CSM 153 Circuit Theory

Akwasi Acheampong Aning

KNUST, GHANA

March 12, 2022

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Outline I

1 Syllabus, Assessment,Recommended Books, Basic Terms

Course Outline, Assessment and Recommended Books

2 Unit One
Charge and Matter
Force, Energy and Power
Resistors, Capacitors and Inductors
Inductors
KNUST COVID-19 AWARENESS
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Maintain ‘safe’ physical distancing
Avoid crowds and confined/poorly ventilated spaces
Virus is changing itself with even more serious ramifications, so
it is important we all adhere to the safety protocols
Circuit Theory Introduction

Course Outline
Unit 1: Basic Concepts and Elements
Charge and Matter
Force, Energy and Power
Resistors, Capacitors and Inductors
Unit 2: Direct Circuit Analysis
Ohm’s law
Series Circuit
Parallel Circuit
Methods of Analysis
Unit 3: Networks Theorems
Superposition Theorem
Thevenin’s Theorem
Norton’s Theorem
Delta and Wye Networks
Circuit Theory Introduction

Course Outline
Unit 4: Magnetism
Field and Force
Electromagnetics
Ampere’s Law
Biot-Savart Law
Unit 5: AC Circuits
Alternating Currents and Voltages
R, L and C Elements
Power in AC Circuits

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Circuit Theory Introduction
Assessment

Exam = 70%
Quiz, home works, attendance and Mid-semester Exam = 30%

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Circuit Theory Introduction
Recommended Books

Giancoli, D. C. Physics: Principles with Applications 7th Edition.

2014.
Randall D. Knight, Physics for Scientists and Engineers a
Strategic Approach with Modern Physics 4/e, 2017
Raymond A. Serway and John W. Jewett Jr., Physics for
Scientists and Engineers with Modern Physics, 10th Edition,
2019
Allan H. Robbins and Wilhelm C. Miller, Circuit Analysis: Theory
and Practice, Fifth Edition, 2013
William H. Hayt, Jr., Jack E. Kemmerly and Steven M. Durbin
Engineering Circuit Analysis, 8th Edition, 2012
John Bird, Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology Sixth edition,
2017
Any University Physics Book

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Circuit Theory Introduction
Course Objectives

To introduce electric circuits and its analysis

To impart knowledge on solving circuit equations using network
theorems
To develop a clear understanding of the important parameters of
a magnetic circuit
To introduce the phenomenon of resonance in coupled circuits.

Learning Outcomes

To be able to understand basic electrical properties

Use node and mesh analyses methods for the analysis of linear
circuits
Analyze circuits by utilizing Superposition, Thevenin’s and
Norton’s theorems.
To be able to understand basic magnetic properties
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Circuit Theory Introduction

UNIT ONE
Basic Concepts and Elements

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Circuit Theory

Basics
method

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Circuit Theory Introduction
Charge and Matter

The Structure of the Atom

Sub-atomic particles make up
atoms, which make up ordinary
matter
Thus, matter is made up of
several sub-atomic particles
(protons, electrons and neutrons)
The protons and neutrons
(nucleons) are closely packed to
form the nucleus
If the nucleus is considered a
sphere, its diameter is of the
order of 10−14
The total charge of electrons
balance the total charge of
protons
The atom as a whole is
electrically neutral (no charge)
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Circuit Theory Introduction
Charge and Matter

The Structure of the Atom: The Neutron

It has no electrical charge so it is electrically neutral
It cannot be deflected by electric and magnetic fields because it
has no charge
They are more penetrating than the electron or the proton
The Structure of the Atom: The Electron
The electron has negative charge of 1.6x10−19C
It can be deflected by electric and magnetic fields
It is always deflected towards the positive plate in an electric field
The Structure of the Atom: The Proton
It has a positive charge equal in magnitude to the charge on the
electron
It can be deflected by electric and magnetic fields
It is always deflected towards the negative plate in an electric
field
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Circuit Theory Introduction
Charge and Matter

The Structure of the Atom

The protons and neutrons of an atom share a very small volume
of space called the nucleus of the atom
The electrons are attracted to the nucleus by a force called the
electrostatic force or Coulomb force
This force exists because the electrons and nuclei have electric
charges of opposite sign
The electron is negatively charged and the nucleus is positively
charged
The positive charge of the nucleus is entirely due to the charges
of protons, since the neutrons do not have any net electric charge
The charge of an object can be regarded as the algebraic sum of
all the elementary atomic charges which make up the object
The electric charge is an intrinsic property of the elementary
particles, such as electron or proton, just as mass is an intrinsic
property of matter
Circuit Theory Introduction
Charge and Matter

The Structure of the Atom

Thus, electric charge is a property (characteristic) associated
with fundamental particles wherever they exist
Mass can create a gravitational field g, which in turn can exert a
force mg on a body of mass m
Thus, mass m can create gravitational force Fg = mg
Electric charge, like mass, is an important inherent property of
matter which can be present in both large and small bodies
Electric charge q can create electric field E in space, which can
also exert a force qE on another body of charge q
Thus, electric charge q can create electric or electrostatic force
F E = qE
These fields in turn transmit forces to other charged bodies and
thereby affect their motion
Therefore, the region in space around the charged body, where
electric forces can be experienced defines electric field
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Circuit Theory Introduction
Charge and Matter

The Structure of the Atom

Another important feature of charge is that electric charge is
always conserved
In any interaction or reaction, the initial and final values of the
total electric charge must be the same. Thus, total electric
charge is neither created nor is it destroyed
Matter or solid state materials may be classified into insulators,
semiconductors and conductors
Insulators
From atomic point of view electrons in insulators are firmly
(tightly) bound to the nucleus
Thus unable to move under applied potential difference for
electrical conduction
Therefore, electrical conduction in insulators is by the
mechanism of dielectric conduction
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Circuit Theory Introduction
Charge and Matter

Semiconductors
Electrons in semiconductors are relatively not firmly (tightly)
bound to the nucleus
Thus only few electrons are able to move under applied potential
difference for electrical conduction
However, electrons can be generated to take part in electronic
semi-conduction
Conductors
In metallic conducting materials some of the electrons are very
loosely bound to the nucleus
Thus electrons can move about freely within the crystal structure
Such electrons are called free electrons or conduction electrons
Therefore, electric current through metals is by electronic
conduction

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Circuit Theory

Force, Energy
and Power
method

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Circuit Theory Introduction
Force, Energy and Power

Force
The electrical force between two stationary charged particles is given by
Coulomb’s Law
The force is directly proportional to the product of the charges, q1 and q2 ,
on the two particles and inversely proportional to the square of the
separation, r between the particles and directed along the line joining
them
The force is attractive if the charges are of opposite sign
The force is repulsive if the charges are of like sign
The force is a conservative force
Mathematically the Coulomb’s law is:
q1 q2
Fe = ke (1)
r2
The SI unit of charge is the coulomb (C), ke is called the Coulomb
1
constant, that is: ke = = 8.9875x109 N.m2 /C 2 , and ε0 is the
4πε0
permittivity of free space with a value of: ε0 = 8.8542x10−12 C 2 /N.m2
Circuit Theory Introduction
Force, Energy and Power

Force
The electrical force between the electron and proton is found from
q1 q2
Coulomb’s law Fe = ke 2 = - 8.2x10−8 N
r
This can be compared with the gravitational force between the
electron and the proton given by
me m p
Fg = G 2 = 3.6x10−47 N
r
Potential
Electric potential V at a point in an electric field is defined as the
potential energy per unit charge. i.e.
U
V= (2)
q
Similarly, electric potential can be defined as the work done per unit
charge in moving the charge from infinity to the point
W∞
V=− (3)
q
Circuit Theory Introduction
Force, Energy and Power

Potential
Potential is a scalar quantity, and not a vector with SI unit Joule per
Coulomb [JC −1 or Volt(V)]
The potential can be positive, negative or zero depending on the signs
and magnitude of q
The potential energy per unit charge (potential) is independent of the
charge q of the particle we use
The potential is characteristic only of the electric field we are
investigating
The electric potential difference △V between any two points i and f in an
electric field is equal to the difference in potential energy per unit charge
between the two points
△U W
△ V = V f − Vi = =− (4)
q q
Therefore, potential difference between two points is the negative of the
work done by the electrostatic force to move a unit charge from one
point to the other in the field
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Circuit Theory Introduction
Force, Energy and Power

Potential
For a potential energy to exist, we must have a system of two or more
charges
Potential energy belongs to the system and changes only if a charge is
moved relative to the rest of the system
The electric field is a measure of the rate of change of the electric
potential with respect to position
The work done △W in moving the unit charge through a small distance
△x toward the charge is given by

△ W = F(− △ x) (5)

Thus
dW = −Fdx = Edx" #
Z r r
qdx q 1 q
W=V=− 2
=− − = (6)
∞ 4πε0 x 4πε0 x ∞ 4πε 0r

the potential, V is equal to the work done per unit test charge,
A positively charged particle produces a positive electric potential and a
negatively charged particle produces a negative electric potential
Circuit Theory Introduction
Force, Energy and Power

Potential
When dealing with energies of electrons, molecules or atoms, the joule
appears to be a very large unit of energy
For this reason alternative unit of energy called the Electronvolt (eV) is
used
Electronvolt is defined as the energy gained by an electron accelerated
through a potential difference of one volt (1V)
The electronvolt is the energy that can be acquired by a particle, which
carries a charge of the magnitude of the charge on the electron (q = e)
and moved through a potential difference of 1V
Current
The charge is related to the current

Q = It (7)

Electrical conduction in a wire (metal) is due to the movement of free

electrons
Emf set up an electric field in the metal and the electron are then
accelerated by the field and they gain velocity and energy
Circuit Theory Introduction
Force, Energy and Power

Current
The moving electrons collide with atoms of the metal vibrating
about their fixed mean position and give up some of their energy
to the atoms
The amplitude of vibrations of the atoms increases and the
temperature of the metal rises
On the average the electrons drift in the opposite direction to the
electric field with a mean speed. Therefore the drift constitute
electric current
Power
Power is the rate of doing work or, equivalently, as the rate of
transfer of energy. The symbol for power is P
The charge is related to the current

W V2
P= = V I = I2R = (8)
t R
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Circuit Theory

Resistors,
Capacitors and
Inductors
method

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Circuit Theory Introduction
Circuit Elements: Resistors

Resistors are specifically designed to possess resistance and

are used in almost all electronic and electrical circuit
Resistors are the simplest components in any circuit but their
effect is very important in determining the operation of a circuit
Resistance is represented by the symbol R and is measured in
units of ohms (after Georg Simon Ohm). The symbol for ohms is
the capital Greek letter omega (Ω)
The resistance of a material is dependent upon several factors
Type of material
Length of the conductor l
Cross-sectional area A and
Temperature T
The resistance R and the resistivity ρ are related by the equation
ρl
R= (9)
A
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Circuit Theory Introduction

