MSCE

PHYSICS

Form 3

Study Notes
Table of Contents
UNIT 1: MEASUREMENTS .......................................................................................................................................... 5
Physical Quantities ................................................................................................................................... 5
Fundamental Units .................................................................................................................................... 5
Prefixes for SI units .................................................................................................................................. 6
Standard notation ...................................................................................................................................... 7
Vernier callipers ........................................................................................................................................ 7
Micrometer screw gauge .......................................................................................................................... 8
UNIT 2: SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION ................................................................................................................... 11
Stages of a scientific investigation.......................................................................................................... 11
Error analysis .......................................................................................................................................... 14
Lab report................................................................................................................................................ 15
UNIT 3: THE KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER. ...................................................................................................... 17
The Kinetic Theory of Solids.................................................................................................................. 17
The Kinetic Theory of Liquids ............................................................................................................... 17
The Kinetic Theory of Gases .................................................................................................................. 17
Diffusion ................................................................................................................................................. 18
Application of Diffusion .......................................................................................................................... 19
Effects of temperature on Molecular Motion of Particles ...................................................................... 20
Absolute Temperature............................................................................................................................. 20
Gas Pressure............................................................................................................................................ 20
UNIT 4: THERMOMETRY .......................................................................................................................................... 22
Temperature Scales ................................................................................................................................. 22
Converting temperature from one scale to another ................................................................................. 23
Types of thermometers and how they work............................................................................................ 23
UNIT 5: PRESSURE ..................................................................................................................................................... 30
Pressure in solids .................................................................................................................................... 30
Liquid pressure ....................................................................................................................................... 30
Pascal’s Principle .................................................................................................................................... 32
Atmospheric Pressure ............................................................................................................................. 32
Archimedes’ Principle ............................................................................................................................ 35
The law of floatation ............................................................................................................................... 37
UNIT 6: GAS LAWS .................................................................................................................................................... 38
Ideal gases............................................................................................................................................... 38

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 Boyle`s Law ............................................................................................................................................ 38
Charles’ law ............................................................................................................................................ 38
Pressure law ............................................................................................................................................ 39
UNIT :7 SCALARS AND VECTORS .......................................................................................................................... 41
Scalar quantities ...................................................................................................................................... 41
Vector quantities ..................................................................................................................................... 41
Triangle rule............................................................................................................................................ 42
Parallelogram rule ................................................................................................................................... 42
UNIT 8: LINEAR MOTION ......................................................................................................................................... 44
Distance & Displacement ....................................................................................................................... 44
Acceleration due to gravity ..................................................................................................................... 45
Motion – time graphs and their interpretations Distance-time graphs .................................................... 47
Falling objects in fluid ............................................................................................................................ 49
UNIT 9: WORK AND ENERGY .................................................................................................................................. 52
Work ....................................................................................................................................................... 52
Energy ..................................................................................................................................................... 52
Energy-Work Theorem ........................................................................................................................... 54
UNIT 10: MACHINES .................................................................................................................................................. 55
Mechanical Advantage of a Machine (MA) ............................................................................................ 55
Velocity Ratio (VR) of Machines ............................................................................................................. 55
Efficiency of the Machine (E) .................................................................................................................. 55
Simple Machines .................................................................................................................................... 56
UNIT 11 : ELECTRIC CURRENT AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE .................................................................... 59
Electric current........................................................................................................................................ 59
Electric Circuits. ..................................................................................................................................... 60
Potential Difference (pd) ........................................................................................................................ 61
Electromotive force................................................................................................................................. 61
UNIT 12: ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE ..................................................................................................................... 63
Ohm’s Law ............................................................................................................................................. 64
Factors affecting electrical resistance ..................................................................................................... 67
Electrical Power in circuits ..................................................................................................................... 68
Electrical energy ..................................................................................................................................... 68
Circuits in a house .................................................................................................................................. 69
UNIT 13: OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES ................................................................................................................. 71

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 Oscillation. .............................................................................................................................................. 71
Characteristics of Oscillating system ...................................................................................................... 71
Factors affecting frequency of an oscillating system .............................................................................. 72
Waves ..................................................................................................................................................... 74
Characteristics of a wave ........................................................................................................................ 74
Properties of a wave................................................................................................................................ 77
UNIT 14: SOUND ......................................................................................................................................................... 80
Production of Sound ............................................................................................................................... 80
Forced vibration ...................................................................................................................................... 81
Natural (free) vibrations.......................................................................................................................... 81
Resonance ............................................................................................................................................... 81
Speed of sound ........................................................................................................................................ 82
Measuring speed of sound in air ............................................................................................................. 82
Transmission of sound ............................................................................................................................ 83

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 UNIT 1: MEASUREMENTS
Physical Quantities
➢ Physical Quantity (Definition): A physical quantity is a quantity which can be measured
(computed, quantified or enumerated).
➢ Examples of physical quantities: Length, mass, time, current, force, work, power etc. e.g.
Length of table is 3 m.
Fundamental (Base) Quantities, Derived Quantities and their Units
In physics, there are seven basic quantities (fundamental quantities), using which we can
derive any physical quantity

Fundamental Quantities and Fundamental Units

Fundamental Quantities
➢ The physical quantities which do not depend on any other physical quantities for their
measurements are called fundamental quantities or base quantities.

