge. i.e.
U
V= (2)
q
Similarly, electric potential can be defined as the work done per unit
charge in moving the charge from infinity to the point
W∞
V=− (3)
q
Circuit Theory Introduction
Force, Energy and Power

Potential
Potential is a scalar quantity, and not a vector with SI unit Joule per
Coulomb [JC −1 or Volt(V)]
The potential can be positive, negative or zero depending on the signs
and magnitude of q
The potential energy per unit charge (potential) is independent of the
charge q of the particle we use
The potential is characteristic only of the electric field we are
investigating
The electric potential difference △V between any two points i and f in an
electric field is equal to the difference in potential energy per unit charge
between the two points
△U W
△ V = V f − Vi = =− (4)
q q
Therefore, potential difference between two points is the negative of the
work done by the electrostatic force to move a unit charge from one
point to the other in the field
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Circuit Theory Introduction
Force, Energy and Power

Potential
For a potential energy to exist, we must have a system of two or more
charges
Potential energy belongs to the system and changes only if a charge is
moved relative to the rest of the system
The electric field is a measure of the rate of change of the electric
potential with respect to position
The work done △W in moving the unit charge through a small distance
△x toward the charge is given by

△ W = F(− △ x) (5)

Thus
dW = −Fdx = Edx" #
Z r r
qdx q 1 q
W=V=− 2
=− − = (6)
∞ 4πε0 x 4πε0 x ∞ 4πε 0r

the potential, V is equal to the work done per unit test charge,
A positively charged particle produces a positive electric potential and a
negatively charged particle produces a negative electric potential
Circuit Theory Introduction
Force, Energy and Power

Potential
When dealing with energies of electrons, molecules or atoms, the joule
appears to be a very large unit of energy
For this reason alternative unit of energy called the Electronvolt (eV) is
used
Electronvolt is defined as the energy gained by an electron accelerated
through a potential difference of one volt (1V)
The electronvolt is the energy that can be acquired by a particle, which
carries a charge of the magnitude of the charge on the electron (q = e)
and moved through a potential difference of 1V
Current
The charge is related to the current

Q = It (7)

Electrical conduction in a wire (metal) is due to the movement of free

electrons
Emf set up an electric field in the metal and the electron are then
accelerated by the field and they gain velocity and energy
Circuit Theory Introduction
Force, Energy and Power

Current
The moving electrons collide with atoms of the metal vibrating
about their fixed mean position and give up some of their energy
to the atoms
The amplitude of vibrations of the atoms increases and the
temperature of the metal rises
On the average the electrons drift in the opposite direction to the
electric field with a mean speed. Therefore the drift constitute
electric current
Power
Power is the rate of doing work or, equivalently, as the rate of
transfer of energy. The symbol for power is P
The charge is related to the current

W V2
P= = V I = I2R = (8)
t R
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Circuit Theory

Resistors,
Capacitors and
Inductors
method

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Circuit Theory Introduction
Circuit Elements: Resistors

Resistors are specifically designed to possess resistance and

are used in almost all electronic and electrical circuit
Resistors are the simplest components in any circuit but their
effect is very important in determining the operation of a circuit
Resistance is represented by the symbol R and is measured in
units of ohms (after Georg Simon Ohm). The symbol for ohms is
the capital Greek letter omega (Ω)
The resistance of a material is dependent upon several factors
Type of material
Length of the conductor l
Cross-sectional area A and
Temperature T
The resistance R and the resistivity ρ are related by the equation
ρl
R= (9)
A
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Circuit Theory Introduction

Circuit Elements: Resistors

There are two main types of resistors:

Fixed Resistors are resistors with constant resistance values and
Variable resistors are three terminal resistors are used to adjust the
volume of our radios, set the level of lighting in our homes, and
adjust the heat of our stoves and furnaces
Large resistors have their resistor values and tolerances printed
on their cases
Smaller resistors are too small to have their values printed on the
component
They are usually covered by an epoxy or similar insulating
coating over which several coloured bands are printed radially
The coloured bands provide a quickly recognizable code for
determining the value of resistance, the tolerance (in
percentage), and occasionally the expected reliability of the
resistor

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Circuit Theory Introduction
Circuit Elements: Resistors

The coloured bands are always read

from left to right, left being defined as
the side of the resistor with the band
nearest to it
The first two bands represent the first
and second digits of the resistance
value
The third band is called the multiplier
band and represents the number of
zeros following the first two digits; it is
usually given as a power of ten
The fourth band indicates the
tolerance of the resistor, and the fifth
band (if present) is an indication of
the expected reliability of the
component
The reliability is a statistical indication
of the expected number of
components that will no longer have
the indicated resistance value after
1000 hours of use
Circuit Theory Introduction
Fixed Resistors: Colour Codes