Circuit Elements: Resistors

There are two main types of resistors:

Fixed Resistors are resistors with constant resistance values and
Variable resistors are three terminal resistors are used to adjust the
volume of our radios, set the level of lighting in our homes, and
adjust the heat of our stoves and furnaces
Large resistors have their resistor values and tolerances printed
on their cases
Smaller resistors are too small to have their values printed on the
component
They are usually covered by an epoxy or similar insulating
coating over which several coloured bands are printed radially
The coloured bands provide a quickly recognizable code for
determining the value of resistance, the tolerance (in
percentage), and occasionally the expected reliability of the
resistor

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Circuit Theory Introduction
Circuit Elements: Resistors

The coloured bands are always read

from left to right, left being defined as
the side of the resistor with the band
nearest to it
The first two bands represent the first
and second digits of the resistance
value
The third band is called the multiplier
band and represents the number of
zeros following the first two digits; it is
usually given as a power of ten
The fourth band indicates the
tolerance of the resistor, and the fifth
band (if present) is an indication of
the expected reliability of the
component
The reliability is a statistical indication
of the expected number of
components that will no longer have
the indicated resistance value after
1000 hours of use
Circuit Theory Introduction
Fixed Resistors: Colour Codes

Variable Resistors

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Circuit Theory Introduction
Circuit Elements: Capacitors

A capacitor is an electrical device that is used to store electrical energy

Next to the resistor, the capacitor is the most commonly encountered
component in electrical circuits
Capacitors are used extensively in electrical and electronic circuits
To smooth rectified ac outputs
In telecommunication equipment – such as radio receivers - for
tuning to the required frequency
In time delay circuits
In electrical filters
In oscillator circuits and
In magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in medical body scanners
Capacitance is the electrical property of capacitors: it is a measure of
how much charge a capacitor can hold
A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by an insulator. One
of its basic forms is the parallel-plate capacitor
It consists of two metal plates separated by a non-conducting material
(i.e., an insulator) called a dielectric
The dielectric may be air, oil, mica, plastic, ceramic, or other suitable
insulating material 29/43
Circuit Theory Introduction
Capacitors

The amount of charge Q that a capacitor can store depends on

the applied voltage V
For a conductor of any geometrical shape the capacitance, C is
defined as the ratio of charge on the conductor to the potential it
is raised. Thus
Q
C= (10)
V
The unit of capacitance C is the farad, F
Circuit Theory Capacitors and Inductors
Capacitors

A capacitor is an electronic device for

storing electrical energy as potential
energy in an electric field

When a capacitor is charged

the plates acquire equal but
opposite charges of + q and –
q. However, we refer to the
An arrangement of two isolated absolute charge q of a
conductors of any shape form a capacitor
capacitor
Conventionally, an arrangement
consisting of two parallel
conducting plates of area, A
separated by a distance, d form a
parallel-plate capacitor
Circuit Theory Capacitors and Inductors
Capacitors

When a capacitor is charge, a potential difference, V is set up between

the plates
The charge Q and the potential difference V for a capacitor are
proportional to each other i.e. Q ∝ V

Q = CV (11)
where C is a proportional constant, called capacitance of the capacitor ∴
Q
C=
V
For a conductor of any geometrical shape the capacitance, C is defined
as the ratio of charge on the conductor to the potential it is raised i.e. C
= (Charge on conductor)/(Potential it is raised)
For a parallel-plate capacitor, capacitance C is defined as the ratio of
charge on each (either) plate to the potential difference between the
plates
Capacitance is a measure of the charge a capacitor can store. Thus, the
higher the capacitance, the greater or more charge it can store
SI Unit of capacitance: coulomb per volt CV −1 = 1 Farad (1F)
Practical unit are: microfarad (1mF = 10−6 F) and (1pF = 10−12 F)
Circuit Theory Introduction
Capacitors

For a parallel-plate capacitor, capacitance C is defined as the ratio of

charge on each (either) plate to the potential difference between the
plates
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is:
ε0 A
C= (12)
d
C increases as we increase the area A or decrease separation d of the
plates
For a Parallel Plate Capacitor, the capacitance depends only on the
following factors:
Area (Geometry) of the plates A
Separation (distance) between the plates d
The nature of material (dielectric material) between the plates
For an isolated sphere, the capacitance is:
Q
C= = 4πε0 R (13)
V
C is independent of the charge on the spherical conductor but depends
only on the radius R
Circuit Theory Capacitors and Inductors
Capacitors

Gauss’ law says that the electric flux through a closed surface is
proportional to the amount of charge Q enclosed within the surface.
To calculate capacitance for different geometrical shapes the following
procedures must be followed
I
→− → −
ε0 E .d A = q (14)

where E is the electric field

Assume a charge q on the plates or conductor.
Calculate the electric field E between the plates or due to the conductor
in terms of the charge q using Gauss’ law. i.e.
Proceed to calculate the potential difference V between the plates or
conductor using
Z
V = − Edx (15)
q
Then calculate the capacitance C using C =
V
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Circuit Theory Capacitors and Inductors
Capacitors

Q
Thus E is expressed as E =
4πε0 R2
The potential V of the conductorR R is
given by dV = −EdR ⇒ V = − 0 EdR
RR Q
we’ve V = − 0 2
dR = -
! 4πε0 R
Q R R 1
dR
4πε0 0 R2
" #R
Q 1 Q
⇒V=− − =
Consider a single isolated 4πε0 R 0 4πε0 R
spherical conductor of radius R Q
C= = 4πε0 R (16)
and charge Q on its surface V
Using Gauss’ law the electric C is independent of the charge on
H→
− → −
field is given by ε0 E .d A = q the spherical conductor but depends
⇒ ε0 E(4πR ) 2
only on the radius R

method
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Circuit Theory Capacitors and Inductors
Capacitors

Using Gauss’ law the electric field E

is expressed as
H→− → −
ε0 E .d A = Q
Q
∴E=
4πε0 r2
The potential V is given by !
R ra Q Q R ra 1
V=− r dr = - dr
b 4πε r 2 rb r 2
0" #ra 4πε0 !
Q 1 Q 1 1
⇒V=− − = −
4πε0 r rb 4πε0 ra rb
Consider a cross-section of a Q rb − ra
!
long cylindrical capacitor =
consisting of two concentric
4πε0 ra rb
spherical shells of radii ra and rb If we set ra = a and rb = b then the
Let a Gaussian surface be a
capacitance C is
sphere of radius r concentric with !
Q ab
the two shells ∴C= = 4πε0 (17)
V b−a 36/43
Circuit Theory Capacitors and Inductors
Capacitors

this implies
Q
E= (20)
Aε0
The potential difference between plates
is given by
Consider parallel-plates of a
capacitor each of area A and charge Z d
magnitude Q on plates V=− Edr = Ed (21)
0
Assuming the plates are so large and
close together, we can neglect edge V
effects of the electric field E= (22)
d
The electric field E between the Q V Q ε0 A
plates is given by Thus = ⇒ =
Aε0 d V d
σ
E= (18)
ε0 ε0 A
C= (23)
and d
Q
σ= (19)
A C increases as we increase the area A or
and σ is the surface charge density decrease separation d of the plates
Circuit Theory Capacitors and Inductors
Capacitors

Capacitors in Series

For three capacitors in series

the equivalent capacitance
Ceq is given by
1 1 1 1
= + + (24)
Ceq C1 C2 C3

For three capacitors in

Capacitors in Parallel parallel the equivalent
capacitance Ceq is given by
Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 (25)

Potential energy U stored in

a capacitor is given by any of
the following
Q2 CV 2 QV
U= = = (26)
2C 2 2
Circuit Theory Capacitors and Inductors
Dielectrics

A dielectric is an insulating material such as mica,

paper, mineral oil or plastic, which can be used to fill
Dielectric constant (relative
the space between the plates of a capacitor
permittivity) εr of a material
When a dielectric slab is inserted between the plates of is the ratio of the
a capacitor, the charge Q stored increases by a factor capacitance with dielectric to
k, called dielectric constant of the insulating material capacitance without
In effect, the potential difference V between the plates dielectric between the plates
rather decreases by a factor k Potential energy U stored in
In general, in a region or space completely filled by a a capacitor is given by any of
dielectric material of dielectric constant k, all the following
electrostatic equations containing ε0 are to be replaced
C
by kε0 εr = (28)
C0
Thus, a point charge inside a dielectric produces an
electric field E given by where C is capacitance with
plates filled with dielectric
Q material and C0 is
E= (27)
4πkε0 r2 capacitance of the same
This shows that for a fixed distribution of charges the capacitance with plates in
effect of dielectric is to weaken the electric field that free space (vacuum) or air.
would have been present between the plates
Circuit Theory Capacitors and Inductors
Dielectrics

ε0 A The energy of a capacitor can be thought of as

For parallel plate capacitor C0 = stored in the electric field between the plates. In any
d
εA →−
and C = electric field E in free space the energy density u
d (energy per unit volume) is
C ε
εr = = (29) u=
1
ε0 E 2 (30)
C0 ε0 2
∴ ε = εr ε0 = kε0 1 1
u= kε0 E 2 = εE 2 (31)
Hence, the dielectric constant or 2 2
relative permittivity is the ratio of the When a dielectric is present, equation (31) holds
permittivity of a material to permittivity Uses of Capacitors
of free space and has no dimensions Capacitors are widely used in electronic
Dielectric strength: The strength of a circuits in devices. They are used to store
dielectric is the potential gradient charge and released later when needed
(electric field) at which its insulation
Capacitors are used to block power surges of
breaks down and a spark passes
charge and energy to protect devices
through the material
Every dielectric material has a Used in filter circuits in rectifiers to obtain d.c.
characteristic dielectric strength, outputs
which is the maximum value of Can be made in the form of very tiny
electric field that it can withstand capacitors to serve as memory for binary code
without breakdown in the RAM of computers
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Circuit Theory Introduction
Circuit Elements: Inductors
Inductance is due entirely to the magnetic field created by the current,
and its effect is to slow the build-up and collapse of the current and in
general oppose its change
A component called an inductor is used when the property of inductance
is required in a circuit
The basic form of an inductor is simply a coil of wire
Factors which affect the inductance of an inductor include:
the number of turns of wire - the more the turns the higher the
inductance
the cross-sectional area of the coil of wire - the greater the
cross-sectional area the higher the inductance
the presence of a magnetic core - when the coil is wound on an
iron core the same current sets up a more concentrated magnetic
field and the inductance is increased
the way the turns are arranged: a short, thick coil of wire has a
higher inductance than a long, thin one
Circuit Theory Capacitors and Inductors
Inductors

