Atomic Structure

1
 Terminology
 An atom is the smallest unit of matter that retains all of the chemical
properties of an element.
 Atomic structure is the structure of an atom that consists of a nucleus at
the center containing neutrons and protons, while electrons are revolving
around the nucleus.
 Protons have a positive charge.
 Electrons have a negative charge, and are far away from the nucleus.
 The proton's charge is equal but opposite to the negative charge of the
electron.
 The neutron is the other type of particle found in the nucleus.
 The neutron carries no electrical charge and has the same mass as the
proton.
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 Structure of Atom

Fig: Electron and proton in Hydrogen Fig: Negative and positive elementary charge

3
Sub-atomic Particle

4
Particle Hierarchy

5
Structure of Water

6
Structure of Carbon

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Structure of Water

8
Sub-atomic Particle

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 Structure of Carbon

 Carbon has an atomic number of six, and two stable isotopes with mass numbers
of twelve and thirteen, respectively. Its relative atomic mass is 12.011.
 Mass number: The sum of the number of protons and the number of neutrons in
an atom.
 Atomic number: The number of protons in an atom.
 Atomic mass: The average mass of an atom, taking into account all its naturally
10
occurring isotopes.
 Terminology
 Isotope: Any of two or more forms of an element where the atoms have
the same number of protons, but a different number of neutrons within
their nuclei.
 Half-life: The time it takes for half of the original concentration of an
isotope to decay back to its more stable form.
 Carbon-12 (or 12C ) contains six protons, six neutrons, and six electrons;
therefore, it has a mass number of 12 amu (six protons and six neutrons).
 Carbon-14 (or 14C) contains six protons, eight neutrons, and six
electrons; its atomic mass is 14 amu (six protons and eight neutrons).
 While the mass of individual isotopes is different, their physical and
chemical properties remain mostly unchanged.

11
 Atomic Model
Many scientists used atomic models to understand the structure of the atom in
the early centuries. Each of these models had advantages and disadvantages of
its own and played a significant role in the development of the modern atomic
model. Scientists like John Dalton, J.J. Thomson, Ernest Rutherford, and Niels
Bohr made the most noteworthy contributions to science.

The following theories regarding atomic structure

 Dalton’s Atomic Theory
 Thomson’s Atomic Model
 Rutherford’s Atomic Model
 Bohr’s Atomic Model
 Quantum Mechanical Model (Electron cloud model)
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History of Atomic Model

13
 Rutherford Gold Foil
Experiment
Zinc Sulphide Screen

14
 Rutherford Gold Foil Experiment

Observations of Rutherford's alpha ray scattering experiment:

1. Most of the α-particles passed straight through the gold foil without any deviation.
2. Some of the α-particles were deflected by the foil by some angles. 15
3. Interestingly one out of every 12,000 alpha particles appeared to rebound.
 Postulates of Rutherford
Atomic Model
Here are the major postulates of Rutherford’s atomic model based on observations and
conclusions of the gold foil experiment:
 The positively charged particles are concentrated in a very small volume as
compared to the total size of the atom. Most of the atom’s mass is also concentrated
in this small volume. Rutherford called this small region inside that atom a
“Nucleus”.
 Rutherford proposed that atoms nucleus is surrounded by negatively charged
particles called electrons. The electrons move around the nucleus in a circular path
at a high speed. He named the circular path of electrons “Orbit”.
 The dense positively charged nucleus and surrounding negatively charged electrons
are held together by a force of attraction called electrostatic forces of attraction.

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Rutherford Atomic
Model

17
 Bohr Modify
Rutherford’s Model
Why Did Bohr Modify Rutherford’s Model?
Niels Bohr modified the Rutherford’s atomic model and provided the world
with Bohr’s Atomic Model due to the following limitations of Rutherford’s
model:

 This model failed or could not explain the stability of atom.

 It couldn’t explain the electronic structure of atom and energies of
electrons.
 This model also fails to explain the line spectra of atoms, which show
discrete lines, each line corresponds to a fixed frequency.
 This model is against the law of thermodynamics.

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 Bohr’s Atomic Model
In 1915, Niels Bohr proposed Bohr’s Atomic Model. This model was a
modification of Rutherford’s atomic model.