Variable Resistors

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Circuit Theory Introduction
Circuit Elements: Capacitors

A capacitor is an electrical device that is used to store electrical energy

Next to the resistor, the capacitor is the most commonly encountered
component in electrical circuits
Capacitors are used extensively in electrical and electronic circuits
To smooth rectified ac outputs
In telecommunication equipment – such as radio receivers - for
tuning to the required frequency
In time delay circuits
In electrical filters
In oscillator circuits and
In magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in medical body scanners
Capacitance is the electrical property of capacitors: it is a measure of
how much charge a capacitor can hold
A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by an insulator. One
of its basic forms is the parallel-plate capacitor
It consists of two metal plates separated by a non-conducting material
(i.e., an insulator) called a dielectric
The dielectric may be air, oil, mica, plastic, ceramic, or other suitable
insulating material 29/41
Circuit Theory Introduction
Capacitors

The amount of charge Q that a capacitor can store depends on

the applied voltage V
For a conductor of any geometrical shape the capacitance, C is
defined as the ratio of charge on the conductor to the potential it
is raised. Thus
Q
C= (10)
V
The unit of capacitance C is the farad, F
Circuit Theory Capacitors and Inductors
Capacitors

A capacitor is an electronic device for

storing electrical energy as potential
energy in an electric field

When a capacitor is charged

the plates acquire equal but
opposite charges of + q and –
q. However, we refer to the
An arrangement of two isolated absolute charge q of a
conductors of any shape form a capacitor
capacitor
Conventionally, an arrangement
consisting of two parallel
conducting plates of area, A
separated by a distance, d form a
parallel-plate capacitor
Circuit Theory Capacitors and Inductors
Capacitors

When a capacitor is charge, a potential difference, V is set up between

the plates
The charge Q and the potential difference V for a capacitor are
proportional to each other i.e. Q ∝ V

Q = CV (11)
where C is a proportional constant, called capacitance of the capacitor ∴
Q
C=
V
For a conductor of any geometrical shape the capacitance, C is defined
as the ratio of charge on the conductor to the potential it is raised i.e. C
= (Charge on conductor)/(Potential it is raised)
For a parallel-plate capacitor, capacitance C is defined as the ratio of
charge on each (either) plate to the potential difference between the
plates
Capacitance is a measure of the charge a capacitor can store. Thus, the
higher the capacitance, the greater or more charge it can store
SI Unit of capacitance: coulomb per volt CV −1 = 1 Farad (1F)
Practical unit are: microfarad (1mF = 10−6 F) and (1pF = 10−12 F)
Circuit Theory Introduction
Capacitors

For a parallel-plate capacitor, capacitance C is defined as the ratio of

charge on each (either) plate to the potential difference between the
plates
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is:
ε0 A
C= (12)
d
C increases as we increase the area A or decrease separation d of the
plates
For a Parallel Plate Capacitor, the capacitance depends only on the
following factors:
Area (Geometry) of the plates A
Separation (distance) between the plates d
The nature of material (dielectric material) between the plates
For an isolated sphere, the capacitance is:
Q
C= = 4πε0 R (13)
V
C is independent of the charge on the spherical conductor but depends
only on the radius R
Circuit Theory Capacitors and Inductors
Capacitors

this implies
Q
E= (16)
Aε0
The potential difference between plates
is given by
Consider parallel-plates of a
capacitor each of area A and charge Z d
magnitude Q on plates V=− Edr = Ed (17)
0
Assuming the plates are so large and
close together, we can neglect edge V
effects of the electric field E= (18)
d
The electric field E between the Q V Q ε0 A
plates is given by Thus = ⇒ =
Aε0 d V d
σ
E= (14)
ε0 ε0 A
C= (19)
and d
Q
σ= (15)
A C increases as we increase the area A or
and σ is the surface charge density decrease separation d of the plates
Circuit Theory Capacitors and Inductors
Capacitors

Capacitors in Series

For three capacitors in series

the equivalent capacitance
Ceq is given by
1 1 1 1
= + + (20)
Ceq C1 C2 C3

For three capacitors in

Capacitors in Parallel parallel the equivalent
capacitance Ceq is given by
Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 (21)

Potential energy U stored in

a capacitor is given by any of
the following
Q2 CV 2 QV
U= = = (22)
2C 2 2
Circuit Theory Capacitors and Inductors
Dielectrics