Fundamental Units

Fundamental Units (Definition):

➢ The units used to measure fundamental quantities are called fundamental units. It does not
depend on any other unit.
➢ There are seven fundamental (basic) physical quantities: Length, mass, time, temperature,
electric current, luminous intensity and amount of a substance and their units.
➢ Following are fundamental quantities with their fundamental units and their symbols.

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 Derived Quantities (Definition):
Physical quantities which depend on one or more fundamental quantities for their
measurements are called derived quantities.

Derived Units :
➢ The units used to measure derived quantities are called derived units.
➢ The units of derived quantities which depend on fundamental units for their
measurement are called derived units.
➢ Thus units of derived quantities are derived units.
➢ Following are some derived quantities with their units and symbol of unit.

Prefixes for SI units

THE SI PREFIXES

➢ Prefixes are words which used to substitutes names of large or small quantities.

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Standard notation
➢ A number N is said to be expressed in standard or scientific notation when written in the form
of A x 10n. Where A is greater than or equal 1 and less than 10.
Example
Express the following values in standard form

(a) The radius of the sun is 695 800 Km.

(b) The cross-section area of a thread is 0.000 000 171m2
Solution
(a) 695 800Km= 6.958x105 km
(b) 0.000 000 171m2= ?

SCALE READING OF VARIOUS MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Measurement of length
➢ Length can be measured using a Metre Rule or Tape Measure.
➢ However, these cannot give second decimal eg 2.45cm, therefore vernier caliper and micrometre
screw gauge are used.
Vernier callipers
➢ Vernier callipers are used when smaller and accurate measurements are required.
➢ Vernier callipers consist of two parts:
a. The main scale which is fixed. It is usually numbered in cm.
b. The Vernier scale, the part that slides along the main scale. It has 10 divisions, each 0.9 (9/10)
mm. The scale gives readings to 0.1 mm or 0.01 cm.

Vernier Caliper

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 Section of a Vernier Caliper

How to use the Vernier calipers

➢ The object whose length is required is placed between the jaws.

➢ Close the jaws onto the object to be measured.
➢ Read the main scale, e.g. 0.3 cm
➢ Identify the mark on the Vernier scale which coincides exactly with a mark on the main scale, e.g.
0.58 mm or 0.058 cm. Take this reading to give a second decimal place.
➢ The Reading = Main Scale (MSC) + Vernier Scale Coincidence (VSC) x Least Count (LC)
Thus, reading will be found as 0.3 cm + 0.058 cm = 0.358 cm
Micrometer screw gauge

➢ The micrometer screw gauge, shown in Figure below, is used to measure accurately the
dimensions of all small objects.

How to use micrometre screw gauge

➢ Rotate the thimble until the wire is firmly held between the anvil and the spindle.
➢ To take a reading, first look at the main scale.

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 ➢ This has a linear scale reading on it.
➢ The long lines are every millimetre and the shorter ones denote half a millimetre in between.
➢ The scale on the linear scale is 0.5 mm or 0.05 cm. The rotating scale is 0.01 mm or 0.001 cm.
➢ Then look at the rotating scale. Add the 2 numbers, on the scale on the right.
➢ From Figure above: Sleeve reads = 8 mm or 0.8 cm
Thimble reads = 0.12 mm or 0.012 cm
Total reading = 8.12 mm or 0.812 cm

Note:

Remind yourself:

➢ The measurement of mass

➢ Measurement of time
➢ Measurement of volume

Solved sample problems

1. What is the meaning of the following
a. 4Mw
= 4 × 106 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
b. 100mA
= 100 × 10−3 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
c. 9µV
= 9 × 10−6 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
2. Convert 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒎𝒎𝟐 to 𝒎𝟐 .
1000𝑚𝑚 = 1𝑚
1
𝑚𝑚 = 1000 𝑚
1
50000𝑚𝑚2 = 50000(1000 𝑚)2
1
= 50000(1000000)𝑚2

= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝒎𝟐
3. Mention any three instruments that can be used to measure very small-time intervals.
❖ Stop watch
❖ Digital clock
❖ Tickertape timers
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 ❖ Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

4. Differentiate Vernier caliper from micrometer screw gauge.

❖ Vernier caliper uses two sliding scales with different spacings between markings on each
scale while micrometer uses a screw to translate small distances moved by its jaws to larger
distances along the marked scale.

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 UNIT 2: SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION
Define scientific investigation.