Postulates of Bohr’s Atomic Theory

 An atom consists of a small, heavy and positively charged nucleus in the
centre, and the electrons move around the nucleus in definite circular orbits.
These orbits are also called ‘shells’ or ‘energy levels.’
 Electrons do not radiate energy while revolving in these shells of fixed
energy. The energy is radiated or absorbed only when the electrons transit
from one energy level to another.

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 Bohr’s Atomic Model
 The circular orbits are numbered as 1,2,3,4 or designated as K, L, M, N
shells. These numbers are referred as principal quantum numbers (n). K shell
(n = 1) is closer to the nucleus and is associated with lowest energy. L, M, N
are the next higher energy levels. As the distance from the nucleus increases,
the energy of the shells also increase.
 An electron can revolve around the nucleus in an atom only in those stable
orbits whose angular momentum is the integral multiple of h/2π, where h is
the Planck’s constant. If the mass of the electron be m and it is revolving
with velocity v in an orbit of radius r, then its angular momentum will be
mvr. According to Bohr’s postulate, mvr = nh/2π.
Here, n is integer 1,2,3….. known as a principal quantum number
and h is Planck’s constant (6.67 x 10–34 J-s)
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Bohr’s Atomic Model

21
Who proposed the principal quantum number?

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Bohr’s Atomic Model

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 Limitations/Applications of
Bohr Model
Limitations of Bohr’s Atomic Theory
 It could not explain the spectrum of atoms containing more than 1 electron or multi
electrons
 Bohr Theory failed to explain fine structure of spectral lines.
 It could not explain Zeeman effect & stark effect.
 This theory failed to explain ability of atoms to form molecule by chemical bonds.
 It does not approve of the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.
 It violates de Broglie concept of dual character of matter.
 It cannot explain the brightness of spectral lines.
A few remarkable applications of the Bohr model are as follows
 The model has some significant impacts on setting up the grounds for quantum mechanics
in explaining various observations.
 The spectrum of hydrogen and hydrogen-like atoms were explained very accurately using
this model.
 Classical Physics had so much popularity that the quantum mechanical postulates were not
getting the attention or importance they deserved. After the explanation, it was hard
24 to
avoid quantum mechanics altogether.
Rutherford Vs Bohr Models

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 Quantum Mechanical Atomic
Model
The quantum mechanical model of the atom, which regards electrons as matter waves, was
proposed by Erwin Schrödinger. Quantum mechanics models describe the possibility of placing
electrons within an atom by describing the main energy level, orbital (arbitrary level), and spin.

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 Bohr Radius
Bohr radius : The Bohr radius is a physical constant that represents the most probable
distance between the electron and nucleus of a hydrogen atom at its ground state
(lowest energy level). a0 (Bohr Radius) = 5.29 x 10−11 m

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 Stark Effect
Stark effect is the splitting of spectral lines observed when the radiating
atoms, ions, or molecules are subjected to a strong electric field.
 In an applied electrical field, the Stark effect can be seen.
 The interaction between the atom's electric moment and the external
electric field causes the Stark effect.
 The Stark effect may include both shifting and splitting of spectral lines.

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Stark Effect

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 Zeeman Effect
 Zeeman effect can be described as the effect of splitting a spectral line into several
components in the presence of a static magnetic field. This phenomenon was
named after the Dutch physicist Pieter Zeeman in 1896. He also received a Noble
Prize for this discovery.
 This effect describes the effect of a magnetic field on atoms or ions.
Applications
 The distance between Zeeman sub-levels is a function of magnetic field strength.
Therefore, we can use the Zeeman effect to measure magnetic field strength. For
example, measuring the magnetic field strength of the Sun and other stars.
 There are many important applications of the Zeeman effect, such as nuclear
magnetic resonance spectroscopy, electron spin resonance spectroscopy, magnetic
resonance imaging, etc.
 Moreover, we can use it to improve the accuracy of atomic absorption
spectroscopy.
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 Zeeman Effect