Effect of Dielectric in a Capacitor

Factors which affect the
Inductance is the name given to the
inductance of an inductor
property of a circuit where there is an
the number of turns of wire – the
emf induced into the circuit by the
more the turns the higher the
change of flux linkages produced by a inductance
current change
The cross-sectional area of the coil of
When the emf is induced in the same wire – the greater the cross-sectional
circuit as that in which the current is area the higher the inductance
changing, the property is called self The presence of a magnetic core –
inductance, L when the coil is wound on an iron
core the same current sets up a more
When the emf is induced in a circuit by a concentrated magnetic field and the
change of flux due to current changing in inductance is increased
an adjacent circuit, the property is called The way the turns are arranged – a
mutual inductance, M. The unit of short, thick coil of wire has a higher
inductance is the henry, H inductance than a long, thin one
Inductor is used when the property of We will look at inductance and
inductance is required in a circuit. The induction in detail under
basic form of an inductor is simply a coil electromagnetism
of wire
Circuit Theory Capacitors and Inductors
Multiple Choice Question

1 A conductor is distinguished from an insulator

1 If the potential difference across a
with the same number of atoms by the number
resistor is doubled:
of:
1 only the current is doubled ANS
1 nearly free atoms
2 only the current is halved
2 electrons
3 only the resistance is doubled
3 nearly free electrons ANS
4 only the resistance is halved
4 protons
5 both the current and resistance
5 molecules
are doubled
2 Two small charged objects attract each other
2 A certain wire has resistance R.
with a force F when separated by a distance d.
Another wire, of the same material,
If the charge on each object is reduced to
has half the length and half the
one-fourth of its original value and the
diameter of the first wire. The
distance between them is reduced to d/2 the
resistance of the second wire is:
force becomes:
1 R/4
1 F/16 2 R/2
2 F/8 3 R
3 F/4 ANS 4 2R ANS
4 F/2 5 4R
5 F
Circuit Theory Introduction
Circuit Elements
CSM 153 Circuit Theory
Direct Circuit Analysis

Akwasi Acheampong Aning

KNUST, GHANA

March 12, 2022

1/25
Outline I

1 Unit Two
Ohm’s and Kirchoff’s laws
Series and Parallel Circuits
Methods of Analysis
Circuit Theory Direct Circuit Analysis

UNIT TWO
Direct Circuit Analysis
Ohm’s and Kirchoff’s laws
Series and Parallel Circuits
Methods of Analysis

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Circuit Theory Direct Circuit Analysis

Ohm’s Law

Electric current flowing through a metallic conductor or wire is

directly proportional to the potential difference applied, provided
temperature and other physical factors remain constant. (i.e.
V ∝ I). Thus mathematical statement of the law is written as:

V = IR (1)
where R is a constant defining resistance of the wire
A conducting material obeys Ohm’s law when the resistivity of
the material is independent of the magnitude and direction of the
applied electric field.
A conducting device obeys Ohm’s law when the resistance of the
device is independent of the magnitude and polarity of the
applied potential difference.
Circuit Theory Direct Circuit Analysis

Ohm’s Law

All homogeneous materials (conductors, pure semiconductors or

impure semiconductors) obey Ohm’s law within some range of
values of the electric field.
There are departures from Ohm’s law in all cases if the electric
field is too strong.
A conductor whose function in a circuit is to provide a specific
resistance R is called a resistor.
Resistor is a conductor with a specified resistance, which
remains the same no matter what the magnitude and direction
(polarity) of the applied potential difference may be.
The resistance of a device is independent of the magnitude and
polarity of the potential difference

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Circuit Theory Direct Circuit Analysis

Circuits: Series Circuit

Two elements are said to be in series if they are connected at a
single point and if there are no other current-carrying
connections at this point
The current I is the same in all parts of the circuit and hence the
same reading is found on each of the two ammeters in the circuit
The sum of the voltages V1 , V2 and V3 is equal to the total
applied voltage V
Circuit Theory Direct Circuit Analysis

Circuits: Series Circuit

From Ohm’s law, V1 = IR1 , V2 = IR2 , V3 = IR3 and V = IR

where R is the total resistance

V = V1 + V2 + V3 (2)

then IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3

dividing through by I gives:

R = R1 + R2 + R3 (3)
Thus for a series circuit, the total resistance is obtained by
adding together the values of the separate resistances

7/25
Circuit Theory Direct Circuit Analysis

Circuits: Parallel Circuit

The Structure of the Atom

Elements or branches are said to

be in a parallel connection when
they have exactly two nodes in
common. Additionally, these
parallel elements or branches will
have the same voltage across
them.
The sum of the currents I1 , I2 and
I3 is equal to the current I
The source potential difference
(pd) is the same across each of
the resistors

method

8/25
Circuit Theory Direct Circuit Analysis
Circuits: Parallel Circuit

V V V V
From Ohm’s law, I1 = , I2 = , I3 = and I =
R1 R2 R3 R
where R is the total resistance

I = I1 + I2 + I3 (4)
V V V V
then = + +
R R1 R2 R3
dividing through by V gives:
1 1 1 1
= + + (5)
R R1 R2 R3
This the total resistance is for a parallel circuit
For a special case of 2 resistors in parallel,
1 1 1 R2 R1
= + = (6)
R R1 R2 R1 + R2
9/25
Circuit Theory Direct Circuit Analysis
Circuits: Kirchoff’s Laws

Node: A point at which two or more elements have a common

connection
Branch: A single path in a network composed of one simple
element and the node at each end of that element
Loop: A simple closed path in a circuit in which no circuit
element or node is encountered more than once
Electrical network is usually regarded to be a complicated
(complex) system of electrical conductors.
In dealing with such networks the Ohm’s law was extended to the
networks by a German physicist Gustav R. Kirchhoff (1847) in
the form of two laws.
However, it must be emphasized that:
The laws enabled the current in any part of an electrical network
to be calculated.
All circuits can be solved by Kirchhoff’s laws because they do not
depend on series or parallel connection of resistors/conductors.
10/25
Circuit Theory Direct Circuit Analysis
Circuits: Kirchoff’s Laws

The total current flowing into a junction in a

circuit (electrical network) is equal to the total
current flowing out of (leaving) the junction
The algebraic sum of currents directed in and
out at a junction of a circuit must be zero i.e.
I1 + I2 + I3 = 0 Therefore, the first law is a statement
of the conservation of charge for a
The first law applies to any point or junction in
steady flow of charge or current.
an electrical network. If currents flowing in and
out of the junction flows for a time t seconds, This is because charge is neither
then we have created nor destroyed, but can be
I1 t = I2 t + I3 t ⇒ Q1 = Q2 + Q3 transferred from one point to another.
The law is often put in the form: The
ΣQin = ΣQout (7)
algebraic sum of currents directed in
This is Kirchoff’s 1st Law and out at a junction of a circuit must
be zero, ΣI = 0
This means total charge flowing to the junction
is equal to total charge flowing out of it. Round a closed loop (path) the
algebraic sum of the emfs is equal to
This implies there is neither a build up the algebraic sum of the voltage (pd)
(accumulation or pile up) nor a depletion of drops, ΣE = ΣIR
charge at a junction. This is Kirchoff’s 2nd Law
Circuit Theory Direct Circuit Analysis
Circuits: Voltage and Current Divider Theorems

Voltage Divider Theorem Current Divider Theorem

The current in a branch of a parallel

circuit is equal to the current entering
The voltage across a part of a series circuit is the circuit multiplied by the equivalent
equal to the resistance of the part multiplied resistance of the branches divided by
by the total voltage and divided by the the resistance in the branch
equivalent resistance
Current division allows us to calculate
Voltage division allows us to calculate what what fraction of the total current into a
fraction of the total voltage across a series parallel string of resistors flows
string of resistors is dropped across any one through any one of the resistors
resistor (or group of resistors)
Req
Vx = V
Rx
(8)
I x = IT (9)
Req Rx
12/25
Circuit Theory Direct Circuit Analysis
Circuits: Circuits: Voltage and Current Divider Theorems

Calculate the voltage ν x and the current through the 3Ω resistor

Solution:
2
ν x = 12 sin t = 4 sin t V (voltage divider theorem)
4+2
The total current in the circuit is:
12 sin t 12 sin t
it (t) = = = 2sint A
4 + 3||6 4+2
2 4
i3 (t) = 2 sin t = sin t A (current divider theorem)
3 3
Circuit Theory Direct Circuit Analysis
Circuits: Nodal and Mesh Analysis
Mesh Analysis Nodal Analysis
In mesh analysis, the values of the In nodal analysis, the values of the independent
independent current variables are voltage variables are determined. The steps in
determined. Steps in establishing nodal analysis are as follows:
equilibrium equations for the mesh analysis Select an appropriate number of independent
of a circuit and finding the solution are as voltage variables
follows:
Express the dependent voltage variables, by
Select an appropriate number of applying KVL around the loops, in terms of
independent current variables and independent voltage variables
the directions of current flow
Apply KCL at the selected nodes to set up a
Express the dependent current set of simultaneous equations
variables, by applying KCL at nodes,
in terms of independent current Solve for the independent voltages and find
variables the voltages at all the nodes
Apply KVL around the selected loops Select the node connected to the maximum
to set up a set of simultaneous number of elements and sources as the
equations ground node. A ground node acts as a
reference for voltage levels at various points in
Solve for the independent currents the circuit. The voltage at the ground node is
and find the currents in all the assumed to be zero.
branches
Circuit Theory Direct Circuit Analysis
Circuits: Nodal and Mesh Analysis