The systematic way used by the scientists to find solution to the problem or an answer to
a question.

Stages of a scientific investigation

scientific investigation involves the following stages:

➢ Identifying a problem
➢ Formulating Hypothesis
➢ Outlining objectives
➢ Identifying variables
➢ Identifying the apparatus to be used during the research
➢ Outlining the procedure
➢ Data collection
➢ Data analysis
➢ Drawing conclusion

1. Identifying a problem through observation.

This involves identifying an area of study. The statement should be precise and focused to make it
manageable. For example: what is the effect of voltage on current in the circuit?
2. Suggest a hypothesis on the problem.
✓ A proposed explanation given on the basis of limited evidence as a starting point for further
investigation. For example: current in the circuit increases when voltage increases.
✓ The hypothesis may not be right.
✓ Therefore, this prediction is tested during an investigation.
3. Selecting variables
Variables are factors that affect the results of the investigation.
a. Independent variable – these are variables that you control within suitable ranges of the
investigation i.e. voltage
b. Dependent variable – this is a variable that is affected by the independent variable i.e. current
c. Control variable – these are variables that are kept constant so that they do not interfere with the
experiment i.e. amount of sugar, volume of water, size and shape of the beaker.
4. Testing the hypothesis

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 Carry out the actual investigation
5. Identify apparatus to be used to carry out the research.
➢These should be able to give readings and results to the expected degree of
accuracy to minimize errors
6. Outline the procedure of carrying out the experiment
➢These should include logical steps set up diagrams and precautionary measure
where necessary.
7. Identify the appropriate methods of collecting data. Data is collected in tables or
written description. When collecting data independent variables and dependent variables
should be properly indicated.
8. Data analysis. Data is analysed in tables by converting figures in percentages, graphs i.e.
pie charts, line graphs, bar graphs.
9. Drawing conclusion – this involves comparing the hypothesis with the investigation
with the view of accepting it or rejecting it.

Guidelines on how to draw graphs

• A graph
➢ Is a diagram that shows the relationships between two or more quantities.
➢ It has horizontal axis called x-axis and vertical axis called y-axis
• Features of a graph
i. Title
ii. Axes
iii. Scale
iv. Plotting points
v. Line/curve of the best fit
vi. Slope (gradient)
I. Title
➢ Indicates the variables whose relationship is represented in the graph.
➢ The first quantity in the statement of the title should be represented on the Y-axis
(vertical axis)
➢ The second quantity in the statement of the title should be represented on the Xaxis (horizontal
axis).

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 ➢ Normally, the dependent variable takes the vertical axis while the independent variable takes the
horizontal axes.
II. Axes
➢ These are drawn perpendicular to each other with arrows indicating the direction of the
increasing values.
➢ Axes should be labelled with the symbols of the quantities represented on them.
➢ Both axes must have a starting value at the point of their intersection.
➢ Most of the time the starting point is zero.
III. Scale
➢ Choice of scale enables one to plot all the points obtained or given to get a graph of a reasonable
size.
➢ Vertical scale and horizontal scale does not necessarily be the same.
➢ It is important to choose a convenient scale which enables one to represent and read all possible
values data on the grid.
Note
❖ A standard graph paper used should have 1 cm grid.
❖ How to determine the scale?
𝑉ℎ − 𝑉𝑙
𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 = Where
𝑛

o Vh is the highest value in the column

o Vl is the lowest value in the column
o n length in centimetres along the axis where the points will be plotted.
IV. Plotting points
➢ Use small x or an encircled do.
➢ These should not be too big but small.
➢ It is important to confirm the plotting for each point.
V. Line/ curve of the best fit
➢ In both line and curve graph, join only the best fit.
➢ Leave the rest outside the line.
➢ Drawing of the line or curve of the best fit minimizes errors.
VI. Slope
➢ The measure of the extent to which the variable in the vertical axis changes in relation to the
change in the variable on the horizontal axis.
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
➢ Slope = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

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 ∆𝑌
G = ∆𝑋 where ∆𝑌 = 𝑌𝑓 − 𝑌𝐼 and ∆𝑋 = 𝑋𝑓 − 𝑋𝐼
𝑌 −𝑌𝐼
G = 𝑋𝑓 −𝑋
𝑓 𝐼

Error analysis
Determination of experimental errors
➢ An error is the variance between a measurement and the true or accepted value.
➢ There is always some degree of uncertainty (inaccuracy) which is referred to as an experimental
error when experiments are carried out.