In the preceding example the lowest level is an "s" level, so it has L=0 and 2L + 1 = 1, so it isn't
split in the magnetic field, while the first excited state has L=1 ("p" level), so it is split into 2L +
1 = 3 levels by the magnetic field. Thus, a single transition is split into 3 transitions by the
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magnetic field in this example.
 Zeeman Effect Vs Stark
Effect
Main
Zeeman Effect: Zeeman effect describes the splitting of the spectral lines of an atom in
the presence of a strong magnetic field.
Stark Effect: Stark effect is the splitting of spectral lines observed when the radiating
atoms, ions, or molecules are subjected to a strong electric field.
Applied Field
Zeeman Effect: Zeeman effect can be observed in an applied magnetic field.
Stark Effect: Stark effect can be observed in an applied electrical field.
Cause
Zeeman Effect: Zeeman effect is the result of the interaction between the magnetic
moment of the atom and the external magnetic field.
Stark Effect: Stark effect arises due to the interaction between the electric moment of
the atom and the external electric field. 32
 Electron Attraction to the Nucleus

Let the nucleus has a mass of m′ and the electron has a

mass of m, the radius of the circular orbit = r, and the
linear velocity of the electron = v.

On the revolving electron in the hydrogen atom, two types

of forces act,
1. Centrifugal force: The centrifugal force = mv2/r
2. Electric force of attraction: Electric force of attraction
given from Coulomb’s law between two opposite charges
= e2/r2
Centrifugal force and electric force acted in the opposite
direction. The electron may keep on revolving in hydrogen
atom energy levels if these two forces act in the opposite
direction and must balance each other. Therefore,
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mv2 = e2/r.
Radius of Hydrogen Atom

34
 Radius of Hydrogen Atom

Problem: Calculate the radius of the second orbit of the hydrogen atom if the radius
of the first orbit of hydrogen = 0.529 Å.
Solution: The radius of the second orbit of the hydrogen atom (r2) = n2 × r1 = 2.12 Å.
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 Numerical Problem
Problem: The radius of first Bohr orbit of hydrogen atom is 0.529 A. Calculate the
radii of (i) the third orbit of He+ ion and (ii) the second orbit of Li2+ ion.

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Energy of Electron in H- Atom

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 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
According to this principle, ” Position and momentum of an electron cannot be determined
simultaneously with absolute accuracy

This is the mathematical formula or equation which clears that the accuracy in the
measurement of one quantity (say velocity) causes uncertainty/error in other quantity
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(momentum), and vice-versa).
 Orbit & Orbital
Orbit
 It represent well defined circular path followed by electrons around nucleus.
 It is also known as the shell.
 It represents two dimensional motion of electrons.
 Max. no of electrons in an orbit is 2n2
 Always Circular in shape ex K, L, M, N
 Orbits are non directional
Orbital
 It is three dimensional area around the nucleus where probability if finding of
electrons are maximum.
 It represents three dimensional motion of electrons.
 Shapes are not fixed, can be spherical (s-orbital) dumbbell shape(p-orbital) or
double dumbbell(d-orbital) or complex.
 Maximum no of electrons in an orbital is 2.
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 Orbitals are directional in nature except s orbital.
Orbit

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Orbit

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Orbit

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 Characteristics of Orbits

 Orbits are quantized means there are an infinite number of orbits around the
nucleus but electrons are only present in that orbits in which their angular
momentum is an integral multiple of h/2π.
 While revolving around the nucleus electrons neither lose nor gain energy
therefore these orbitals are also called stationary orbits.
 Electrons can easily move from one orbit to another by absorbing or releasing
energy equal to the energy difference b/w the two energy levels.
 The arrangement of electrons in orbits determines the chemical behavior and
reactivity of the atom.
 The different numbers of electrons in orbits decide the position of the element
in the periodic table.

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Orbital

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Orbital

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Orbital

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Orbital

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 Characteristics of Orbital
 Orbitals are represented as a combination of alphabetical letters and numbers like
1s, 2p, 3d, 4f, etc.
 Orbitals are obtained by solving the Schrodinger equation.
 It is determined by a mathematical function called the wave function, which helps
find the probability of electrons around the nucleus.
 Each orbital has a different shape, energy, and orientation except degenerate
orbitals.
 Each orbital accommodates a maximum of 2 electrons with opposite spins only.
 The overlapping of different orbitals leads to the formation of different chemical
bonds, which helps in determining the shapes and properties of the molecule.

