Module 1 – Introduction to Communication

Nature and Process of Communication

Communication is the process of acting on information. Human communication is the way

humans act on information to communicate using spoken language and its derivatives (e.g.,
writing, symbolic gestures). Communication is generally described in terms of encoding –
creating and sending a message and decoding or understanding the message. In this case, there
are two parties involved – the sender and the receiver, or the encoder and the decoder.
The following are the steps in communication between the sender and the receiver.

Sender (Function: Encoding and Decoding)

1. Conceive the Message
When you have something to say, consider the best means of putting your message across, and
bear in mind that timing is important. Consider your recipient carefully and aim your message
to suit their specific needs.
2. Encode the Message
This stage involves putting the information into an appropriate form suitable to both the sender,
the recipient and the aim. Decide first what specific outcomes you want from the
communication. This will help you choose whether words will suffice, whether a printed record
is necessary and whether graphics are appropriate. It will also help you choose appropriate
language and tone.
3. Select the Appropriate Channel
This stage is where the message is sent, and the information is transferred.
Recipient (Function: Decoding and Encoding)
4. Decode the Message
To achieve success at this stage it is also important to take the trouble to ensure that the recipient
will understand the language and vocabulary used.
5. Interpret the Message
It is important to consider carefully the tone used in your communication so that the correct
message is received. For example, you do not want to risk losing a good customer by using a
harsh tone. Distortion of the message may occur if the sender has not carefully encoded the
communication, in which case the recipient will interpret the message differently from how it
was intended.
6. Feedback
The communication process cannot be successful without appropriate feedback. In oral
communication this is often immediate, in meetings the audience may nod or smile to show
understanding and agreement. But with written messages courtesy and discipline are important
to acknowledge receipt of messages until a full and appropriate response can be given.

Intra-personal, Interpersonal, Group and Non-Verbal Communication

Intrapersonal Communication
Intrapersonal communication takes place within an individual. This kind of communication
pertains to thinking, which is the basis of information processing. While we are communicating
with others, our internal dialogue with ourselves continues concurrently -planning, weighing,
considering, and processing information. Self-motivation, self-determination, and the like take
place at the intrapersonal level.
Interpersonal Communication
Communication at this level refers to the sharing of information among people. Interpersonal
communication differs from other forms of communication in that there are few participants
involved, they are in close physical proximity to each other, many sensory channels are used,
and feedback is immediate. Also, the roles of the sender and receiver keep alternating. This
form of communication is advantageous because direct and immediate feedback is possible.
Group Communication
Group communication takes place each time three or more people engage in a conversation
verbally or in writing. In terms of group communication in a business setting, the term refers
to communication between a group of a minimum of three people with a common goal of
sharing ideas and information, collaborating on a project, resolving issues, or negotiating a
deal. Essentially, group communication refers to any verbal or nonverbal interaction between
a group of 3 to about 20 people.

Verbal Communication

Verbal communication is about language, both written and spoken. In general, verbal
communication refers to our use of words while nonverbal communication refers to
communication that occurs through means other than words, such as body language, gestures,
and silence. Both verbal and nonverbal communication can be spoken and written.

Non-verbal Communication

Non-verbal communication refers to all communication that occurs without the use of words,
spoken or written. It is concerned with body movements, space, and vocal features. Personal
appearances, facial expressions, postures, gestures, eye contact, voice, and touch are all non-
verbal signals that influence how a message is interpreted and understood.
Personal appearance
Personal appearance plays an important role; people see before they hear. Appearance includes
clothes, hair, accessories, cosmetics, and so on. Clothes reveal a lot about the wearer’s
personality and attitude. Personal appearance must be so planned that it communicates
effectively to others, how we feel about ourselves and how we want to be viewed.
Posture
Posture generally refers to the way we hold ourselves when we stand, sit, or walk. One’s
posture changes according to the situation. If nervous, one would normally be seen pacing,
fidgeting with notes, jingling coins, moving constantly, or staying glued to the ground.
The way one sits, stands, or walks reveals a lot.
Gesture
Gesture is the movement made by hands, head, or face. Gestures can add to the impact of verbal
communication. A well-timed gesture not only drives a point home but also enhances the value
of what is being said. Similarly, an awkward gesture (like playing with a key chain or button)
can spoil the effectiveness of the message. Gestures clarify our ideas or reinforce them and
should be well suited to the audience and occasion. Gestures are more numerous than any other
form of non-verbal communication, and the meanings attached to them are diverse.
Facial expression
Along with postures and gestures, facial expressions also play an important part in non-verbal
communication. The face is the most expressive part of our body. A smile stands for
friendliness, a frown for discontent, raised eyebrows for disbelief, tightened jaw muscles for
antagonism, etc. Facial expressions are subtle. They can be used in a variety of ways to aid,
inhibit, or complement communication. The six basic facial expressions are Happiness,
Surprise, Disgust, Fear, Anger and Sadness.