Mesh Analysis

Mesh Analysis
For mesh 1:
−42 + 6i + 3(i1 − i2 ) = 0
1 Find the current in each resistor
For mesh 2:
Find the voltage across each resistor
2
−10 + 3(i2 − i1 ) + 4i2 = 0
Solution
i1 = 6 A; i2 = 4 A;
current through 3Ω is i1 − i2 = 2 A;

method
Circuit Theory Direct Circuit Analysis

Circuits: Nodal and Mesh Analysis

Mesh Analysis Mesh Analysis

For mesh 1:
−100 + 8i + 4(i1 − i2 ) = 0 ⇒
12i1 − 4i2 = 100 ......... (1)
For mesh 2:
1 Determine i x 4(i2 − i1 ) + 2i2 + 3(i2 − i3 ) = 0 ⇒
Solution
−4i1 + 9i2 − 3i3 = 0 ......... (2)
For mesh 3:
3(i3 − i2 ) + 10(i3 + 8) + 5i3 = 0 ⇒
−3i2 + 18i3 = −80 ......... (3)
solving eqns 1, 2 and 3
simultaneously we have
i x = i2 = 2.79 A

method

16/25
Circuit Theory Direct Circuit Analysis

Circuits: Nodal and Mesh Analysis

Mesh Analysis Mesh Analysis

Let’s write eqns 1, 2 and 3 in matrix form

 7 −5 0  I1  −25

    
A = −5 19 −4 I2  =  25 

     
0 −4 6 I3 50
1 Find the mesh currents I1 , I2 and I3 The determinant of the coefficient matrix is
7 −5 0
Solution For mesh 1: det A = −5 19 −4 = 536
2I1 + 5(I1 − I2 ) = −25 ⇒ 7I1 − 5I2 = −25 0 −4 6
......... (1)
For mesh 2: From Cramer’s rule,
10I2 + 4(I2 − I3 ) + 5(I2 − I1 ) = 25 ⇒
−5I1 + 19I2 − 4I3 = 25 ......... (2) −25 −5 0 7 −5 0
For mesh 3: det I1 = 25 19 −4 ÷ −5 19 −4
2I3 + 4(I3 − I2 ) = 50 ⇒ −4I2 + 6I3 = 50 50 −4 6 0 −4 6
......... (3) I1 = −700 ÷ 536 = −1.31 A

method
Circuit Theory Direct Circuit Analysis

Circuits: Circuits: Nodal and Mesh Analysis

Solution Cont:

7 −25 0 7 −5 0
det I2 = −5 25 −4 ÷ −5 19 −4
0 50 6 0 −4 6
I2 = 1700 ÷ 536 = 3.17 A

7 −5 −25 7 −5 0
det I1 = −5 19 25 ÷ −5 19 −4
0 −4 50 0 −4 6
I3 = 5600 ÷ 536 = 10.45 A
Circuit Theory Direct Circuit Analysis

Circuits: Nodal and Mesh Analysis

Use the mesh analysis to find the

Use the mesh analysis to find
loop currents
the currents in R1 , R3 and R5

method

19/25
Circuit Theory Direct Circuit Analysis

Circuits: Circuits: Cramer’s Rule

Circuit Theory Direct Circuit Analysis
Circuits: Nodal and Mesh Analysis

Nodal Analysis
Nodal Analysis
Applying KCL to nodes 1 and 2,
the total current leaving the node
through the several resistors is
equal to the total source current
entering the node
1 Determine the voltage across the 5 Ω For node 1:
ν1 ν1 − ν2
resistor + = 3.1 ⇒
2 5
Solution 0.7ν1 − 0.2ν2 = 3.1 ...................(i)
For node 2:
ν2 ν2 − ν1
+ = −(−1.4) ⇒
1 5
−0.2ν1 + 1.2ν2 = 1.4 ...............(ii)
solving (i) and (ii) gives ν1 = 5 V
and ν2 = 2 V
and the voltage across the 5 Ω
resistor is 3 V
method 21/25
Circuit Theory Direct Circuit Analysis
Circuits: Nodal and Mesh Analysis

Nodal Analysis
Nodal Analysis
Applying KCL to nodes 1 and 2, the
total current leaving the node through
the several resistors is equal to the
total source current entering the node
For node 1:
ν1 ν1 − ν2
+ =2
10 15
⇒ 5ν1 − 2ν2 = 60 ...................(i)
1 Determine the voltage across the 5 Ω For node 2:
ν2 ν2 − ν1
resistor + = 4 ⇒ −ν1 + 4ν2 = 60
5 15
Solution ...............(ii) solving (i) and (ii) gives
ν1 = 20 V and ν2 = 20 V
and the voltage across the 15 Ω
resistor is:
ν1 − ν2 = 0
No current flows through the 15 Ω
resistor
Circuit Theory Direct Circuit Analysis
Circuits: Nodal and Mesh Analysis

Nodal Analysis
Nodal Analysis
R1 = 3 kΩ; R2 = R3 = 6 kΩ; R4 = 2 kΩ; R5 = 1
kΩ; I s1 = 12 mA; I s2 = 2 mA
For V1 :
V1 V1 − V2
+ + I s2 = I s1 ......(i)
1 Use nodal analysis to find V1 and Vo R1 R2
For V2 :
V2 V2 − V1 V2 − V0
Solution + + = I s2 ......(ii)
R3 R2 R4
For V0 :
V0 − V2 V0
+ =0
R4 R5
V2 − V0 V0
= ......(iii)
R4 R5
solving (i), (ii) and (iii) gives V0 = 2.91 V and
V1 = 22.90 V

method
Circuit Theory Direct Circuit Analysis

Circuits: Nodal and Mesh Analysis

Nodal Analysis
Nodal Analysis
R1 = 3 kΩ; R2 = 6 kΩ; R3 = R4 = R5 = 2 kΩ
For V1 :
V1 = 9 V ......(i)
1 Use nodal analysis to find I0 For V2 :
V2 V2 − V1 V2 − V3
Solution + + = 0 ......(ii)
R2 R1 R3
For V0 :
V3 V3 − V2 V3
+ + = 0 ......(iii)
R4 R3 R5
solving (i), (ii) and (iii) gives V3 = 1.2 V and
V3
I0 = = 0.6 mA
R5

method
Circuit Theory Direct Circuit Analysis

Circuits: Nodal and Mesh Analysis

Use the nodal analysis to find I0

Use the nodal analysis to find V0

Use the nodal analysis to find V0 Use the nodal analysis to find V0

method

25/25
CSM 153 Circuit Theory
Network Theorems

Akwasi Acheampong Aning

KNUST, GHANA

March 22, 2021

1/26
Outline I

1 Unit Four
Delta and Wye Networks
Superposition Theorem
Thevenin’s Theorem
Norton’s Theorem
Circuit Theory Network Theorems

UNIT FOUR
Network Theorems
Delta and Wye Networks
Superposition Theorem
Thevenin’s Theorem
Norton’s Theorem

3/26
Circuit Theory Network Theorems

Delta and Wye Networks

4/26
Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Delta and Wye Networks

Wye(Y) - Circuits

Delta(∆) - Circuits

There are circuits that are neither The ∆ - Y and Y - ∆ transformations are
series, parallel or series-parallel mathematical techniques use to simplify the
analysis of an electrical network. The name derives
circuit.
from the shapes of the circuit diagrams, which look
Though these circuits can be analyzed respectively like the letter Y and the Greek capital
using either the mesh or nodal letter ∆
analysis techniques, the number of
linear equations are many.
5/26
Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Delta and Wye Networks

∆ - Y Conversion

Y - ∆ Conversion

The relation to convert ∆ to Y is

RA R B
R1 = (4)
RA + RB + RC
The relation to convert Y to ∆ is RB RC
R2 = (5)
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1 RA + RB + RC
RA = (1) RC RA
R2 R3 = (6)
RA + RB + RC
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
RB = (2) For an ideal situation RA = RB = RC , and R1 = R2 =
R3
R3 the equation is reduced to
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1
RC = (3) 1
R1 RY = R∆ (7)
3
and
R∆ = 3RY (8)
Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Delta and Wye Networks

Question: Find the total resistance, RT , and the

Question: Find the ∆ network
total current, I in the circuit below
equivalent of the Y network below

Solution:
Solution: Let’s convert the Y into ∆ equivalent. The equivalent
Substitute the resistances in ∆ will have all resistors given as
equations 1, 2 and 3, we obtain R∆ = 3(10)Ω = 30 Ω
Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Delta and Wye Networks

Question: Find the current through the 4 Ω resistor

using the superposition Theorem

The sides of the resulting ∆ are in

parallel, which allows us to simplify the
circuit even further. The equivalent
circuit will be

Answer I0 = 4.29 mA ↓
Question:Find the current I drawn by the circuit
below

The total resistance of the circuit is

RT = 15Ω || (20 Ω + 22.5 Ω) = 11.09 Ω
30
I= = 2.706 A
11.09

Hint: Transform ∆ R1 , R2 and R5 to Y and solve

Answer I = 0.6 mA
Circuit Theory Network Theorems

Superposition Theorem

9/26
Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Superposition Theorem

In any linear resistive network, the voltage across or Question: Use superposition theorem to
the current through any resistor or source may be find the currents and voltages in the circuit
calculated by adding algebraically all the individual
voltages or currents caused by the separate
independent sources acting alone, with all other
independent voltage sources replaced by short
circuits and all other independent current sources
replaced by open circuits
Replace all sources except one by their Solution
internal resistances Replace E B with its internal resistance, we
get
Calculate all the currents and voltages for that
one source. Note the current directions and
terminal polarities
Repeat steps 1 and 2 for each source
Determine the currents by algebraically
adding the currents due to each source EA
I1A = and
Determine the voltages by either algebraically ReqA
(200Ω)(300Ω)
adding the voltages for each source or using ReqA = R1 + R2 ||R3 = 120Ω +
the total current and Ohm’s law 300Ω + 200Ω
= 240Ω

method
Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Superposition Theorem
120V
I1A = = 0.5A ↓ EB
240Ω I2B = and
ReqB
using the current divider theorem, (120Ω)(200Ω)
ReqB = R2 + R1 ||R3 = 300Ω +
Req
!
120Ω
! 120Ω + 200Ω
I2A = I1A = 0.5A = 0.2A ↑ = 375Ω
R300 300Ω
75V
Req
! ! I2B = = 0.2A ↑
120Ω 375Ω
I3A = I1A = 0.5A = 0.3A ↑
R200 200Ω
using the current divider theorem,
V1A = I1A R1 = (0.5A)(120Ω) = 60 V Req
! !
75Ω
I1B = I2B = 0.2A = 0.125 A ↓
V2A = I2A R2 = (0.2A)(300Ω) = 60 V R120 120Ω
! !
V3A = I3A R3 = (0.3A)(200Ω) = 60 V Req 75Ω
I3B = I2B = 0.2A = 0.075 A ↓
R200 200Ω
Replace E A with its internal resistance, we get
V1B = I1B R1 = (0.125A)(120Ω) = 15 V

V2B = I2B R2 = (0.2A)(300Ω) = 60 V

V3B = I3B R3 = (0.075A)(200Ω) = 15 V

Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Superposition Theorem

By superposition theorem, I1A and I1B are in the

For V2 , the polarity is the same for all
same direction
sources
I1 = I1A + I1B = 0.5 + 0.125 = 0.625 A in the direction
V2 = V2A + V2B = 60 + 60 = 120 V
of I1A
The bottom terminal is negative
I2A and I2B are in the same direction
For V3 , the polarities are different for all
I2 = I2A + I2B = 0.2 + 0.2 = 0.4 A in the direction of I2A
sources
I3A and I3B are in opposite direction, so
V3 = V3A - V3B = 60 - 15 = 45 V
I3 = I3A - I3B = 0.3 - 0.075 = 0.225 A in the direction of
The bottom terminal is positive
I3A

By superposition, the voltages are:

For V1 , the polarity is the same for all sources

V1 = V1A + V1B = 60 + 15 = 75 V

The left terminal is negative

method
12/26
Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Superposition Theorem

Question: Find I0 using superposition

V12 12V
Is = = = 1.2 mA
Req1 10kΩ

using the current divider theorem,

! !
Req 4000
I01 = Is = 1.2 mA = 0.4 mA
R1200 12000
Solution
Replace 6 mA source with its internal resistance, we Replace 12 V source with its internal
get resistance, we get

By superposition theorem,
By superposition theorem,
Req2 = 6000 + [6000||6000]
Req1 = 6000 + [6000||12000]
(6000)(6000)
(6000)(12000) = 6000 + = 9 kΩ
= 6000 + = 10 kΩ 6000 + 6000
6000 + 12000

method
Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Superposition Theorem

Find I0 in the following circuits using superposition

theorem

Answer I0 = 1.2 mA
(9000)(6000)
Req = [Req2 ||R6000 ] = = 3.6 kΩ
9000 + 6000
! !
Req 3600
I02 = I6 = (−6) mA = - 3.6 mA
R6000 6000
∴ I0 = I01 + I02 = −3.2 mA

Answer I0 = -2 mA
14/26
Circuit Theory Network Theorems

Thevenin’s Theorem

15/26
Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Thevenin’s Theorem

Thévenin’s theorem for linear electrical networks states Question: Find the power in the 2 Ω
that any combination of voltage sources, current resistor R6 using Thevenin’s theorem
sources, and resistors with two terminals is electrically
equivalent to a single voltage source V and a single
series resistor R. For single frequency AC systems the
theorem can also be applied to general impedances, not
just resistors
Identify the circuit that is to be Thévenized and the
load that is connected to it
Solution
Disconnect the load from the circuit that is to be Remove R6 from the circuit
Thévenized
Use circuit concepts to find the voltage across the
open circuited two terminals. This is ET H
Find the resistance looking into the two terminals
with the sources replaced by their internal
resistances. This is RT H
Redraw the circuit after finding the
Voltage source is replaced with a short circuit and resistance, RA of the parallel branch
current source replaced with an open circuit R3||R4
Reconnect the load to the Thévenin equivalent and R3R4 (10)(10)
make any required analysis of the load condition RA = = =5Ω
R3 + R4 10 + 10
16/26
Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Thevenin’s Theorem

Redraw the circuit and calculate the This action also short circuits R1 out of the circuit
(RA)(R2)
voltage across the break AB which is the RT H = + R5 + R7 = 14.5 Ω
RA + R2
voltage across RA = VT H . Remember that
20 V is dropped across R1 and also across
R2 + RA. Since R2 = RA = 5Ω half of the
voltage is dropped across each resistor
VT H = 10 V

VT H 10
I= = = 0.606 A
RT H + R6 16.5
Power dissipated by
Remove V1 and replace it with a short R6 = I 2 R = 0.73 W
circuit
Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Thevenin’s Theorem

Question: Find the current through the 20 Ω

resistor in the fig below
Applying KVL to mesh 2
5(I2 ) + 5(I2 − I1 ) + 10(I2 − I1 ) = 20
∴ −15I1 + 20I2 = 20.......(ii)
From equations (i) and (ii) we’ve
I1 = -3.2 A and I2 = -1.4 A
45 - VT H - 10(I1 − I2 ) = 0
VT H = 45 - 10 (I1 − I2 )
= 45 - 10[-3.2 - (-1.4)] = 63 V
Solution

Calculation of RT H
Converting the delta formed by resistors of
Calculation of VT H 10 Ω, 5 Ω and 5 Ω into an equivalent star
Applying KVL to mesh 1 network
15(I1 ) + 5(I1 − I2 ) + 10(I1 − I2 ) = -75
∴ 30I1 − 15I2 = -75.......(i)
Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Thevenin’s Theorem

Question Find the current through the 1 Ω

resistor in circuit below using Thevenin’s
Theorem

using
RA R B 10x5
R1 = = = 2.5 Ω
RA + RB + RC 20
10x5 5x5 Answer RT H = 2 Ω, IL = 4 A
R2 = = 2.5 Ω, R3 = = 1.25 Ω Question Using Thevenin’s theorem
20 20
calculate the current flowing through the
load resistance RL

RT H = (16.25||2.5) + 2.5 = 4.67 Ω

63
IL = = 2.55 A
4.67 + 20 Answer RT H = 10.67 Ω, IL = 0.193 A
Circuit Theory Network Theorems

Norton’s Theorem

20/26
Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Norton’s Theorem

Any two-terminal linear bilateral dc

network can be replaced by an Question: Find the Norton equivalent of the circuit
equivalent circuit consisting of a below
current and a parallel resistor
Identify the circuit that is to be
Nortonized and the load that is
connected to it
Disconnect the load from the circuit
that is to be Nortonized
Solution
Short circuit the terminals and use Remove RL from the circuit
circuit concepts to find the short
circuit current. This is IN
Open the terminals, replace the
sources by their internal resistance
and find the resistance looking into
the terminals. This is RN
Reconnect the load and make any
required analysis

method 21/26
Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Norton’s Theorem

Replacing E by its Ri a short circuit also Question: Determine the Norton equivalent of the
eliminates R1 circuit below. Use the Norton equivalent circuit to
calculate the current through RL .

Solution
So RN = R2 = 30 Ω Remove RL from the circuit
E 60V
IS C = = =2A
R2 30Ω

∴ RN = 24 Ω
The short-circuit current is determined by finding the
This is the Norton’s equivalent circuit current through the short due to each source

method
22/26
Circuit Theory Network Theorems

Norton’s Theorem

From the superposition theorem, we find the Norton

current as

IN = Iab1 + Iab2 = 0.833 - 2.00 = -1.167 A

The current due to the voltage source: We can calculate the current through RL by using
the current divider rule
E
20V 24Ω
Iab1 = = 0.833 A IL = (1.167)A = 0.700 A ↑
24Ω 24Ω + 16Ω
The current due to the current source:
I
Iab1 = - 2.00 A

Note that the current is indicated as

negative because the actual current is
This is the Norton’s equivalent circuit
opposite to the assumed reference
direction
method

23/26
Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Norton’s Theorem

Question: Find the Norton equivalent of

the circuit external to resistor RL in the
circuit below. Use the equivalent circuit to
determine the load current IL when RL is 0,
2 Ω, and 5 Ω.
The current due to the voltage source: E
15V
Iab1 = = 2.50 mA
6kΩ
the short circuit between terminals a and b
Solution eliminates resistor R2
Remove RL from the circuit
The current due to the current source: I

Iab2 = 5.00 mA

the short circuit between terminals a and b

eliminates both resistors R1 and R2

From the superposition theorem, we find the Norton

The Norton resistance of the circuit is current as
found as
IN = Iab1 + Iab2 = 2.50 + 5.00 = 7.50 mA
RN = 6 kΩ || 2 kΩ = 1.5 kΩ 24/26
Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Norton’s Theorem

Let RL = 0

The current IL must equal the source Question Find the current I0 in the circuit using
current ∴ IL = 7.50 mA Norton’s theorem

Let RL = 2 kΩ

The current IL is calculated using the

current divider rule
1.5kΩ
∴ IL = (7.50mA) = 3.21 mA
1.5kΩ + 2.0kΩ
4
Let RL = 5 kΩ Answer RN = kΩ, IL = 0.75 mA
3
The current IL is calculated using the Question Find the current I0 in the circuit using
current divider rule Norton’s theorem

1.5kΩ
∴ IL = (7.50mA) = 1.73 mA
1.5kΩ + 5.0kΩ
This is the Norton equivalent circuit

Answer RN = 3 kΩ, IL = 0.75 mA

Circuit Theory Network Theorems

THANK YOU FOR YOUR

ATTENTION

26/26
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology, Kumasi, Ghana

CSM 153 Circuit Theory

Network Theorems

Akwasi Acheampong Aning, PhD

Physics Dept. KNUST - Kumasi

15th January 2024

www.knust.edu.gh
A. A. Aning, PhD 1 / 34
1 Unit Three
Delta and Wye Networks
Superposition Theorem
Thevenin’s Theorem
Norton’s Theorem
Source Transformation
Millman’s Theorem

www.knust.edu.gh
A. A. Aning, PhD 2 / 34
 Circuit Theory Network Theorems

Delta and Wye Networks

 Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Delta and Wye Networks
Wye(Y) - Circuits
Delta(∆) - Circuits

There are circuits that are neither The ∆ - Y and Y - ∆ transformations are
series, parallel or series-parallel mathematical techniques use to simplify
the analysis of an electrical network. The
circuit.
name derives from the shapes of the circuit
Though these circuits can be analyzed diagrams, which look respectively like the
using either the mesh or nodal letter Y and the Greek capital letter ∆
analysis techniques, the number of
 Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Delta and Wye Networks
∆ - Y Conversion

Y - ∆ Conversion

The relation to convert ∆ to Y is

RA RB
R1 = (4)
RA + RB + RC
The relation to convert Y to ∆ is
RB RC
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1 R2 = (5)
RA = (1) RA + RB + RC
R2
RC RA
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1 R3 = (6)
RB = (2) RA + RB + RC
R3 For an ideal situation RA = RB = RC , and R1 = R2 =
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R3 R1 R3 the equation is reduced to
RC = (3)
R1
1
RY = R∆ (7)
3
and R∆ = 3RY
Circuit Theory Network Theorems

Delta and Wye Networks

Σ all cross products in Y

R△ = (8)
opposite R in Y
product of two adjacent R in △
RY = (9)
Σ all R in △
 Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Delta and Wye Networks
Question: Find the total resistance, RT ,
Question: Find the ∆ network and the total current, I in the circuit below
equivalent of the Y network below

Solution:
Solution: Let’s convert the Y into ∆ equivalent. The
Substitute the resistances in equivalent ∆ will have all resistors given as
equations 1, 2 and 3, we obtain R∆ = 3(10)Ω = 30 Ω
 Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Delta and Wye Networks
Question: Find the current through the 4 Ω resistor
The sides of the resulting ∆ using the superposition Theorem
are in parallel, which allows
us to simplify the circuit even
further. The equivalent circuit
will be

Answer I0 = 4.29 mA ↓
Question:Find the current I drawn by the circuit
below
The total resistance of the
circuit is
RT = 15Ω || (20 Ω + 22.5 Ω) =
11.09 Ω
30
I= = 2.706 A
11.09 Hint: Transform ∆ R1 , R2 and R5 to Y and solve
Answer I = 0.6 mA
 Circuit Theory Network Theorems

