Chapter 4 - Lemon/Potato Homemade Chemical Power

4.1 Reaction Between Metals like Zinc and Copper

How Metals React in a Chemical Battery: The key to producing electricity from a lemon or
potato battery lies in the reaction between two different metals, such as zinc and copper, and
the acidic content of the fruit or vegetable.

What Happens in the Reaction? When metals like zinc and copper are inserted into the
lemon or potato:

1. The citric acid in the lemon or the phosphoric acid in the potato acts as an
electrolyte.
2. The zinc (like a galvanized nail) reacts with the acid, losing electrons (oxidation).
3. The copper (such as a copper coin or wire) gains the electrons (reduction).
4. This flow of electrons between the zinc and copper through the electrolyte produces a
small amount of electricity.

4.2 Electricity Production – Lemon Powered Battery

Lemon Powered Battery

Component Required:
1. Alligator clips – 2 Nos.
2. LED (3mm) – 1 Nos.
3. Lemons or Potato – 4 Nos.
4. Copper Strips – 1 Nos.
5. Zinc Strips – 1 Nos.
6. Connecting Wires (4” each) – 5 Nos.

Batteries are an essential part of everyday life. They allow you to carry electronic devices on
the go without having to plug them into a wall outlet. A battery is able to generate electricity
by passing electrons between two different metals (one positively charged and one negatively
charged). The electrons create a current as they pass through a solution containing molecules
that carry the charged particles back and forth between the two different metals. With a few
simple steps, you can create a very simple battery using two different metals and a lemon.

STEPS:
1. Push a copper strip into the lemon.
2. Push a zinc strip into the lesson.
3. Prepare the other 3 lemons the same way.
4. Connect the lemons from zinc to copper strip with wire.
5. Continue clipping batteries together until all are connected.
6. Connect the final clip to the last free copper strip and zinc strip.
7. Connect the LED light to the free ends of alligator clips.
Observation:
It works! LED light ON. You just generated electricity using some lemons, Copper Strips,
Wires, Zinc Strips and LED.

Science behind it:

A Lemon battery produces electricity through a chemical reaction. When a zinc electrode and
a copper electrode are inserted into a lemon, the citric acid in the lemon acts as an electrolyte,
allowing the flow of electrons creates an electric current, allowing the lemon to function as a
simple battery. The reaction between the zinc and the citric acid generates a small electrical
potential, which can be measured using a voltmeter. The first copper strip forms the positive
(+) battery terminal, and the last zinc strip is the negative (-) terminal.

Zinc Plate Strip

The zinc strip serves as the anode in the lemon battery. When inserted into the lemon, it
undergoes an oxidation reaction, releasing electrons and forming zinc ions (Zn²⁺). The zinc
strip acts as the source of electrons in the electrochemical reaction.

Copper Plate Strip

The copper strip serves as the cathode in the lemon battery. It is inserted into the lemon
separately from the zinc strip and is not in direct contact with it. The copper strip acts as the
electron acceptor in the electrochemical reaction, where copper ions (Cu²⁺) from the lemon
juice gain electrons and form solid copper atoms.

LED lights
In the lemon energy experiment using zinc and copper plate strips, LED lights can be
connected to the lemon battery to demonstrate the generation of electricity.

Notes:
The potato energy experiment with zinc and copper plate strips, similar to the lemon battery
experiment, can be used to generate a small amount of electrical energy. While the power
produced by a potato battery is also relatively low, there are several potential uses and
applications.

4.3 LED Experiment after Harnessing Power from the Lemon Battery

Now that you’ve successfully generated electricity from a lemon or potato, let’s see how we
can use this energy to power an LED light. LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes) require very little
power to light up, making them perfect for experiments with lemon or potato batteries.