Shapes of different orbitals

S orbital: Spherical
P orbital: Dumb-Bell in shape.
D orbital: Double dumb-Bell in shape.
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F orbital: Complex in shape.
Orbit Vs Orbital

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 Reminder-
Orbit & Orbital

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Orbit Vs Orbital

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 Shell and Sub-shell
Shells are a collection of subshells with the same principle quantum number, and
subshells are a collection of orbitals with the same principle quantum number and
angular momentum quantum number.

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 Distribution of Electrons in
Orbits or Shells
Electronic distribution of various orbits or energy levels can be calculated by the
formula 2n2. Here, ‘n’ denotes the number of orbits.
The number of electrons in K shell (1st orbit) can be calculated by
2n2= 2 x 12 = 2. Thus, maximum number of electrons in 1st orbit = 2
Similarly, The number of electrons in L shell (2nd orbit)= 2 x 22 = 8. Thus,
maximum number of electrons in 2nd orbit = 8

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Shell and Sub-shell

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 Quantum Number
Quantum Number: Quantum numbers are a collection of numbers that helps in
describing the position as well as the energy of an electron in an atom.
 An orbital is identified by 4 quantum numbers.
 Four quantum numbers are used to fully describe all of the attributes of a given
electron.
 When the quantum numbers of all the electrons in a given atom are added together,
they must satisfy the Schrodinger equation.
The four types of Quantum Numbers are listed below:
 Principal Quantum Number
 Azimuthal Quantum Number
 Magnetic Quantum Number
 Spin Quantum Number

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 Principle Quantum Number
i) It was proposed by Niels Bohr
ii) It was denoted by a letter ‘n’
iii) Its values are 1, 2, 3…. and also designed by K, L, M…..
iv) It signifies size and energy of an orbit.

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 Azimuthal Quantum Number

i) It was proposed by sommerfeld.

ii) It was denoted by a letter ‘l’.
iii) Its values are 0 to (n–1).
iv) It signifies the shape of the orbital
l = 0 ; s-orbital; spherical in shape
l = 1 ; p-orbital; dumbbell in shape
l = 2 ; d-orbital; double dumbbell in shape
l = 3 ; f-orbital; four fold dumbbell

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Find Azimuthal Quantum
Number and Sub-shell

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 Magnetic & Spin Quantum
Number
Magnetic QN
i) It was proposed by lande.
ii) It was denoted by a letter ‘m’.
iii) Its values are –l to + l including “0”
iv) It signifies spatial orientation of an electron in an orbital.
v) It explains “zeeman effect” and “stark effect”

Spin QN
i) It was proposed by “George Uhlenbeck” and Goud Smith.
ii) It was denoted by a letter ‘s’
iii) Its values are +½ and −½ .
iv) It signifies the direction of spin of an electron
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Find Magnetic Quantum Number

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 Significance of Quantum
Numbers

Significance of quantum numbers

Principal quantum number: The size and energy of the orbit are
defined by this quantum number.
Azimuthal quantum number: The shape of the orbitals is defined by
this quantum number.
Magnetic quantum number: The spatial orientation of the orbital is
determined by this quantum number.
Spin quantum number: The spin of the electron is indicated by this
quantum number.

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 Conclusion for Quantum
Number
According to Pauli’s exclusion principle, no two electrons in the same atom can have
the values of all quantum numbers identical. It means two electrons in the same
orbitals must have opposite spins.
 The principal quantum number ‘n’ is associated with the energy and size of
orbitals and has integral values i.e. n = 1, 2, 3,…
 The azimuthal quantum number (ℓ) associates with the shape of orbitals and has
the values of 0, 1, 2, and 3. The alphabets assigned for these azimuthal quantum
numbers are s, p, d, and f respectively.
 The magnetic quantum number is associated with energy levels within a subshell
and has different values related to the azimuthal quantum number by the rule
(2ℓ+1).
 The spin quantum number is associated with the orientation of electrons in an
orbital and only has two values, +½, and -½.
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Conclusion for Quantum
Number

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 Relationship: n, l, and ml

Relationship among values of n, l, ml till n=4 64

Energy Level

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Energy Level

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Energy Level

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Frequency and Wavelength
Relation