Classes of experimental error

1. Absolute error
➢The difference in magnitude between value of the measurement obtained and
actual value.
➢Is deviation of the measurement from the actual value. i.e. measured value – actual value.
➢Sometimes, it is defined as half of the least value (count) that can be measured
using the given instrument.
➢Absolute error can be minimised by being more accurate when taking any
measurement.
2. Relative error
➢The ratio of the absolute error to the true value, usually expressed as a percentage.
Relative error = (𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑥 100)/𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
➢Relative error can be minimized by minimizing absolute error.
3. Systematic error
➢Is the one that arises from the error in measuring instrument.
➢The value remains the same.
➢Systematic error can be corrected by
✓correcting the position of zero or
✓using error-free instruments.
4. Zero error
➢Is the reading that an instrument gives when it is supposed to give a reading of
zero.
➢Sources of zero error can be
✓Using a maladjusted instrument (an instrument that is to be reset to zero before

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 using it)
✓Using wrongly calibrated instrument.
✓Using a damaged measuring instrument.
➢Zero error can be minimized by
✓Resetting measuring instruments to zero reading before using them.
✓Using instruments that are correctly calibrated.
5. Environmental errors
➢ Are those errors arising due to conditions that are external to the measuring instrument.
E.g. Temperature, Humidity, Pressure, Magnetic field, Electric field.
➢ Can be minimized by controlling the external environment where possible.
6. Random errors
➢ Errors arise from the inconsistency in the repeated measurements of the quantity.
✓ Due to unpredictable fluctuations in the readings of a measuring instrument.
✓ Inaccurate taking of readings from measuring instrument.
❖ Can be minimized by taking the average of numbers of repeated observations.
7. Parallax errors
➢ Also called observational errors.
➢ Due to reading of wrong value on an instrument
✓ Due to wrong positioning of the eyes.
✓ Poor vision by the observer.
➢ Can be minimized by
❖ Correct positioning of eyes when reading the value in the instrument

Lab report
➢ Lab report is how you explain what you did in experiment, what you learned, and what the results
meant.
➢ Though different lab reports may contain detailed information, the simple one should have the
following standard format.
1. The title
➢ It shows what you did.
➢ It should be brief and describe the main point of the experiment or investigation.
➢ For example; “investigating the relationship between periodic time and mass”

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2. The aim
➢ This is the purpose of carrying out the experiment.
➢ It may be one or many. For example; “investigating the relationship between periodic time
and mass on an oscillating spring”
3. Introduction
➢ Usually the introduction is one paragraph that states the objective of the experiment
and provides the reader with background to the experiment.
4. Materials
➢ It is usually a simple list of everything needed to complete your experiment.
➢ Ensure that it is accurate and complete.
5. Methods
➢ These are steps that show how you carried out the experiment. Describe what you did
using third personal eg a mass was attached to the end of the spring.
6. Results
➢ It Contain the raw data that you obtained from carrying out the experiment.
➢ It should show the summarized data from the experiments without discussing their
implications or giving any interpretation.
➢ The data should be organized into tables, figures, graphs, and so on.
7. Discussion
• It is where you explain, interpret and analyse the data and determine whether
or not a hypothesis was accepted.
• Explain the logic that allows you to accept or Reject your original hypotheses.
You also explain possible errors of experiment.

8. Conclusion
This is where you sum up what happened in the experiment, whether the hypothesis was
accepted or rejected, and what this means.

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UNIT 3: THE KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER.
✓ States that matter is made up of tiny discrete particles that are always in random motion.
✓ The theory explains that particles are packed in solids, liquids or gases and are bound by different
attractive forces between them.

The Kinetic Theory of Solids

✓ Solids have strong forces of attraction between particles
✓ Particles are held closely in fixed positions by attractive forces. This makes solids to have the
highest density compared to liquids and gases, fixed shape, fixed volume and incompressible.
✓ A solid cannot be compressed since its particles are close together.
✓ Particles of matter in a solid state vibrate continuously in their fixed positions.
✓ When a solid is heated, the heated energy is gained by the particles.
✓ The extra heat energy makes the particles vibrate more and move a little further apart causing a
decrease in density.

The Kinetic Theory of Liquids

i. Liquids have moderate forces of attraction between particles.
ii. That is, in a liquid, intermolecular forces (IMF) are weaker than in a solid. This explains why
liquids have lower density compared to solids.
iii. The Particles of liquids are further apart from each other compared to solids. That is, the
particles are free to move randomly while sticking together. Hence, the particles move by sliding
over one another
iv. Liquids do not have definite shape but take shape of the container

The Kinetic Theory of Gases

❖ They have weak forces of attraction between particles. That is, gases are almost free of any
attraction forces.
❖ Gases have particles far apart. Therefore, gases have the least density.
❖ Gases have particles that move randomly at high speed, colliding with each other and walls
of the container
❖ According to the kinetic theory, molecules in gases are in constant random motion; hence
they are always colliding between themselves and with the walls of the container holding
them. Therefore, gases have no fixed shape or size.
❖ Gases take the size or volume of container.

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 ❖ The kinetic theory of gas increases with temperature. As temperature increases, the particles
in the gas gain kinetic energy hence more collisions between the particles of gases and walls
of the container.
❖ The walls of the container holding the gas experience more pressure and the container may
in some cases burst.