Steps to Power an LED Using a Lemon Battery:

1. Test the LED: Before connecting the LED to the lemon battery, make sure you know
which leg is the positive (anode) and which is the negative (cathode). The longer leg
is usually positive.
2. Connect the LED: Attach the wire connected to the copper to the positive leg of the
LED, and the wire from the zinc to the negative leg of the LED.
 3. Watch the LED Glow: If everything is connected correctly, the LED should start
glowing. This means the electricity generated by the lemon battery is strong enough to
power the LED.
4. Multiple Lemon Batteries (Advanced): If one lemon is not enough to power the
LED, you can connect multiple lemons in series to increase the voltage. Simply
connect the copper of one lemon to the zinc of the next, creating a chain of lemon
batteries. This increases the total voltage, allowing the LED to light up more brightly.

Why Does This Work? The chemical reaction between the zinc and copper creates a flow of
electrons, or electricity, that travels through the LED, lighting it up. The LED lights up
because it is a low-power device that can operate on the small amount of electricity produced
by the lemon battery.
Chapter 5 - A Way to Manual Robotics

5.1 What is DPDT Switch?

A DPDT (Double Pole Double Throw) switch is an electrical switch that controls two circuits
with one switch, allowing polarity reversal to change motor direction. In robotics, it is
essential for controlling motor movement, enabling clockwise (CW) and counterclockwise
(CCW) rotation. For example, in remote-controlled cars, a DPDT switch changes the motor's
direction for forward and backward movement. This switch is vital in manual robotics for
direction control, facilitating movements such as advancing or reversing a robot.

5.2 Introduction to Manual Robotics and Clear Understanding on Why It is

Important

What is Manual Robotics? Manual robotics involves controlling a robot through direct
user input, often using switches, joysticks, or remote controls. Unlike autonomous robots that
operate independently, manual robots rely on human control to perform tasks.

Why is Manual Robotics Important?

 Hands-On Learning: Manual robotics helps beginners learn how robots function at
the most basic level, making it easier to understand more complex robotic systems
later.
 Control Over Movements: Manual control allows the operator to make real-time
decisions about the robot's movements and tasks.
 Foundation for Autonomous Robotics: Learning manual robotics is a stepping stone
to understanding autonomous robots, as it teaches the basics of motor control, sensors,
and hardware.

Applications of Manual Robotics:

 Remote-Controlled Cars: Many hobbyists build simple manual robots, like remote-
controlled cars, to explore robotics.
 Rescue Robots: Manual robots are often used in search and rescue missions where
human operators control the robots to navigate hazardous environments.

5.3 Assembly of 4 Wheeled/3 Wheeled Chassis

What is a Chassis? In robotics, the chassis is the frame or structure that holds all the
components of the robot together, including the motors, wheels, and wiring. A well-designed
chassis ensures stability and smooth operation.

Step-by-Step Assembly of a Chassis:

1. Gather Components: You will need four or three wheels, a frame (which can be a
metal or plastic chassis), two DC motors, and a battery pack.
 2. Mount the Motors: Attach the motors to the chassis using screws or mounts. For a 4-
wheeled chassis, place the motors on either side to control the left and right sets of
wheels. For a 3-wheeled chassis, the motors will control the two main wheels.
3. Attach the Wheels: Fix the wheels onto the motor shafts. For the 3-wheeled chassis,
the third wheel is often a caster wheel that rotates freely, providing balance.
4. Connect the Power Source: Secure the battery pack to the chassis and connect it to
the motors through the DPDT switch.

5.4 4 Core Wire – Why We Need It?

What is a 4-Core Wire? A 4-core wire consists of four insulated wires bundled together in a
single cable. Each wire can be used for separate electrical connections, making it ideal for
complex circuits with multiple components.
Chapter 6 - Advance Electronics Components and how to use
them

6.1 Introduction to Accessories used in Robotics: Multimeter

A multimeter is a measuring instrument that can measure multiple electrical properties. A
typical multimeter can measure voltage, resistance, and current, in which case it is also
known as a volt-ohm-milliammeter, as the unit is equipped with voltmeter, ammeter, and
ohmmeter functionality, or volt-ohmmeter for short.

6.2 Introduction to Breadboard

What is a Breadboard?
A breadboard is a tool for prototyping circuits without soldering. It allows components and
wires to be easily connected through its holes and internal connections, making it ideal for
beginners and quick circuit testing. While great for learning and temporary setups,
breadboards are less suited for complex or long-term circuits compared to perfboards or
PCBs.