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 Spectrum
A spectrum is defined as the characteristic wavelengths of electromagnetic
radiation (or a portion thereof) that is emitted or absorbed by an object or
substance, atom, or molecule.
Atomic Spectra: The atomic spectra are defined as the spectrum of
frequencies of electromagnetic radiation emitted or absorbed during transitions
of electrons between energy levels within an atom.
Emission spectrum: Spectrum produced by the emitted radiation is known as
emission spectrum. This spectrum corresponds to the radiation emitted (energy
evolved) when an excited electron returns back to the ground state.
Absorption spectrum: Spectrum produced by the absorbed radiations is called
absorption spectrum.

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Spectrum

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 Spectral Line of H
Spectral lines of hydrogen
 Hydrogen is given several spectral lines because any given sample of hydrogen
contains an almost infinite number of atoms.
 Under normal conditions, the electron of each hydrogen atom remains in the
ground state near the nucleus, which is n = 1 (K – Shell).
 When a specific heat or electrical energy is supplied to hydrogen gas, it absorbed
different amounts of energy to give absorption spectra of hydrogen.
 Some of the atoms absorbed such energy to shift their electron to the third energy
level, while some others may absorb a large amount of energy to shift their
electron to the fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh energy levels to give different
types of hydrogen absorption spectrum diagram.
 The electrons of hydrogen in the excited state are relatively unstable and hence
drop back to the ground state by the emission of energy in the form of the
spectrum. The different drop back means different lines of the hydrogen
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spectrum.
 Emission Spectrum of
Hydrogen

When hydrogen gas at low pressure is taken in discharged tube and the light emitted
on passing electric charge is examined with spectroscope, the spectrum obtained is
called emission spectrum of hydrogen. 72
 Hydrogen Spectrum
Hydrogen atom has a single electron. Its spectrum consists of a series of spectral lines.
Lyman series: Lyman Series consists of spectral lines corresponding to the transition
of an electron from higher energy orbits n = 1 and n2 = 2,3,4… These lines belong to
the Ultraviolet region.
Balmer series: Balmer series consists of spectral lines emitted during transitions of
electrons from higher energy orbits to the second orbit. n1 = 2 and n2 = 3,4,5… .These
lines lie in the visible region.
Paschen series: Paschen series consists of spectral lines emitted when an electron
jumps higher energy orbits to the third orbit n1 = 3 and n2 = 4,5,6 … .These lines lie in
the infrared region.
Brackett series: Brackett series consists of spectral lines emitted during transitions of
electrons from higher energy orbits to fourth orbit. n1 = 4 and n2 = 5,6,7…
Pfund series: Pfund series consists of spectral lines emitted during transition of
electrons from higher energy orbits to the fifth orbit. n1 = 5 and n2 = 6,7,8… . These
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lines lie in the infrared region.
Hydrogen Spectrum

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Electron Transitions for Hydrogen
spectrum

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Difference in Spectra

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Rydberg’s formula

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Electronic Configuration of
Elements

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 Electronic Configuration of
Elements

The Electronic Configuration of Elements refers to the arrangement of

electrons in different energy levels. The rule for the arrangement of
electrons is governed by the following three laws:

 Aufbau’s principle
 Hund’s rule
 Pauli Exclusion Principle

The energy of an orbital depends on the sum of the values of the principal quantum
number (n) and the azimuthal sum number (I). This is called the (n + l) rule.

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 Three Rules of Filling
Electrons
Electrons are filled in the orbitals by following three rules:
Aufbau rule or ( n+l ) rule: It states that the filling of electrons in orbital takes place
in increasing order of their energies means lower energy orbital would fill first.

Hund’s Rule of maximum multiplicity: It states that no pairing of electrons will

occur until all the orbitals of a subshell are singly electron occupied and all the
electrons have the same spin either all are clockwise or anticlockwise.

Pauli’s Exclusion Principle: It states that an orbital can accommodate a maximum of

2 electrons with opposite spins only.

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 Aufbau Principle
“Electrons in different orbitals are filled in the increasing order of their energy, i.e.
the orbital with the lowest energy will be filled first and the orbital with the highest
energy will be filled last.”