Cross-cultural communication
Cross-cultural communication refers to the communication between people who have
differences in any one of the following: styles of working, age, nationality, ethnicity, race,
gender, sexual orientation, etc. Cross-cultural communication can also refer to the attempts that
are made to exchange, negotiate and mediate cultural differences using language, gestures and
body language. It is how people belonging to different cultures communicate with each other.
Culture consists of various elements such as language, religion, politics, etc.
Language
Language forms the basis of all communication. It includes spoken, written, and body
language. Problems occur when there is an inability to understand what the other is saying
because different languages are being spoken. Talking the same language itself can sometimes
lead to discrepancies as some words have different meanings in various contexts, countries or
cultures. We often have to deal with people who speak different languages. Those from
different cultural and linguistic backgrounds confront communication obstacles because
miscommunication is common among people who speak the same language.
Misunderstandings can result from anything from a mispronounced word to a lack of
specificity.
Religion and beliefs
Another important element of culture is religion. An individual’s religious beliefs and norms,
sacred objects, philosophical systems, prayers, and rituals are all parts of culture. Religion and
belief affect the communication process. For example in India, some religious rites have
become integral to our culture and have been adopted by people from other religions. Before
starting any important project, it is a norm in India to follow certain religious rites and offer
prayers. In conferences, it is observedthat before starting the deliberation, prayers are offered
and lamps are lit.
Values and attitudes
Different values and attitudes of individuals towards time management, decision-making,
achievement, work, change, etc. are also important parts of culture. These attributes affect
communication between people with differing values to a great extent. It becomes important
for people of different cultures to respect and appreciate each other’s values to be able to
communicate effectively without adversely affecting their sensitivities. In the Indian culture,
e.g., little importance is attached to the personal space and privacy of an individual. For
example, when you meet someone and think of striking up a conversation, you can ask
questions about that person’s marital status or where he or she works or lives. In Western
countries, such questions will be treated with a lot of apprehension and be considered highly
inappropriate. In India, people do not place much importance on punctuality. It is fashionable
to walk into a party late, or acceptable to dial into a teleconference five minutes later. Our
Western counterparts may look at these as signs of disrespect. Gradually, in the global
workplace, people of various cultures are learning to accept and respect each other better than
they could a decade earlier. Knowing these basic differences and shaping our reactions
accordingly are essential for overall successful communication.
Politics and law
The political system of a nation consists of national intents, power, ideologies, political risks,
sovereignty, law of the country in which the organization works, rules and regulations imposed
by the government, etc.
Technology
Technology includes scientific make-up, invention, communication media, urbanization, etc.
and these are all essential parts of culture. For example, with the growth of information and
communication technology, we have seen a tremendous change in the social and cultural
framework of urban India.
Social organization
Social organization is an important element of culture. It consists of social institutions, the
authority structure, interest groups, and status systems, etc. All these elements constitute the
culture of a nation. For instance, maintaining eye contact with a senior during a conversation
was considered disrespectful in our culture until a few years ago. However, all this is changing
in the professional world. Most organizations are adopting a corporate culture that might take
some time to get oneself acquainted with. In most multinational companies, it is okay to address
one’s senior with his/her first name. It is an American tradition and does not show disrespect
or over-familiarity like we think it does. So, one must be cognizant of the various hidden
conventions that are prevalent in the professional world.
Assumption of similarities
This refers to our tendency to think how we behave and act is the universally accepted rule of
behavior. When someone differs, we have a negative view of them
Nonverbal Misinterpretation
The way we dress, and the way we express ourselves through our body language, eye contact
and gestures also communicate something. A simple gesture like nodding the head is
considered to be YES in certain cultures and NO in others

Essentials of Good Communication

• A well-defined communication environment: Consider your recipient carefully and aim
your message to suit their specific needs. Your first step is to consider what is the
objective of your communication and why you must communicate the message. Is the
intention to give information, to persuade, to request, to inform?

• Cooperation between the sender and the receiver: The receiver must understand the
message exactly as intended by the sender. The communicator of a message can make
the receiver listen to him, but understanding has to be achieved by the receiver alone.

• Selection of an appropriate channel: The next step is to consider what channel (or
means) of communication would be appropriate. Consider the relationship between the
sender and the recipient, as well as the recipient’s background knowledge, culture and
experience.

• Correct encoding and decoding of the message: Encoding is choosing how we send our
message. For example, the language you choose, an angry or soft voice, harsh tone, or
a courteous tone. Consider why the communication is happening. Is it urgent, serious,
emotive, or informative? You must consider all possible barriers that may influence the
recipient’s understanding of the message. Is the communication likely to achieve the
desired aims in the given circumstances? If the barriers are likely to interfere with the
recipient’s understanding, you may need to resolve them. Having considered all these
aspects, you may now send your message. After sending the message, it is important to
check whether the recipient has understood the message as you intended.