Why is it Called a Breadboard?

The term originates from early circuit designers using wooden breadboards with nails and
wires to build circuits. Though modern breadboards are solderless, the name has persisted.

Why Use a Breadboard?

 Quick and temporary circuit setup for testing.

 Compatible with development boards like Arduino and Raspberry Pi.
 Inexpensive and easy to use.
 Ideal for hobbyists and early prototyping before moving to permanent solutions.

6.2 Introduction to Piezo Buzzer

A piezo buzzer is a lightweight, inexpensive, and reliable electronic device that produces a
sound, tone, or alarm. It's made of a piezoelectric material, which deforms when an electric
charge is applied to it. This deformation produces sound, similar to how a speaker cone
moves to create sound.
Chapter 7 - Advance Electronics Components & Accessories II

7.1 Learning more About Resistors and Testing it

What is a resistor?

It is part of an electrical circuit that resists, or limits, the power of an electrical current in a
circuit. The resistor also helps to reduce or lessen the amount of electricity, moving through
the circuit. The unit of measuring resistance is OHM and its symbol is Ω.

How to calculate the value of a resistor using the color code:

Always read resistors from left to right. The metallic band should always be at the right end
of the resistor. For the first and second bands, place the first and second digits with respect to
their color codes, provided in the chart, and form a number. Then for the 3rd band select the
digit with respect to it color code from the chart. To calculate the value of resistance, use the
number formed by 1st and 2nd band color codes, and then multiply it by the 3rd band color
code digit, as explained in the following example.

The last metallic color band is the tolerance of the resistor, and it is not very important for
learning projects, but for industrial projects, it is critical for the precision

Example:
How to measure the resistance by using an Ohm meter:

1. First connect the black and red testing wires to the (com) and (V) sockets respectively.

2. Then Set the dial of the multimeter to the "ohms (Ω)" setting.

3. Then connect the testing wires of the ohmmeter to both ends of the resistor.

4. Value of the resistor will be displayed on the screen.

Chapter 8 - Chapter 8: Arduino & It's Programming Data
Structure

8.1 What is an Arduino?

Arduino is an open-source platform used for building electronics projects. Arduino consists
of both a physical programmable circuit board (often referred to as a microcontroller) and a
piece of software, or IDE (Integrated Development Environment) that runs on your computer,
used to write and upload computer code to the physical board.

The Arduino platform has become quite popular with people just starting out with electronics,
and for good reason. Unlike most previous programmable circuit boards, the Arduino does
not need a separate piece of hardware (called a programmer) in order to load new code onto
the board -- you can simply use a USB cable. Additionally, the Arduino IDE uses a simplified
version of C++, making it easier to learn to program. Finally, Arduino provides a standard
form factor that breaks out the functions of the micro-controller into a more accessible
package.

8.2 What's on the board?

There are many varieties of Arduino boards (explained on the next page) that can be used for
different purposes. Some boards look a bit different from the one below, but most Arduinos
have the majority of these components in common:

Power (USB / Barrel Jack)

Every Arduino board needs a way to be connected to a power source. The Arduino UNO can
be powered from a USB cable coming from your computer or a wall power supply (like this)
that is terminated in a barrel jack. In the picture above the USB connection is labeled (1) and
the barrel jack is labeled (2).

The USB connection is also how you will load code onto your Arduino board.

NOTE: Do NOT use a power supply greater than 20 Volts as you will overpower (and
thereby destroy) your Arduino. The recommended voltage for most Arduino models is
between 6 and 12 Volts.

Pins (5V, 3.3V, GND, Analog, Digital, PWM, AREF)

The pins on your Arduino are the places where you connect wires to construct a circuit
(probably in conjuction with a breadboard and some wire. They usually have black plastic
‘headers’ that allow you to just plug a wire right into the board. The Arduino has several
different kinds of pins, each of which is labeled on the board and used for different functions.