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Aufbau Principle

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Aufbau Principle

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 Limitation of Aufbau Principle

 The Aufbau principle cannot be applied to predict electron configuration of atoms

on ionization.
 The actual electronic configuration of copper and sulphur is not equal to the
electronic configuration according to the principle.
 The Aufbau Principle is extremely effective for the ground state of the atoms up
to the first 18 elements, but it is less effective for the remaining 100 electrons
after that.
 Similar to the d and f block elements, which add stability to the atoms whether
they are filled or partially filled, do not always follow the Aufbau Principle.
 When an ion is to be formed, Aufbau principle doesn’t tell which electrons are to
be removed.

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 Hund’s Rule
Hund’s rule states that electrons don’t pair up in a subshell until they are occupied by
a single spin.
Called the Rule of Maximum Multiplicity--- Why ?
According to Hund’s rule, when filling up electrons in degenerate orbitals (orbitals
with the same energy level), electrons fill up singly first, then pair up. It indicates that
atomic orbitals have as many unpaired electrons as feasible. Maximum multiplicity is
provided by a bigger number of unpaired electrons. As a result, Hund’s rule is known
as the rule of maximum multiplicity.

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Hund’s Rule

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 Applications Hund’s Rule

 When it comes to filling the orbitals of the shells with electrons, almost every
element follows Hund's rule of maximum multiplicity. The rule's ultimate
purpose is to increase the stability of negatively charged particles.
 Hund's rule is useful for determining an atom's lone pair of electrons as well as
its valency.
 It is often used in spectroscopy to create an element's atomic spectra.
 Hund's rule, along with other ideas, is employed in quantum chemistry research.

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Hund’s Vs Aufbau

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 Pauli Exclusion Principle
Each atomic orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons with opposite spins. This
means that if two electrons occupy the same orbital, they must have opposite spins.

89
Pauli Exclusion Principle

90
 Applications of Pauli Exclusion
Principle

 The Pauli exclusion principle is used to describe the electronic configuration of

chemical elements, and how they participate in chemical bonding.
 This principle is very useful to calculate the maximum number of electrons in an
orbital.
 The number of main shells and sub-shell can be calculated with the help of this
principle.
 This principle is also used in defining the modern periodic table.
 Apart from chemistry, Pauli Exclusion Principle is a fundamental principle in
quantum mechanics.
 It is also used in astrophysics.

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Re-called

92
 Octet Rule

The octet rule states that the elements with eight electrons in the valence shell tend to
be more stable and so, elements form bonds with other elements in such a way that
they achieve this state.

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 Limitations of Octet Rule
1. Incomplete Octet: Beryllium has two, and Boron, or Aluminium, has three
valence electrons. In compounds like BeCl2 or BCl3, the central Boron atom does not
complete its octet yet form covalent bonds, which the octet rule could not explain.

94
 Limitations of Octet Rule
2. Expanded Octet: Elements of the 3rd period and above have d-orbitals that take
part in bond formation reactions. This allows the atom to incorporate a higher number
of orbitals, leading to such atoms forming a greater number of bonds.

Phosphorus can form five bonds as PF5, and Sulphur can form six bonds as SF6,
thereby expanding the octet to ten and twelve.

95
 Limitations of Octet Rule
2. Odd Electron: The octet rule does not satisfy all the atoms of nitric oxide (‫﮲‬NO)
and Nitrogen dioxide (‫﮲‬NO2) which have an odd number of electrons.

The odd electron- containing atoms are reactive species, unstable, and some may
largely exist as dimers.

96
 Limitations of Octet Rule

3. The elements whose valence shell has a maximum of only 2 electrons, like that of
Hydrogen(H) or Helium(He) are stable without following the octet rule. For them, the
duplet rule is valid.

4. Transition and inner transition elements do not follow this rule. There are plenty of
stable transition elements with more than 8 electrons in their valence shell.

Applications of Octet Rule

 This rule explains the formation of covalent and ionic bonds.
 Explains the high reactivity of elements close to noble gases.
 Explains the high stability and inertness of the noble gases.
 Helps in predicting the properties of p-block elements.