Superposition Theorem
 Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Superposition Theorem
In any linear resistive network, the voltage across or the Question: Use superposition
current through any resistor or source may be calculated theorem to find the currents and
by adding algebraically all the individual voltages or voltages in the circuit
currents caused by the separate independent sources
acting alone, with all other independent voltage sources
replaced by short circuits and all other independent
current sources replaced by open circuits
Replace all sources except one by their Solution
internal resistances Replace EB with its internal
Calculate all the currents and voltages for resistance, we get
that one source. Note the current directions
and terminal polarities
Repeat steps 1 and 2 for each source
Determine the currents by algebraically
EA
adding the currents due to each source I1A = and
ReqA
Determine the voltages by either ReqA = R1 + R2 ||R3 = 120Ω +
algebraically adding the voltages for each (200Ω)(300Ω)
source or using the total current and Ohm’s 300Ω + 200Ω
law = 240Ω
 Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Superposition Theorem
EB
120V I2B = and
I1A = = 0.5A ↓ ReqB
240Ω ReqB = R2 + R1 ||R3 = 300Ω +
using the current divider theorem, (120Ω)(200Ω)
120Ω + 200Ω
= 375Ω
! !
Req 120Ω
I2A = I1A = 0.5A = 0.2A ↑
R300 300Ω 75V
I2B = = 0.2A ↑
Req
!
120Ω
! 375Ω
I3A = I1A = 0.5A = 0.3A ↑
R200 200Ω using the current divider theorem,
! !
V1A = I1A R1 = (0.5A)(120Ω) = 60 V Req 75Ω
I1B = I2B = 0.2A = 0.125 A ↓
R120 120Ω
V2A = I2A R2 = (0.2A)(300Ω) = 60 V ! !
Req 75Ω
V3A = I3A R3 = (0.3A)(200Ω) = 60 V I3B = I2B = 0.2A = 0.075 A ↓
R200 200Ω
Replace EA with its internal resistance, we
get V1B = I1B R1 = (0.125A)(120Ω) = 15 V

V2B = I2B R2 = (0.2A)(300Ω) = 60 V

V3B = I3B R3 = (0.075A)(200Ω) = 15 V

 Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Superposition Theorem
By superposition theorem, I1A and I1B are in the
same direction For V2 , the polarity is the same for all
sources
I1 = I1A + I1B = 0.5 + 0.125 = 0.625 A in the
direction of I1A V2 = V2A + V2B = 60 + 60 = 120 V
I2A and I2B are in the same direction The bottom terminal is negative
I2 = I2A + I2B = 0.2 + 0.2 = 0.4 A in the direction For V3 , the polarities are different for all
of I2A
sources
I3A and I3B are in opposite direction, so
V3 = V3A - V3B = 60 - 15 = 45 V
I3 = I3A - I3B = 0.3 - 0.075 = 0.225 A in the
direction of I3A The bottom terminal is positive

By superposition, the voltages are:

For V1 , the polarity is the same for all sources

V1 = V1A + V1B = 60 + 15 = 75 V

The left terminal is negative

method
 Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Superposition Theorem
Question: Find I0 using superposition V12 12V
Is = = = 1.2 mA
Req1 10k Ω
using the current divider theorem,
! !
Req 4000
I01 = Is = 1.2 mA = 0.4 mA
R1200 12000
Solution
Replace 6 mA source with its internal Replace 12 V source with its internal
resistance, we get resistance, we get

By superposition theorem, By superposition theorem,

Req1 = 6000 + [6000||12000] Req2 = 6000 + [6000||6000]

(6000)(12000) (6000)(6000)
= 6000 + = 10 k Ω = 6000 + = 9 kΩ
6000 + 12000 6000 + 6000
 Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Superposition Theorem
Find I0 in the following circuits using superposition
theorem

Req = [Req2 ||R6000 ] = Answer I0 = 1.2 mA

(9000)(6000)
= 3.6 k Ω
9000 + 6000
! !
Req 3600
I02 = I6 = (−6) mA
R6000 6000
= - 3.6 mA

∴ I0 = I01 + I02 = −3.2 mA

Answer I0 = -2 mA

method
 Circuit Theory Network Theorems

Thevenin’s Theorem
 Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Thevenin’s Theorem
Thévenin’s theorem for linear electrical networks Question: Find the power in the 2 Ω
states that any combination of voltage sources, resistor R6 using Thevenin’s theorem
current sources, and resistors with two terminals is
electrically equivalent to a single voltage source V
and a single series resistor R. For single frequency
AC systems the theorem can also be applied to
general impedances, not just resistors
Identify the circuit that is to be Thévenized and the
load that is connected to it Solution
Remove R6 from the circuit
Disconnect the load from the circuit that is to be
Thévenized
Use circuit concepts to find the voltage across the
open circuited two terminals. This is ETH
Find the resistance looking into the two terminals
with the sources replaced by their internal
resistances. This is RTH Redraw the circuit after finding the
resistance, RA of the parallel branch
Voltage source is replaced with a short circuit and R3||R4
current source replaced with an open circuit
R3R4 (10)(10)
Reconnect the load to the Thévenin equivalent and RA = = =5Ω
make any required analysis of the load condition R3 + R4 10 + 10
 Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Thevenin’s Theorem

This action also short circuits R1 out of the

Redraw the circuit and calculate the circuit
(RA)(R2)
voltage across the break AB which is the RTH = + R5 + R7 = 14.5 Ω
voltage across RA = VTH . Remember RA + R2
that 20 V is dropped across R1 and also
across R2 + RA. Since R2 = RA = 5Ω
half of the voltage is dropped across each
resistor VTH = 10 V

VTH 10
I= = = 0.606 A
RTH + R6 16.5
Power dissipated by
Remove V 1 and replace it with a short
circuit R6 = I 2 R = 0.73 W
 Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Thevenin’s Theorem
Question: Find the current through the 20
Ω resistor in the fig below
Applying KVL to mesh 2 5(I2 ) + 5(I2 − I1 ) +
10(I2 − I1 ) = 20
∴ −15I1 + 20I2 = 20.......(ii)
From equations (i) and (ii) we’ve
I1 = -3.2 A and I2 = -1.4 A
45 - VTH - 10(I1 − I2 ) = 0
VTH = 45 - 10 (I1 − I2 )
= 45 - 10[-3.2 - (-1.4)] = 63 V
Solution

Calculation of RTH
Calculation of VTH Converting the delta formed by resistors of
Applying KVL to mesh 1 15(I1 )+5(I1 −I2 )+ 10 Ω, 5 Ω and 5 Ω into an equivalent star
10(I1 − I2 ) = -75 network
 Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Thevenin’s Theorem
Question Find the current through the 1
Ω resistor in circuit below using Thevenin’s
Theorem

using
RA RB 10x5
R1 = = = 2.5 Ω
RA + RB + RC 20
10x5 5x5 Answer RTH = 2 Ω, IL = 4 A
R2 = = 2.5 Ω, R3 = = 1.25 Ω Question Using Thevenin’s theorem
20 20
calculate the current flowing through the
load resistance RL

RTH = (16.25||2.5) + 2.5 = 4.67 Ω

63
IL = = 2.55 A
4.67 + 20
Answer RTH = 10.67 Ω, IL = 0.193 A
 Circuit Theory Network Theorems

Norton’s Theorem
 Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Norton’s Theorem
Any two-terminal linear bilateral dc
network can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit consisting of a current and a parallel Question: Find the Norton equivalent of
resistor the circuit below
Identify the circuit that is to be
Nortonized and the load that is
connected to it
Disconnect the load from the circuit
that is to be Nortonized
Short circuit the terminals and use Solution
circuit concepts to find the short Remove RL from the circuit
circuit current. This is IN
Open the terminals, replace the
sources by their internal resistance
and find the resistance looking into
the terminals. This is RN
Reconnect the load and make any
required analysis
 Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Norton’s Theorem
Question: Determine the Norton equivalent of the
Replacing E by its Ri a short circuit below. Use the Norton equivalent circuit to
circuit also eliminates R1 calculate the current through RL (5 Ω) .

So RN = R2 = 30 Ω
Solution
E 60V Remove RL (the 10 Ω resistor is short-circuited as
ISC = = =2A
R2 30Ω shown) from the circuit

This is the Norton’s equivalent

circuit
The 8 Ω is also short-circuited
 Circuit Theory Network Theorems

Norton’s Theorem

2×8
RN = = 1.6 Ω
2+8
From the Norton equivalent network, the
The current due to the voltage source: current in the 10 Ω resistance, by current
10 division, is given by:
ISC = =5A
2 1.6
If the 10 V source of e.m.f. is removed IL = 1.6 + 5 + 10 × 5 A = 0.482 A
from figure, the resistance ‘looking-in’
at a break made between A and B is
given by:
method
 Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Norton’s Theorem
Question: Find the Norton equivalent of
the circuit external to resistor RL in the
circuit below. Use the equivalent circuit to
determine the load current IL when RL is 0,
2 Ω, and 5 Ω. The current due to the voltage source: E
15V
Iab1 = = 2.50 m A
6k Ω
the short circuit between terminals a and b
eliminates resistor R2
Solution The current due to the current source: I
Remove RL from the circuit
Iab2 = 5.00 mA

the short circuit between terminals a and b

eliminates both resistors R1 and R2

From the superposition theorem, we find

the Norton current as
The Norton resistance of the circuit is:
IN = Iab1 + Iab2 = 2.50 + 5.00 = 7.50 mA
R = 6 kΩ || 2 kΩ = 1.5 kΩ
 Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Norton’s Theorem
Let RL = 0
Question Find the current I0 in the
The current IL must equal the source current ∴ IL = circuit using Norton’s theorem
7.50 mA

Let RL = 2 kΩ

The current IL is calculated using the current divider

rule
4
1.5k Ω Answer RN = kΩ, IL = 0.75 mA
∴ IL = (7.50mA) = 3.21 mA 3
1.5k Ω + 2.0k Ω Question Find the current I0 in the
circuit using Norton’s theorem
Let RL = 5 kΩ
The current IL is calculated using the current divider
rule
1.5k Ω
∴ IL = (7.50mA) = 1.73 mA
1.5k Ω + 5.0k Ω
This is the Norton equivalent circuit

Answer RN = 3 kΩ, IL = 0.75 mA

method
 Circuit Theory Network Theorems

Source Transformation
 Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Source Transformation
A voltage source with a series resistor Solution
can be converted into a equivalent current
source with a parallel resistor. Conversely,
a current source with a parallel resistor can
be converted into a voltage source with a
series resistor as shown

The voltage sources in Fig. above are

converted to current sources as shown
below

Question
Find the current through the 5 Ω resistor in
the network
Grouping the resistors and current sources
 Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Source Transformation
The parallel current sources in Fig. above
converted to a single equivalent current
source in Fig. below. Similarly the parallel
resistances in Fig. above are converted The circuit of Fig. above is redrawn as
to a single equivalent resistance in Fig. shown in Fig. below.
below