• Feedback: The final stage is essential – you must obtain feedback from the recipient so
that you know if your communication has been effective. If the message is not
understood, rather than blame the recipient, ask yourself why the communication failed
and how it could have been improved to be effective.

Principles of Effective Communication

Completeness, Conciseness, Consideration, Clarity, Correctness, Courtesy and Concreteness.

 • Completeness: The message must bear all the necessary information to bring the
response you desire. One of the most famous terms used under this title is the 5w’s. 5
w’s include Who, What, When, Where and Why.
• Conciseness: The message should only contain information relating to the topic and
not have irrelevant information. We need to eliminate wordy expressions and include
only relevant stuff, and avoid unnecessary repetition.
• Consideration: implies ‘stepping into the shoes of others”. It ensures that the respect
of the audience is maintained and their emotions are not harmed. Effective
communication must take the receiver/audience into consideration.
• Concreteness: Being definite, vivid and specific rather than vague, obscure and general
leads to the concreteness of the message. It is supported by specific facts and figures.
• Clarity: demands simple language and easy sentence structure in composing the
messages. Clarity comes with the use of exact, appropriate and concrete words. Choose
precise, concrete, and familiar words and also use simple words rather than jargon.
Clear or plain language is characterized by explicitness and short sentences. Fuzzy or
unclear language is forbidden, as are formal language and cliché expressions. By
avoiding parentheses and keeping to the point, the receiver will get a clear picture of
the content of the message. Briefly, worded information emphasizes the essence of the
message.
• Courtesy: means being polite, kind, and judicious. Courtesy reflects the nature and
character of the sender of the message. The sender has to use expressions that show
respect, choose non-discriminatory expressions and also omit questionable humour.
• Correctness: The core of correctness is that sentences ought to be grammatically
proper in punctuation, and free from any sort of errors. Correctness in the
communication implies that the correct information is conveyed through the message.

Barriers to Communication

A barrier is defined as something that comes in the way of the desired result. Interpersonal
barriers occur due to the wrong transaction of words between two or more people.
The most common reasons for interpersonal barriers are:

• Limited vocabulary
• Incompatibility (clash) of verbal and non-verbal messages
• Emotional outburst
• Communication selectivity
• Cultural variations
• Poor listening skills
• Noise

Limited Vocabulary
Insufficient vocabulary is a major limitation in communication. For example, during a speech,
if you are at a loss for words, your communication will be ineffective, and you will leave a
poor impression on the audience. On the other hand, if you have a varied and strong vocabulary,
you can create a favourable impression on your listeners. Therefore, one should make constant
efforts to increase one’s vocabulary by regularly reading books and listening to native speakers
of the language. Using a wide vocabulary regularly will also help to make its usage comfortable
and natural.

Mismatch of verbal and non-verbal messages

Imagine a situation where your colleague congratulates you on a promotion, but the expression
on his/her face shows just the opposite of what they are saying. The difference between the
verbal and non-verbal aspects of communication leaves the listener feeling confused and
puzzled. This is an example of the mismatch between verbal and non-verbal messages.

Emotional outburst
Excessive emotional involvement becomes an obstacle in communication. For example,
extreme anger creates a hostile environment where a logical discussion becomes impossible.
Positive emotions such as happiness and excitement, also interfere in communication. It is
important to maintain one’s calm in all kinds of communication. When a person is extremely
angry, happy or nervous, they will be unable to communicate properly and end up
communicating poorly.

Communication selectivity
When the receiver in a communication process listens to only a part of the message, it is known
as communication selectivity. In such a situation, the sender is not at fault. It is the receiver
who breaks the flow of communication. For example, A tells B to go to Katpadi train station
at 8 PM that night and catch the rain to Chennai. But B only listens to part of that message and
misses the part about the time, as a result, the entire communication process is lost.

Cultural variations
Not understanding the practices, and customs of a person from a different culture becomes a
problem in communication. Language, facial expressions and customs like festivals are some
examples of cultural differences which create problems in communication.

Noise in the channel

Noise is the most common barrier in communication. It is not necessarily limited to audio
disturbances, but can also occur in visual, written, and physical, forms. All these forms of noise
distract the receiver from the message. Physical noise refers to that of machines, the blare of
music from a stereo system, or other such sounds which make the task of the listener difficult.
Disturbances in telephone lines, poorly designed sound system of a room, dim typescripts, and
illegible writing are some more examples of technical noise.