A dielectric is an insulating material such as mica,

paper, mineral oil or plastic, which can be used to fill
Dielectric constant (relative
the space between the plates of a capacitor
permittivity) εr of a material
When a dielectric slab is inserted between the plates of is the ratio of the
a capacitor, the charge Q stored increases by a factor capacitance with dielectric to
k, called dielectric constant of the insulating material capacitance without
In effect, the potential difference V between the plates dielectric between the plates
rather decreases by a factor k Potential energy U stored in
In general, in a region or space completely filled by a a capacitor is given by any of
dielectric material of dielectric constant k, all the following
electrostatic equations containing ε0 are to be replaced
C
by kε0 εr = (24)
C0
Thus, a point charge inside a dielectric produces an
electric field E given by where C is capacitance with
plates filled with dielectric
Q material and C0 is
E= (23)
4πkε0 r2 capacitance of the same
This shows that for a fixed distribution of charges the capacitance with plates in
effect of dielectric is to weaken the electric field that free space (vacuum) or air.
would have been present between the plates
Circuit Theory Capacitors and Inductors
Dielectrics

ε0 A The energy of a capacitor can be thought of as

For parallel plate capacitor C0 = stored in the electric field between the plates. In any
d
εA →−
and C = electric field E in free space the energy density u
d (energy per unit volume) is
C ε
εr = = (25) u=
1
ε0 E 2 (26)
C0 ε0 2
∴ ε = εr ε0 = kε0 1 1
u= kε0 E 2 = εE 2 (27)
Hence, the dielectric constant or 2 2
relative permittivity is the ratio of the When a dielectric is present, equation (27) holds
permittivity of a material to permittivity Uses of Capacitors
of free space and has no dimensions Capacitors are widely used in electronic
Dielectric strength: The strength of a circuits in devices. They are used to store
dielectric is the potential gradient charge and released later when needed
(electric field) at which its insulation
Capacitors are used to block power surges of
breaks down and a spark passes
charge and energy to protect devices
through the material
Every dielectric material has a Used in filter circuits in rectifiers to obtain d.c.
characteristic dielectric strength, outputs
which is the maximum value of Can be made in the form of very tiny
electric field that it can withstand capacitors to serve as memory for binary code
without breakdown in the RAM of computers
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Circuit Theory Introduction
Circuit Elements: Inductors
Inductance is due entirely to the magnetic field created by the current,
and its effect is to slow the build-up and collapse of the current and in
general oppose its change
A component called an inductor is used when the property of inductance
is required in a circuit
The basic form of an inductor is simply a coil of wire
Factors which affect the inductance of an inductor include:
the number of turns of wire - the more the turns the higher the
inductance
the cross-sectional area of the coil of wire - the greater the
cross-sectional area the higher the inductance
the presence of a magnetic core - when the coil is wound on an
iron core the same current sets up a more concentrated magnetic
field and the inductance is increased
the way the turns are arranged: a short, thick coil of wire has a
higher inductance than a long, thin one
Circuit Theory Capacitors and Inductors
Inductors

Effect of Dielectric in a Capacitor

Factors which affect the
Inductance is the name given to the
inductance of an inductor
property of a circuit where there is an
the number of turns of wire – the
emf induced into the circuit by the
more the turns the higher the
change of flux linkages produced by a inductance
current change
The cross-sectional area of the coil of
When the emf is induced in the same wire – the greater the cross-sectional
circuit as that in which the current is area the higher the inductance
changing, the property is called self The presence of a magnetic core –
inductance, L when the coil is wound on an iron
core the same current sets up a more
When the emf is induced in a circuit by a concentrated magnetic field and the
change of flux due to current changing in inductance is increased
an adjacent circuit, the property is called The way the turns are arranged – a
mutual inductance, M. The unit of short, thick coil of wire has a higher
inductance is the henry, H inductance than a long, thin one
Inductor is used when the property of We will look at inductance and
inductance is required in a circuit. The induction in detail under
basic form of an inductor is simply a coil electromagnetism
of wire
Circuit Theory Capacitors and Inductors
Multiple Choice Question

1 A conductor is distinguished from an insulator

1 If the potential difference across a
with the same number of atoms by the number
resistor is doubled:
of:
1 only the current is doubled ANS
1 nearly free atoms
2 only the current is halved
2 electrons
3 only the resistance is doubled
3 nearly free electrons ANS
4 only the resistance is halved
4 protons
5 both the current and resistance
5 molecules
are doubled
2 Two small charged objects attract each other
2 A certain wire has resistance R.
with a force F when separated by a distance d.
Another wire, of the same material,
If the charge on each object is reduced to
has half the length and half the
one-fourth of its original value and the
diameter of the first wire. The
distance between them is reduced to d/2 the
resistance of the second wire is:
force becomes:
1 R/4
1 F/16 2 R/2
2 F/8 3 R
3 F/4 ANS 4 2R ANS
4 F/2 5 4R
5 F
Circuit Theory Introduction
Circuit Elements