The current sources in Fig. above are With reference to Fig. above by voltage
converted to voltage sources as shown in divider rule, we can write,
Fig. below
RL 7240 5
VL = IRL = V =− x
RT 91 450
5+
91
= −40 V
 Circuit Theory Network Theorems

Millman’s Theorem
 Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Millman’s Theorem

Millman’s theorem states that if n number

of voltage sources with internal impedance
are in parallel then they can be combined
to give a single voltage source with an
equivalent emf and internal impedance
By source transformation, each voltage
Steps to be followed in Millman’s source in series with a resistance can be
Theorem converted to a current source in parallel
Disconnect the load RL from the with a resistance as shown in fig. above
circuit
Find Millman’s voltage across points
A and B. This is Vm
Find the resistance Rm between
points A and B. This is
V1 G1 + V2 G2 + ... + Vn Gn
Replace the network by a voltage Vm = (10)
G1 + G2 + ... + Gn
source Vm in series with the 1 1
resistance Rm . Rm = = (11)
Gm G1 + G2 + ... + Gn
Find the current through RL using Vm
Ohm’s law IL = (12)
Rm + RL
 Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Millman’s Theorem
Question
Find the current through the 10 Ω resistor
in the network

Vm 2.73
IL = = = 0.25 A
Rm + RL 1.09 + 10
Question
Use Millman’s theorem, to find the
Solution common voltage across terminals A and B
V1 G1 + V2 G2 + V3 G3 and the load current in the circuit
Vm =
! G1 + G ! 2 + G3 !
1 1 1
5 − 10 + 15
2 4 6
= = 2.73 V
1 1 1
+ +
2 4 6
1 1
Rm = = = 1.09 Ω
Gm 1 1 1
+ +
2 4 6
 Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Millman’s Theorem

Solution
V1 G1 + V2 G2 + V3 G3 Vm 2.73
Vm = IL = = = 0.25 A
! G1 + !G2 + G3 ! Rm + RL 1.09 + 10
1 1 1
6 +0 + 12 Question
2 6 4
= = 6.55 V Draw Millman’s equivalent network across
1 1 1
+ + terminals AB in the network below
2 6 4
1 1
Rm = = = 1.09 Ω IL =
Gm 1 1 1
+ +
2 4 6
Vm 2.73
= = 0.25 A
Rm + RL 1.09 + 10

method
 Circuit Theory Network Theorems
Millman’s Theorem
By source transformation, the network is Applying Millman’s theorem at terminals
redrawn as shown CA
V 4 G4 + V 5 G5
Vm2 =
! G4 + G5
1
6 + 3(1)
2
= =4V
1
+1
2
1 1
Rm2 = = = 0.67 Ω
Gm 1
+1
Applying Millman’s theorem at terminals 2
CD Simplifying Fig. on the left further, the
V 1 G1 + V 2 G2 + V 3 G3
Vm1 = Millman’s equivalent network is as shown
! G1 + G ! 2 + G3 on the right
1 1
−8 +8 + 6(1)
2 2
= =3V
1 1
+ +1
2 2
1 1
Rm1 = = = 0.5 Ω
Gm 1 1
+ +1
2 2
Circuit Theory Network Theorems

THANK YOU FOR YOUR

ATTENTION
CSM 153 Circuit Theory
AC Theory

Akwasi Acheampong Aning

KNUST, GHANA

April 22, 2022

1/24
Outline I

1 Unit Five
Alternating Currents
Resonance and Power in AC Circuits
Circuit Theory AC Theory

UNIT FIVE
A. C. THEORY
Alternating Currents
Resonance and Power in AC Circuits

3/24
Circuit Theory AC Theory

Alternating Currents

4/24
Circuit Theory AC Theory

Alternating Currents

Electrical energy or power is usually supplied to homes, offices and industries by

means of oscillating emfs and currents
The current is said to be an alternating current (ac)
The alternating or oscillating emfs and currents vary in sinusoidal form with
respect to time
The fundamental advantage of ac is that, as the voltage or current changes
(alternates), so does the magnetic field surrounding the wire
This makes the application of Faraday’s law of induction possible
That is, we can step up (increase) or step down (decrease) the magnitude of the
alternating voltage using a transformer
In addition, ac can be readily adapted to rotating machinery such as electric
generators (dynamos) and motors than direct current (dc)
In North America, the frequency of AC oscillation is 60 Hz; in the European Union
and many other countries including Ghana, the AC frequency is 50 Hz.

5/24
Circuit Theory AC Theory
Alternating Currents

The ends of the loop are connected to two slip

rings that rotate with the loop. Connections
from these slip rings, which act as output
terminals of the generator, to the external
circuit are made by stationary metallic brushes
in contact with the slip rings
In commercial power plants, the energy
required to rotate the loop can be derived from
a variety of sources. For example, in a
hydroelectric plant, falling water directed
against the blades of a turbine produces the
rotary motion
As the conducting coil or loop rotates in the
external magnetic field, induced sinusoidal
emf ε in the loop is given by
ε = εmax sin ωt (1)
where εmax is the amplitude of emf ε, ω is the
The AC generator consists of a loop angular frequency of the emf and ωt is the
of wire rotated by some external phase of the induced emf
means in a magnetic field
Circuit Theory AC Theory
Alternating Currents
Resistors in an AC Circuit Resistors in an AC Circuit

For an ac source of emf ε connected to a

resistor, R the current increases and
decreases with the alternating potential
difference (voltage) according Ohm’s law. The current and voltage are in step with
From Kirchoff’s law each other because they both vary as
∆vR = iR R = ∆Vmax sin ωt (2) sin ωt and reach their maximum values at
the same time as shown in figure above.
If we rearrange eqn. 2 They are said to be in phase
∆v ∆Vmax This means their corresponding maxima
iR = = sin ωt = Imax sin ωt (3) and minima occur at the same times
R R
A phasor is a vector whose length is
where Imax is the maximum current
proportional to the maximum value of the
∆v ∆Vmax variable it represents (∆Vmax for voltage
Imax = = (4)
R R and Imax for current in figure above). 7/24
Circuit Theory AC Theory
Alternating Currents

Inductors in an AC Circuit
Inductors in an AC Circuit

From Kirchoff’s loop rule

diL
∆v = ∆vL = L = ∆Vmax sin ωt (5)
dt
Comparing equations 5 and 8, the
∆Vmax
∴ diL = sin ωtdt (6) instantaneous current iL in the inductor
L and the instantaneous voltage ∆vL across
∆Vmax ∆Vmax π
Z
∴ iL = sin ωtdt = − cos ωt the inductor are out of phase by rad =
L ωL 2
(7) 90◦ as shown in figure above
Using the trigonometric identity Equation 7 shows that the current in an
π
cos ωt = − sin(ωt − ), we can express eqn inductive circuit reaches its maximum
2 value when cos ωt = ±1
7 as:
∆Vmax  π ∆Vmax
∴ iL = sin ωt − Imax = (9)
ωL 2
(8) ωL
8/24
Circuit Theory AC Theory
Alternating Currents

Capacitors in an AC Circuit

Inductors in an AC Circuit
ωL has the same units as resistance and is
related to current and voltage in the same way
as resistance and we define ωL as the
inductive reactance XL
XL ≡ ωL = 2π f L (10)
From Kirchoff’s loop rule
where f is the linear frequency q
We can write equation 9 as ∆v = ∆vC = = ∆Vmax sin ωt (13)
C
∆Vmax Substituting ∆Vmax sin ωt and
Imax = (11)
XL rearranging gives
The instantaneous voltage across the inductor q = C∆Vmax sin ωt (14)
is
Differentiating equation 14 with
diL
∆vL = −L = −∆Vmax sin ωt = −Imax XL sin ωt respect to time gives the
dt instantaneous current in the circuit:
(12)
dq
iC = = ωC∆Vmax cos ωt (15)
dt
9/24
Circuit Theory AC Theory
Alternating Currents
Capacitors in an AC Circuit
Capacitors in an AC Circuit
Using the trigonometric identity
π
cos ωt = sin(ωt + ), we can express eqn
2
15 in the form
 π
∴ iC = ωC∆Vmax sin ωt + (16)
2
Comparing equations 13 and 16, the
instantaneous current iC in the capacitor
and the instantaneous voltage ∆vC across We can now write equation 17 as
π
the capacitor are out of phase by rad =
2 ∆Vmax
◦
90 as shown in figure on the right Imax = (19)
XC
Equation 15 shows that the current in the
circuit reaches its maximum value when The instantaneous voltage across the
cos ωt = ±1 capacitor is

Imax = ωC∆Vmax (17) ∆vC = ∆Vmax sin ωt = Imax XC sin ωt (20)

The capacitive reactance XC Equations 17 and 19 indicate that as the

frequency of the voltage source
1 1 increases, the capacitive reactance
XC = = (18)
ωC 2π f C decreases and the maximum current
therefore increases
10/24
Circuit Theory AC Theory
Alternating Currents
RL Circuit
RL Circuit
When switch S 1 is open, there is no current
anywhere in the circuit.
When switch S 1 is closed, the current
increases and an emf that opposes the
increasing current is induced in the inductor.
This circuit is an RL circuit because From Kirchhoff’s loop rule,
the elements connected to the battery
are a resistor and an inductor di
ε − iR − L =0 (21)
dt
The inductance of an inductor results
in a back emf and as a result an where iR is the voltage drop across the
inductor in a circuit opposes changes di
resistor and L is the voltage drop across the
in the current in that circuit dt
inductor
If the battery voltage in the circuit is
increased so that the current rises, The solution to equation 21 is
the inductor opposes this change and ε
i= (1 − e−Rt\L ) (22)
the rise is not instantaneous. If the R
battery voltage is decreased, the This expression shows how the inductor
inductor causes a slow drop in the affects the current.
current rather than an immediate drop
Circuit Theory AC Theory
Alternating Currents
RL Circuit RC Circuit
Equation 22 shows that the current
does not increase instantly to its final
equilibrium value when the switch is
closed, but instead increases
according to an exponential function
We can also write equation 22
ε
i= (1 − e−t\τ ) (23) Capacitors and resistors are often found
R together in a circuit.
where the constant τ is the time They are used to control the speed of a car’s
constant of the RL circuit and τ is windshield wipers and the timing of traffic
L lights; they are used in camera flashes, in
τ= (24) heart pacemakers, and in many other
R
electronic devices
and is τ the time constant of the
circuit When the switch S is closed, current
immediately begins to flow through the circuit
The larger the self-inductance L or
the smaller the resistance R, the Electrons will flow out from the negative
longer it takes for the current to reach terminal of the battery, through the resistor R,
any specified fraction of its final and accumulate on the upper plate of the
current capacitor
Circuit Theory AC Theory
Alternating Currents
RC Circuit RC Circuit
As charge accumulates on the The solution to equation 26 is
capacitor, the potential difference
across it increases VC = Q\C, and the q(t) = Cε(1 − e−t\RC ) = Qmax (1 − e−t\RC ) (27)
current is reduced until eventually the This expression shows how the capacitor
voltage across the capacitor equals affects the current.
the emf of the battery, ε
The quantity RC, which appears in the
There is then no further current flow, exponents of equation 27 is called the time
and no potential difference across the constant τ of the circuit:
resistor.
τ = RC (28)
From Kirchhoff’s loop rule,
If the resistance is much smaller, the time
ε − iR − Q\C = 0 (25)
constant is much smaller and the capacitor
where iR is the voltage drop across becomes charged much more quickly. This
the resistor and Q\C is the voltage makes sense, because a lower resistance will
drop across the capacitor retard the flow of charge less.
Substitute i = dq\dt equation 25 and All circuits contain some resistance (if only in
divide by R, we get the connecting wires), so a capacitor can
never be charged instantaneously when
dq\dt = ε\R − q\RC (26) connected to a battery