Diffusion
✓ Is the movement of molecules of substances from the region of high concentration to a region of
low concentration.
✓ Diffusion in gases takes place more quickly than in liquids in that molecule of gas moves freely
than those of a liquid.

Examples of diffusion of gases and liquids in our homes

✓ Smelling of food
✓ A cup of tea leaves
✓ Washing clothe – soap diffuses into water molecules
✓ Perfume in clothes produce gas particles which diffuse easily to the surrounding.

Evidence of Diffusion

i. Diffusion of liquid

It can be observed that by putting a small particle of Potassium Permanganate into a glass of distilled water.
As the particles dissolve, the purple colour of potassium permanganate can be seen diffusing into the water.

ii. Diffusion of gases

➢ All gases diffuse to fill the space available to them.

➢ Different gases diffuse at different rates;
➢ for example, a lighter gas diffuses much faster than a heavier one.

The Diffusion of two gases: Ammonia gas (NH3) and Hydrogen Chloride gas (HCl gas)

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 ✓ Soak one piece of cotton wool in concentrated ammonia solution.
✓ Soak another piece of cotton wool in concentrated Hydrochloric acid (HCl).
✓ Leave the experiment in the sunny day for some hours.
✓ The white cloudy ring of Ammonium Chloride is produced and seen closer to the Hydrochloric
acid.

✓ Ammonia gas is lighter and diffuses much faster than Hydrogen Chloride gas (heavier gas) released
from Hydrochloric acid; that is why the reaction (white ring) is formed closer to the heavier
particles, HCl.

Application of Diffusion
✓ Oxygen diffuses from alveoli (air sacs) into blood capillaries in the lung.
✓ Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood capillaries to the alveoli in the lungs.

Relationship between average molecular speed and temperature

✓ From the kinetic theory of matter, raising heat energy in matter increases the kinetic energy of
matter.
✓ This also increases the temperature because of the increased collisions between the particles.
✓ Heat increase in any matter increases its temperature.
✓ In other words, as temperature of molecules of a substance increases, its molecules move faster
hence the kinetic energy of molecules increases.
✓ On the contrary, when the temperature is very low, the molecules of a substance move slowly since
they possess low kinetic energy.

To demonstrate the relationship between average molecular speed and temperature

✓ Take candle wax and put it in a metal tin. Candle wax can be obtained by melting a candle
✓ Heat the tin containing the wax and observe the results

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 ✓ When wax is heated, it melts and becomes more of a liquid. This is because the heat applied breaks
the bonds between the wax molecules. Heat increases the kinetic energy of molecules.
✓ Therefore, the wax becomes more of a liquid as it gets hotter. The molecular motion rate increases
as the temperature rises.

Effects of temperature on Molecular Motion of Particles

✓ The speed of molecules increases as the temperature increases.
✓ The space between particles also increases with increase in temperature.

Effects of Temperature on State of matter

Matter can change its state into another due to heating or cooling effects.

Absolute Temperature
✓ The absolute zero temperature is the temperature in which the molecules have the minimum
possible kinetic energy.
✓ It also refers to the lowest possible temperature for all substances (0 kelvin or – 273 oC).
✓ At absolute zero, the molecules of gas no longer exert pressure on the walls of the container since
temperature is extremely low, causing molecules to move slower and slower.
✓ The particle vibrations also cease. That is, at absolute zero the particles do not have any motion.
✓ Absolute temperature is the temperature that starts with absolute zero (0 kelvin or – 273 oC).
✓ At this temperature, both volume and pressure of matter come to zero.
✓ The average kinetic energy per particle is zero.
✓ This means that, at absolute zero (0 kelvin or – 273 oC) matter does not exist. The SI Unit for
absolute temperature is Kelvin (K).

Gas Pressure
✓ Pressure is the force exerted on a unit area of surface. Gas pressure is the force (impact) of the
moving gas particles acting on the walls of the container.
✓ It also refers to the force exerted by gas particles per unit area. According to kinetic theory of gases,
gas molecules are in continuous motion and constantly bombarding with each other and the walls of
the container holding them.

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Causes of Gas pressure

It is caused by the gas particles constantly bombarding (striking) with each other and the surfaces of a
container.

Uses of Gas Pressure

✓ It is used for sucking liquid using drinking straws.

✓ Lungs expand during sucking, making air flow into the straw. Atmospheric pressure forces the
liquid up to your mouth since it is greater than the pressure of the air in the straw.
✓ It is used to inflate bicycle tyres and vehicle tyres.
✓ It is used for making pumps which are used for inflating the tyres and balls.
✓ It is used in breaking
✓ It enables flying objects to float in air.
✓ It is used in manometer

Factors that affect gas pressure

✓ Amount or number of gas particles in the container.

✓ Volume or size of the container
✓ Temperature - Gas pressure increases with the increase in temperature in that gas particles gain
kinetic energy hence more collisions between gas particles and the walls of the container.