 GND (3): Short for ‘Ground’. There are several GND pins on the Arduino, any of
which can be used to ground your circuit.
 5V (4) & 3.3V (5): As you might guess, the 5V pin supplies 5 volts of power, and the
3.3V pin supplies 3.3 volts of power. Most of the simple components used with the
Arduino run happily off of 5 or 3.3 volts.
 Analog (6): The area of pins under the ‘Analog In’ label (A0 through A5 on the
UNO) are Analog In pins. These pins can read the signal from an analog sensor (like
a temperature sensor) and convert it into a digital value that we can read.
 Digital (7): Across from the analog pins are the digital pins (0 through 13 on the
UNO). These pins can be used for both digital input (like telling if a button is pushed)
and digital output (like powering an LED).
 PWM (8): You may have noticed the tilde (~) next to some of the digital pins (3, 5, 6,
9, 10, and 11 on the UNO). These pins act as normal digital pins, but can also be used
for something called Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM). We have a tutorial on PWM,
but for now, think of these pins as being able to simulate analog output (like fading an
LED in and out).
 AREF (9): Stands for Analog Reference. Most of the time you can leave this pin
alone. It is sometimes used to set an external reference voltage (between 0 and 5
Volts) as the upper limit for the analog input pins.

Reset Button

Just like the original Nintendo, the Arduino has a reset button (10). Pushing it will
temporarily connect the reset pin to ground and restart any code that is loaded on the
Arduino. This can be very useful if your code doesn’t repeat, but you want to test it multiple
times. Unlike the original Nintendo however, blowing on the Arduino doesn't usually fix any
problems.

Power LED Indicator

Just beneath and to the right of the word “UNO” on your circuit board, there’s a tiny LED
next to the word ‘ON’ (11). This LED should light up whenever you plug your Arduino into a
power source. If this light doesn’t turn on, there’s a good chance something is wrong. Time to
re-check your circuit!

TX RX LEDs

TX is short for transmit, RX is short for receive. These markings appear quite a bit in
electronics to indicate the pins responsible for serial communication. In our case, there are
two places on the Arduino UNO where TX and RX appear -- once by digital pins 0 and 1,
and a second time next to the TX and RX indicator LEDs (12). These LEDs will give us
some nice visual indications whenever our Arduino is receiving or transmitting data (like
when we’re loading a new program onto the board).

Main IC

The black thing with all the metal legs is an IC, or Integrated Circuit (13). Think of it as the
brains of our Arduino. The main IC on the Arduino is slightly different from board type to
board type, but is usually from the ATmega line of IC’s from the ATMEL company. This can
be important, as you may need to know the IC type (along with your board type) before
loading up a new program from the Arduino software. This information can usually be found
in writing on the top side of the IC. If you want to know more about the difference between
various IC's, reading the datasheets is often a good idea.

Voltage Regulator

The voltage regulator (14) is not actually something you can (or should) interact with on the
Arduino. But it is potentially useful to know that it is there and what it’s for. The voltage
regulator does exactly what it says -- it controls the amount of voltage that is let into the
Arduino board. Think of it as a kind of gatekeeper; it will turn away an extra voltage that
might harm the circuit. Of course, it has its limits, so don’t hook up your Arduino to anything
greater than 20 volts.

8.3 Arduino Coding Basics

Basic Programming Concepts:

 What is Arduino Programming? It involves writing instructions for Arduino to

control electronic devices. It’s like telling the Arduino what to do with simple
commands.
 Sketches: These are the programs you write for Arduino. Each sketch has two main
parts:
o setup(): Runs once when the Arduino starts. Use it to set up initial settings.
o loop(): Runs continuously after setup(). Use it to keep your project running,
like blinking an LED on and off.

8.4 Arduino Coding - Libraries

Libraries:
  What Are Libraries? Libraries are collections of pre-written code that help you use
specific features or devices easily. They save time because you don’t have to write the
code from scratch.
 How to Use Them? Include a library in your sketch with #include <LibraryName.h>.
This allows you to use the library’s functions without writing all the details yourself.