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Electronic Configuration of
Elements

98
Electronic Configuration of
Elements

99
Electronic Configuration of
3d-Block Elements

100
Electronic Configuration of
Noble Gases

101
 Photoelectric Emission

 The process by which free electrons are emitted from the metal surface by the
application of light is called photoelectric emission.
 Photoelectric emission is also called as photoemission or photoelectron emission or
photoelectric effect.
 In this method, light or photons is used to remove the free electrons from the solid
metal. Hence, the free electrons emitted from the solid metal are called
photoelectrons and current produced due to this process is called photoelectric
current.

102
Photoelectric Emission

103
 Photoelectric Emission
Significance of Photoelectric Emission
Photoelectric emission is significant for determining the intensity of incident light. If the intensity
is high, then the electron emission will also be more.

Conditions for Photoelectric Emission

 The electrons emitted from the metal surface will be directly proportional to the light flux of
the incident light. If the light flux increase then the number of electrons emitted will also
increase.
 The emission will take place only when the energy of a photon is greater than or equal to the
energy possessed by the electron of the metal.
 The maximum energy level of the emitted electrons is dependent on the frequency of the
incident light but do not depend on the amount of light incident.
Laws of Photoelectric Emission
 The emission of electrons from the surface of the metal can only be done when the sufficient
amount of energy incident on their surface.
 The number of electrons emitted per second is directly proportional to the amount of light
incident on the surface.
 The energy of the emitted electrons is free from the amount of the photons incident on the
surface, and it depends on the frequency of the light flux.
104
Photoelectric Work
Function

105
Planck’s Quantum
Theory

106
 Einstein’s Photoelectric
Equation
On the basis of Planck’s quantum theory, Einstein derived an equation for the
photoelectric effect known as Einstein photoelectric equation. Einstein assumed
that
 Light consists of photons or quanta of energy; energy in each photon is hν.
Where h is the Planck’s constant and ν is the frequency of light
 Each incident photon collides with an electron inside an atom and gives all its
energy to the electron.
 Part of this energy is used by the electron to come out of the surface of the metal
and the remaining part is the kinetic energy with which the electron is emitted.
 The minimum energy required by an electron to come out of the surface of the
metal is called the photoelectric work function (∅o) of the metal.
 The remaining energy (hν – ∅o) is the maximum kinetic energy of the electron
with which a photoelectron will be ejected.
107
 Einstein’s Photoelectric
Equation
By law of the conservation of energy,

108
Compton Effect

109
Compton Effect Vs Photoelectric
Effect

110
 De Broglie Wave
Quantum mechanics assumes matter to be both like a wave as well as a particle at
the sub-atomic level. The De Broglie equation states that every particle that moves
can sometimes act as a wave, and sometimes as a particle. The wave which is
associated with the particles that are moving are known as the matter-wave, and also
as the De Broglie wave. The wavelength is known as the de Broglie wavelength.

de Broglie Equation
The de Broglie equation is one of the equations that is commonly used to define the
wave properties of matter. It basically describes the wave nature of the electron.

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 De Broglie Wave
De Broglie Wavelength
According to Louis de Broglie, any particle which moves might very well behave like a wave.
Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer demonstrated this experiment in 1927. Matter waves are
waves that are related to the matter. De Broglie waves are another name for them.

Except for photons, all particles have a different de Broglie wavelength formula. At non-
relativistic speeds, a particle's momentum is equal to its rest mass m multiplied by its velocity
v. The de Broglie wavelength is represented by λ.

De Broglie Wavelength Formula

According to de Broglie, the below equation is entirely general and applies to material
particles as well. As a result, the wavelength of a particle of mass m travelling at speed is
given by

λ=h/p
λ=h/mv
The wavelength of the matter waves is referred to as the de Broglie wavelength. Through
Planck's constant, this equation connects the wave character ( wavelength) and the particle
character (momentum p).
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De Broglie Equation

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De Broglie Wave

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 Thermal de Broglie
Wavelength
The thermal de Broglie wavelength is the average de Broglie wavelength of the gas
particles in an ideal gas at the specified temperature.

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De Broglie Wave

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Bohr’s Theory from De
Broglie Wave

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De Broglie Wave and
Kinetic Energy

Here, λ=mvh
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