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UNIT 4: THERMOMETRY
Thermometry is a science and practice of temperature measurement.

Temperature Scales
✓ When measuring temperature, temperature scales are used. A temperature scale is a set of number
used to determine the hotness or coldness of an object.
✓ Temperature is the measure of hotness or coldness.
✓ Temperature scale is a range of values of measuring the degree of hotness.

There are different temperature scales.

1. The Celsius temperature Scale

➢ Celsius temperature scale is based on 0oC for the freezing point and 100oC for the boiling point of
water.

2. The Fahrenheit Scale

➢ Fahrenheit temperature scale is based on 32 degrees Fahrenheit for the freezing point and 212
degrees Fahrenheit for the boiling point of water, with the interval between the two being divided
into 180 equal parts.
➢ SI terms with the degrees Fahrenheit equal to 9/5 degrees Celsius plus 32 (oF = 9/5oC + 32).

3. The Kelvin temperature scale

➢ The Kelvin scale is also called the absolute temperature Scale. It measures absolute temperature.
➢ Absolute temperature is based on the kinetic theory model of matter, which assumes that if
temperature of a substance could be reduced to -273oC,
➢ This temperature is known as Absolute temperature.
➢ The Kelvin scale has an absolute zero, which is the theoretical temperature at which molecules of a
substance have the lowest energy.
➢ The Kelvin scale has been adopted as the international standard for scientific temperature
measurement.

Differences between Kelvin and Celsius temperature scales

i) Base reference of temperature in Kelvin scale is -273K while in Celsius scale is 0oC

ii) The Kelvin temperature scale is the standard (base) unit of temperature in the international system (SI) of
measurement while Celsius scale is not a standard unit.

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iii) Temperature is measured in Kelvin in Kelvin scale while in degree Celsius in Celsius scale.

iv) Kelvin scale is absolute while is not absolute in Celsius scale because it allows negative temperature
values.

Converting temperature from one scale to another

The changes in temperature in all the scales are the same.

1. Converting temperature from Celsius Scale to Kelvin scale

The conversion formula for oC to K is: K = oC + 273 e.g. the temperature in kelvin of – 10 oC object is 263
K

2. Converting Kelvin to degrees Celsius

The conversion formula for K to oC is: oC = K – 273 e.g. converting 300 K to oC is 27 oC.

3. Converting degrees Celsuis to degrees Fahrenheit

oF = 9/5 oC + 32 e.g. converting 120oC to oF is 248 oF

4. Converting degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius

oC = 5/9 (oF – 32) e.g. the temperature in degrees Celsius of 248 oF object is 120 oC.

Types of thermometers and how they work

➢ Temperature is measured by an instrument called thermometer.
➢ Different types of thermometers can be used to measure temperature depending on the physical
property that varies with temperature.
➢ Since solids, liquids and gases usually expand when heated and contract when cooled; almost any
substance could be used in a thermometer.
➢ The choice usually depends on the way the thermometer will be used.
➢ Simply put, a thermometric substance (solid, liquid and gas) is chosen when constructing a
thermometer. Then, a temperature scale is defined by means of two fixed points – lower fixed point
and upper fixed point.
➢ NB: Thermometric substances are substances used in the thermometers as thermometric solids,
liquids or gases. Their properties change uniformly with temperature.

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1. Liquid – in - Glass Thermometer

➢ The most common type of thermometer is the one based on thermal expansion of liquid – in –glass.
➢ This type of thermometer is convenient for common use and is adequately sensitive and moderately
quick –acting. Liquid – in – glass thermometer uses expansion and contraction of a liquid as shown
in figure below. Examples of liquid – in – glass thermometer are laboratory thermometer and
clinical thermometer.

How a liquid- in- glass thermometer works

➢ When a liquid –in- glass thermometer bulb is heated

➢ the liquid inside it expands into the capillary tube.
➢ Since the capillary is narrow, a small increase in volume of the liquid makes the thread to move a
long way up the tube.
➢ The temperature is read from a scale of degrees marked on the stem at the level of the mercury in the
capillary.

Note that

➢ If the thermometer is warmed too much, the mercury gets into the safety bulb instead of bursting the
thermometer.
➢ When the substance is cold, the liquid contracts and the thermometer shows a lower temperature
reading.
➢ The glass stem is thick in order to prevent the glass from breaking.
➢ The glass is also used as a measuring glass since it contains the scale that measure temperature.

Liquids used in liquid – in – glass thermometer

➢ There are two major liquids used in liquid thermometers – mercury and ethanol.
➢ Each of these liquids has the following advantages and disadvantages.

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A. Mercury

The advantages of using mercury in a liquid thermometer are:

✓ It is cheap and durable

✓ It is easy to calibrate (to measure)
✓ It is a good conductor of heat
✓ It expands uniformly
✓ It has high boiling point (357oC).
✓ It does not wet the sides of the tube or it does not cling to the walls of the tube.