8.5 Arduino Coding - Functions

Functions:

 What Are Functions? Functions are reusable blocks of code designed to perform a
particular task. You write them once and call them whenever needed.
 How to Create a Function? Define a function with its name and the code it should
run. For example:

void turnOnLED() {
digitalWrite(LED_PIN, HIGH); // Turns on the LED
}

 How to Use It? Call turnOnLED(); in your loop() to turn on the LED whenever
needed.

8.6 Arduino Coding - Operators

Uses of Microcontrollers:

 Found in homes (ovens, refrigerators, TVs, etc.) and offices (printers, scanners,
ATMs).
 Used in robots, cars, aircraft, and medical devices (like artificial hearts).
 Help manage smart energy, lighting, and IoT devices.
 Clean up noisy signals using ADC and DAC to process them into clear digital signals.
 Play a big role in industrial automation and building control systems.

8.7 Arduino Coding - Strings

Strings:

 What Are Strings? Strings are sequences of characters (text) used to display
messages or handle text data in your Arduino projects.
 How to Use Strings? Create a string variable with text inside quotes:

String message = "Hello, Arduino!"; // Creates a string with the text "Hello, Arduino!"

8.8 Arduino Coding - String Objects

String Objects:

 What Are String Objects? These are special types of strings in Arduino that offer
more features for manipulating text, like adding or changing characters.
  Example of Using a String Object:

String name = "Arduino";

name.concat(" Rocks!"); // Adds " Rocks!" to the end of the string

8.9 Arduino Coding – Array

Arrays:

 What Are Arrays? Arrays are collections of items, like numbers or text, stored in a
single variable. They help you manage and use multiple pieces of data easily.
 How to Use Arrays? Define an array with a fixed size and store values in it:

int numbers[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}; // An array with 5 numbers

 Accessing Array Items: Use the position (index) to get an item from the array. For
example, numbers[0] gives you the first item, which is 1.
Chapter 9 - Introduction to Hardware for Advance Robotics

9.1 Introduction to IR Sensors

An IR sensor (Infrared Sensor) is a device that detects infrared light. It helps you know if
something is nearby or if it’s moving. Think of it as a special "eye" that can see invisible
light!

How Does an IR Sensor Work?

1. Infrared Light: The sensor sends out infrared light (which we can’t see) and waits
for it to bounce back.
2. Detection: If something is in the way, the light bounces back to the sensor.
3. Response: The sensor detects the light and can tell if an object is close by or if it's
moving.

Why Use IR Sensors?

 Obstacle Detection: They help robots avoid obstacles by detecting if something is in

their path.
 Distance Measurement: They measure how far away an object is, useful in many
devices.
 Motion Detection: They can tell if something is moving, like in security systems.

How Can You Use an IR Sensor?

1. In a Robot: Use it to make the robot stop or change direction when it gets too close to
something.
2. In a Smart Device: Detect if something is near, like a phone’s automatic screen
brightness.
3. In an Alarm System: Detect movement to trigger an alarm or notification.

9.2 Introduction to Ultrasonic Sensors

An ultrasonic sensor is a device that uses sound waves to measure distance. It’s like a
special "ear" that can listen for sound waves bouncing back to it!

How Does an Ultrasonic Sensor Work?

1. Send Sound Waves: The sensor sends out high-frequency sound waves (which are
too high for us to hear).
2. Bounce Back: These sound waves hit an object and bounce back to the sensor.
3. Measure Time: The sensor measures how long it takes for the sound waves to return.
4. Calculate Distance: Using the time it took for the waves to come back, the sensor
calculates how far away the object is.

Why Use Ultrasonic Sensors?

  Distance Measurement: They help measure how far away something is, useful for
many different projects.
 Obstacle Detection: They can help robots avoid obstacles by detecting if something
is in their path.
 Parking Assist: Used in cars to help park by detecting how close the car is to other
objects.

How Can You Use an Ultrasonic Sensor?

1. In a Robot: Make a robot that can navigate around objects by measuring the distance
with an ultrasonic sensor.
2. In a Distance-Measuring Tool: Build a tool that tells you how far away things are,
like measuring the height of a shelf.
3. In a Smart System: Create a system that can open a door automatically when you
approach it.