Intra-personal barriers
Individuals are unique because of differences in perceptions, experiences, education, culture,
personality, etc. Each of us interprets the same information in different ways, as our thinking
varies. These differences lead to certain inbuilt or intrapersonal barriers.
Wrong assumptions
Many barriers arise from wrong assumptions. For example, when a doctor tells her patient that
he has to take some medicine only ‘SOS’ (i.e., during an emergency), without knowing whether
the patient understands the term ‘SOS’, she is creating a barrier in their communication. Here
the doctor has made a wrong assumption about her patient’s level of knowledge. Wrong
assumptions are generally made because the sender or the receiver does not have adequate
knowledge about the other’s background or entertains certain falsen concepts, which are fixed
in his/her mind. To strengthen your skills as a communicator, try
to put yourself in the shoes of the listener. This exercise will prevent making wrong
assumptions about the receiver.
Varied perceptions
We all know the story of the six blind men and their description of an elephant. The elephant
was perceived by each man as a fan, a rope, a wall, a sword, a snake, and a tree. None of the
blind men were wrong, as the part of the elephant body touched by each man compared well
with the various objects they named. This is how different individuals hold different viewpoints
about the same situation. Similarly, individuals in an organization also perceive the same
situation in different ways. Let us take the case of disagreement between two individuals. If
you are close to one of them, you are likely to be biased. You may perceive your friend’s
arguments as correct, and hence, may not be able to appreciate his/her opponent’s point of
view. It is all a matter of perception. The best way to overcome this barrier is to step back and
take a wider, unbiased perspective of the issue.
Differing backgrounds
No two persons have the same background. Backgrounds can be different due to different
education, culture, language, environment, financial status, etc. Our background plays a
significant role in how we interpret a message. At times, something not experienced earlier is
difficult to interpret or appreciate. The representative of a computer company would not make
much sense to a group of doctors if in his/her presentation he/she goes into details about the
hardware aspects of the computer that he/she plans to install in a hospital. To enhance
communication skills, it is necessary to know the background of the audience. This information
can accordingly be used to construct the message. Empathy or identification with another
person is the solution to this barrier. We must try to understand what the listener can find
difficult to comprehend in our message because of the difference between our background and
that of the listener. The language understood by the receiver should be used to avoid ambiguity
and reduce multiple meanings. The exact meaning of a word resides in the mind of the speaker;
therefore, one ought to be cautious while using words. The multiple meanings of a word can
increase the problem of communication barriers.
Wrong inferences
Suppose you have returned from a business trip and you find that two of your colleagues are
absent. They do not turn up for several days. Since there is a recession on, you draw an
inference that they have been laid off. The fact is that they have been promoted and sent to
another department. This is an example of fact-inference confusion. It has happened because
you failed to distinguish between what exists and what you had assumed to exist. Inferences
are more dramatic than facts, and for this reason, they can provide more scope for gossip and
rumour to spread. When professionals analyse material, solve problems, and plan procedures,
inferences must be supported by facts.
Blocked categories
In general, we react positively to information only if it aligns with our views and attitudes.
Conversely, when we receive information that does not conform to our personal views, habits,
and attitudes, or appears unfavourable to us, we tend to react negatively or even disbelieve it.
Rejection, distortion, and avoidance are three common, undesirable, and negative reactions to
unfavourable information. Communication and other technologies are advancing so rapidly
today that many people find it difficult to quickly adapt themselves to these developments.
Instead of taking advantage of these developments, which help expedite the communication
process, such people tend to resist and criticize them. This is a result of having a closed mind.
Some people have certain prejudices so deeply embedded in their minds that these cannot be
challenged. Similarly, people who are very rigid in their opinions may face problems in
communicating effectively. For example, one of your fellow students may think that only
students of science are good at reasoning; another might believe young executives are more
efficient than older ones. Such people fall into blocked categories, because they may not be
able to accept any deviation from their points of view.
Categorical thinking
This type of thinking exists in people who feel that they know everything about a particular
subject, and therefore refuse to accept any further information on that topic. For example, in a
general body meeting of your organization, you are to be briefed about the annual budget.
However, you do not pay attention because you feel you have already been briefed about it by
your secretary the previous day. This type of thinking can pose a major barrier, leading to a
failure in communication. In such instances, the receivers refuse information because of their
‘know-it-tall’ attitude. The clue to detecting this barrier in us and in others is the use of words
like all, always, everybody, everything, every time and their opposites like none, never,
nobody, and nothing. If a message contains too many of these words, then there is a fair chance
of the communication getting distorted. To avoid this barrier, substitute these words with
phrases like ‘in most situations’ or ‘most likely’. Label your opinions with phrases like, ‘it
appears to me’ or ‘the evidence indicates’. If your data is insufficient, it is better to admit that
you are unaware of the rest of the information rather than being indirect.