The disadvantages of using mercury in a liquid thermometer

✓ It is very expensive
✓ Its expansivity is low (i.e. it responds slowly)
✓ It is poisonous. It would cause health hazards if the tube is broken.
✓ It has high freezing point. Hence, it cannot be used in areas where temperatures are below -39oC.

B. Alcohol

The advantages of using alcohol in liquid thermometers are:

✓ It expands uniformly and its freezing point is -115o. Hence, it can be used in very cold regions.
✓ It has a large expansivity. Alcohol can therefore be used in wide tubes as well.

The disadvantages of using alcohol in liquid thermometers

✓ It has high specific heat capacity

✓ It wets glass because it clings to the wall of the tube
✓ It has low boiling point. Therefore, it cannot be used to measure high temperatures
✓ It can evaporate resulting in fluid loss.
✓ Its thread has a tendency of breaking.

2. Thermocouple thermometer

➢ This type of thermometer is commonly used in industry to measure temperatures of ovens and
furnaces.
➢ The thermocouple thermometer uses a thermo- electric property.
➢ Wires made of two different metals are joined together to form two junctions.

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 ➢ Note that a thermocouple is a device that converts heat energy to electrical energy.
➢ It consists of two wires of different materials.

How a thermocouple thermometer works

➢ When the hot junction is heated, an electric current flow through the loop in a complete circuit and
produces a reading on a sensitive meter.
➢ The value of current produced depends on the temperature difference between hot and cold
junctions.
➢ The value of the current obtained can be used to determine the temperature at one end if the
temperature at the other end is known.
➢ voltage is produced when the temperature of one of the spots differs from the reference temperature
at other parts of the circuit.
➢ A micro-voltmeter is used to record the potential difference.
➢ The micro-voltmeter is calibrated against known temperatures. Temperature is read from the digital
scale.

Uses of thermocouple thermometer

✓ Used in industries in order to determine if the required temperature is reached.

✓ Used as flame sensors in safety devices
✓ Used in homes, offices, and business places as the temperature sensors in thermostats.

Advantages of a thermocouple thermometer

✓ It has low heat capacity. It can be used to measure fluctuating temperatures.

✓ It has a very large range. The range is from -200oC to 1500oC.
✓ It can measure the temperature at a point

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Disadvantage:

❖ Cannot be used above certain temperatures as they become inaccurate depending on the metal used
❖ Hard to calibrate
❖ Only measures temperature differences.

3. Constant – volume gas thermometer

➢ This is the most accurate thermometer for scientific measurement.

➢ It measures temperature by making use of the change in the pressure of a constant (fixed) volume of
a gas when the temperature changes. Gas is sealed and kept at a constant volume.
➢ As temperature changes, the volume or pressure of the gas also changes. Constant- volume gas
thermometers are often used to calibrate other types of thermometers.
➢ Figure below shows a diagram of a constant – volume gas thermometer

➢ This thermometer consists of a bulb connected by a capillary tube to a manometer that measures the
gas pressure.
➢ The bulb is filled with a gas such that the volume of the gas in the bulb remains constant. The
manometer is connected to a piece of flexible tubing, and both are partially filled with mercury.
➢ The mercury level in the manometer is fixed, while the mercury level in the tube, or reservoir moves
up or down depending on changes in pressure. The amount of pressure required to maintain a
constant volume of the gas indicates temperature. The temperature reading is taken off the scale.

How a constant – volume gas thermometer works

➢ The thermometer uses the changes in pressure of a gas with temperature when the volume of the gas
remains constant.

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 ➢ It consists of a bulb filled with gas kept at a constant volume, and is connected by a capillary tube to
a manometer that measures the gas pressure.
➢ Before using the thermometer, the height of the mercury in the smaller column is set to a reference
point 0 on a ruler.
➢ When the environment is hotter, the temperature of the gas rises. This increases the pressure of the
gas and also tends to increase the volume of the gas through expansion (the reverse happens when
the environment is cooler). Due to the increase in temperature and pressure, mercury rises higher up
in the longer column of the monomer.
➢ The height difference h between the mercury levels in the two smaller columns at given the pressure
of the gas can be used to determine the temperature of the given environment.

4. Resistance thermometer

➢ This thermometer is made of a material whose electrical resistance changes significantly with
changes in temperature.
➢ For metals, the electrical resistance increases with rising temperature.
➢ Where relation between temperature and resistance is known, we can work out the temperature by
measuring the electrical resistance.
➢ The basic principle is that a small current causes a higher temperature.
➢ Calibration against known temperatures can then be done to create a scale. Resistance thermometers
are used in industries to measure temperatures that do not exceed 600oC.
How a Resistance thermometer works
➢ The thermometer works on the principle that the resistance of a wire increases with temperature.
➢ The material used in a resistance thermometer has a predictable change in resistance as its
temperature changes. This predictable change is used to determine temperature.
➢ The change in electrical resistance is indicated as a temperature reading on a digital scale (display
screen).
➢ The instrument is calibrated in such a way that a change in resistance corresponds with a change that
is viewable on a digital scale. The calibration is done against known temperatures.