method
Circuit Theory AC Theory
Alternating Currents
LC Circuit LC Circuit
The energy stored in the electric field of
the capacitor decreases. Some energy is
now stored in the magnetic field of the
inductor because of the current in the
The charging process is essentially circuit
instantaneous because we assume no Therefore, energy is transferred from the
resistance in the circuit electric field of the capacitor to the
The absence of resistance means that no magnetic field of the inductor. When the
energy in the circuit is transformed to capacitor is fully discharged, it stores no
internal energy. We also assume an energy. At this time, the current reaches
idealized situation in which energy is not its maximum value and all the energy in
radiated away from the circuit the circuit is stored in the inductor
With the switch at position a, the inductor The current continues in the same
is not in the circuit, so no energy is stored direction, decreasing in magnitude, with
in the inductor the capacitor eventually becoming fully
charged again but with the polarity of its
The capacitor begins to discharge with b plates now opposite the initial polarity
closed; the rate at which charges leave
the capacitor plates (which is also the rate At that point, the current stops and there
at which the charge on the capacitor is no energy stored in the inductor
changes) is equal to the current in the The energy continues to transfer back and
circuit. forth between inductor and capacitor
Circuit Theory AC Theory
Alternating Currents
LC Circuit LC Circuit
Telecommunication (radios, televisions, where Qmax is the maximum charge on
cell phones) - is based on the capacitor and the angular frequency ω
electromagnetic signals that oscillate at a is the square root of the coefficient of q in
well-defined frequency. equation 31
Let’s apply Kirchhoff’s law around the loop 1
containing the capacitor and the inductor ω= √ (33)
LC
q\C + Ldi\dt = 0 (29) The charge on the capacitor undergoes a
simple harmonic oscillation, alternating
where Ldi\dt is the voltage drop across
between polarities
the inductor and q\C is the voltage drop
across the capacitor An LC circuit is an electric oscillator,
oscillating at frequency f = ω\2π.
Substitute i = dq\dt in equation 29 and
divide by R, we get Note that the angular frequency of the
oscillations depends solely on the
q\C + Ld q\dt = 0
2 2
(30) inductance and capacitance of the circuit
d2 q q Equation 33 gives the natural frequency
=− (31) of oscillation of the LC circuit.
dt2 LC
The solution of this equation is We also have two kinds of energy in the
LC circuit - electric energy and magnetic
q = Qmax cos(ωt + ϕ) (32) energy
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Circuit Theory AC Theory
Alternating Currents
LC Circuit
The electric energy stored in the capacitor RLC Circuit
is
1 1 Q2
Ue = QVC = (34)
2 2 C
Substituting Qmax cos ωt for Q
1 2 The instantaneous applied voltage is
Ue = Q cos2 ωt (35)
2C max
∆v = ∆Vmax sin ωt (39)
The magnetic energy stored in the
inductor is The current in the circuit is given by
1
Um = LI 2 (36) i = Imax sin ωt (40)
2
Substituting I = −ωQmax sin ωt The current everywhere in the circuit must
1 1 2 be the same at any instant because the
Um = Lω2 Q2max sin2 ωt = Q sin2 ωt circuit elements are in series
2 2C max
(37) That is, the current at all points in a series
The sum Ue + Um is a constant and is AC circuit has the same amplitude and
Q2 1 2 phase
equal to the total energy max , or LImax
2C 2 The voltage across each element has a
Thus, different amplitude and phase
2
1 Qmax 1 2
= LImax (38)
Circuit Theory AC Theory
Alternating Currents
RLC Circuit RLC Circuit
The voltage across the resistor is in phase The maximum applied voltage is
with the current, the voltage across the
inductor leads the current by 90◦ , and the
q
Vmax = Imax R2 + (XL − XC )2 (44)
voltage across the capacitor lags behind
the current by 90◦ Therefore, we can express the maximum
current as
∆vR = Imax R sin ωt = ∆VR sin ωt (41)
Vmax
 π Imax = p (45)
∆vL = Imax XL sin ωt + = ∆VL cos ωt R2 + (XL − XC )2
2
(42)
 π The denominator of the fraction plays the
∆vC = Imax XC sin ωt − = −∆VC cos ωt role of resistance and is called the
2
(43) impedance Z of the circuit:
The sum of these three voltages must
q
equal the instantaneous voltage ∆v from Z = R2 + (XL − XC )2 (46)
the ac sources Therefore equation 45 can be written in
The three voltages cannot be added the form
directly because of their different phase Vmax
Imax = (47)
relationships with the current Z

method
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Circuit Theory AC Theory
Alternating Currents
RLC Circuit

RLC Circuit
When XL > XC (which occurs at high
frequencies), the phase angle is positive,
signifying that the current lags the applied
voltage. Then the circuit is more inductive
than capacitive
When XL < XC the phase angle is
The inductance and capacitance phasors
negative, signifying that the current leads
are added together and then added
the applied voltage, and the circuit is more
vectorially to the resistance phasor
capacitive than inductive.
From the right triangle in the phasor
When XL = XC , the phase angle is zero
diagram in Figure above, the phase angle
and the circuit is purely resistive
ϕ between the current and the voltage is
found as follows:
∆VL − ∆VC
! X − X 
L C
ϕ = tan−1 = tan−1
∆VR R
(48)
Circuit Theory AC Theory

Resonance and Power in

AC Circuits

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Circuit Theory AC Theory
Resonance and Power in AC Circuits

Resonance Resonance
Resonance is the state of a system
in which an abnormally large vibration 1
is produced in response to an 2π f L − =0 (50)
2π f C
external stimulus occurring when the
We solve this for f , and call the solution f0
frequency of the stimulus is the same,
or nearly the same, as the natural 1 1
f0 = √ (51)
vibration frequency of the system 2π LC
The rms current in an LRC series When f = f0 , the circuit is in resonance, and
circuit is given by f0 is the resonant frequency of the circuit
Irms = p
Vrms
(49) At this frequency, XC = XL and the impedance
R2 + (XL − XC )2 is purely resistive.

Because the reactance of inductors This frequency matches the natural frequency
and capacitors depends on the of oscillation of an LC circuit
frequency f of the source, the current The rms current in a series RLC circuit has its
in an LRC circuit depends on maximum value when the frequency of the
frequency. From equation 49 we see applied voltage matches the natural oscillator
that the current will be maximum at a frequency, which depends only on L and C
frequency that satisfies the condition The current is in phase with the applied
voltage at the resonance frequency
XL − XC = 0
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Circuit Theory AC Theory
Resonance and Power in AC Circuits
Resonance

Resonance
If a capacitor is discharged through an
inductor, the charge and the voltage on
the capacitor oscillate with angular
1
frequency ω = √
LC The quality factor (Q factor) is the ratio of
The current in the inductor oscillates with a resonator’s centre frequency to its
the same frequency, but it is out of phase bandwidth when subject to an oscillating
with the charge by 90◦ . driving force
f0
The energy oscillates between electric Q= (52)
∆f
energy in the capacitor and magnetic
where f0 is the centre frequency of the
energy in the inductor
peak and ∆ f is the half-power bandwidth
The oscillations are damped in the RLC of the peak
circuit because energy is dissipated in the
The half-power bandwidth is the
resistor
difference between the two frequencies at
which the power in the circuit is equal to
half the power at the centre frequency
(see figure above)
Circuit Theory AC Theory
Resonance and Power in AC Circuits
Power in AC Circuit
Power in AC Circuit
A resistor dissipates energy at the rate
From equation 55
PR = iR vR = i2R R (53) !2
IR
Let iR = IR cos ωt PR = √ R = Irms
2
R (56)
2
PR = i2R R = IR2 Rcos2 ωt (54)
IR
∴ Irms = √ (57)
The average power P is the total energy 2
dissipated per second This is the root-mean-square current. For
1 a sinusoidal oscillation, the rms value
Using the identity cos2 (x) = (1 + cos 2x)
2 turns out to be the peak value divided by
√
we can write PR = IR2 Rcos2 ωt = 2
" #
1 1 1
IR2 R (1 + cos 2ωt) = IR2 R + IR2 R cos 2ωt Similarly, we can define the
2 2 2 root-mean-square voltage as
The cos 2ωt term oscillates positive and
VR
negative twice during each cycle of the Vrms = √ (58)
emf. Its average, over one cycle, is zero. 2
1 2 The resistor’s average power loss in terms
PR = I R (55) of the rms quantities is
2 R
This is the average power loss in a PR = Irms Vrms (59)
resistor
Circuit Theory AC Theory
Resonance and Power in AC Circuits
Power in AC Circuit
Power in AC Circuit
NOTE: We’re assuming ideal capacitors
Energy is transferred into the capacitor and inductors. Real capacitors and
when it is being charged, and the energy inductors inevitably have a small amount
is stored as potential energy in the of resistance and dissipate a small
capacitor’s electric field amount of energy. However, their energy
The energy is given back to the circuit dissipation is negligible compared to that
when the capacitor discharges, as a result of the resistors in most practical circuits
a capacitor’s average power loss is zero: In an RLC circuit, energy is supplied by
PC = 0 the emf and dissipated by the resistor.
An inductor alternately stores energy in The RLC circuit unlike a purely resistive
the magnetic field, as the current is circuit, the current is not in phase with the
increasing and then transfers energy back potential difference of the emf, and the
to the circuit as the current decreases average power loss is
The instantaneous power oscillates Pav = Irms Vrms cos ϕ (60)
between positive and negative, but an
inductor’s average power loss is zero: The factor cos ϕ is referred to as the power
PC = 0 factor of the circuit

method
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Circuit Theory AC Theory

THANK YOU FOR YOUR

ATTENTION

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