Advantages
✓ Ability to cover extensive temperature ranges
✓ Variation of resistance with temperature is stable over an extensive temperature range, hence very
stable.

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 Disadvantages
✓ Are expensive
✓ cannot be used to measure rapid temperature changes since they have high heat capacities.

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UNIT 5: PRESSURE
➢ Is force exerted per unit area.

Pressure = Force/𝐴rea
➢ Force is measured in newton (N) and area in square metre (m2).
➢ Pressure is measured in N/m2.
➢ Unit for pressure is Pascal (Pa).

Pressure in solids
This is force exerted by a solid per unit area

Factors that affect pressure exerted by solids

1. Contact surface area.
A large surface area causes less pressure. A small area of contact increases pressure or causes high pressure.
2. Size of the force.
Pressure exerted by solids can increase with an increase in the size of the force when surface area is kept
constant because more force acts per given area.

Applications of solid pressure

➢ Nails are made with sharp surface area to allow easy penetration
➢ When the ground is soft a farmer is encouraged to use a vehicle with wheel of larger surface area to
avoid sinking into the ground.
➢ The wall foundations have a large horizontal surface area to reduce pressure underneath so that the
walls do not sink into the ground.
➢ The area under knife blade is extremely small to have enough higher pressure for the blade to push
easily through the material.
➢ The studs of football boot have only a small area of contact with the ground to build higher pressure
for the to sink into the ground which gives extra grip.

Liquid pressure
This is force exerted by a liquid on the walls of the container
Properties of liquid pressure

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Pressure in liquids acts in all directions. The liquid pushes on every surface in contact with it, no matter
which way the surface is facing.

➢ Pressure in liquid increases with depth. The deeper the depth into a liquid you go, the greater the
weight of liquid above and the higher the pressure. Dams are constructed thicker at the bottom than
on top to withstand greater pressure created at the bottom of the dam

➢ Pressure in liquid depends on the density of the liquid. The more the density of the liquid the
greater the pressure at any particular depth.

➢ Pressure in liquid does not depend on the shape of the container. Whatever the shape or with the
pressure at any particular depth is the same.

Deriving the liquid pressure formula; P = dhg

The weight of a liquid exerts pressure at the base of the container. We shall use the formula for calculating
pressure to obtain an expression for pressure at any point in a fluid. Consider a liquid of density (d), the
liquid is poured in a tank of base area (A) to depth (h)

➢ Volume of liquid V = base area x depth (height) = Ah …………(i)

➢ Mass of liquid m = density x volume = dAh …………………….(ii)
➢ Weight of liquid W = F = mg = mass x acceleration due to gravity = dAhg ….(iii)
➢ Weight of liquid = force the liquid exerts on area A
➢ Therefore, Pressure the liquid exerts on the base,
➢ P = Force (weight) / Area; P = dAhg /A. Hence, P = dhg

Application of liquid pressure

➢ Water supply system.

Water is pumped from the river or dam into a reservoir or tank located at a high elevation to serve homes in
a village. The reservoir is located on an elevated ground or elevation so that the water may have sufficient
to flow to consumers.

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 ➢ Blood transfusion
The blood is hang at a higher position than the patient so that the blood has sufficient pressure to flow into
veins of the patient.
➢ Dam wall building
The walls of the dam are built thicker at the bottom than on top to withstand huge pressure exerted at
bottom of the dam from water.

Pascal’s Principle
➢ It states that pressure applied at a point in a fluid at rest is transmitted equally to all parts of the fluid
➢ It also states that pressure exerted anywhere in an enclosed incompressible fluid is transmitted
equally in all directions throughout the fluid.
➢ Mathematically, Pascal principle states that 𝑓/𝑎=𝐹/𝐴

➢ Calculate the pressure piston A exerts on the liquid.

For Pascal’s Principle to hold, the fluid should have the following properties:

i) It should be incompressible
ii) It should not corrode the parts of the system
iii) It should have a wide range of temperature; that is, low freezing and boiling points

Atmospheric Pressure
➢ The earth’s surface is surrounded by the thick column of air (vast column of air) called atmosphere.
➢ A gas exerts pressure on the walls of a container. Since air is a mixture of gases, it also exerts
pressure.

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 ➢ Atmospheric pressure refers to the pressure resulting from the weight of the air on the surface of the
earth.

Measuring atmospheric pressure

➢ The instruments that are used to measure atmospheric pressure are called barometers.
The following are the types of barometers used:

1. Mercury barometer
➢ A simple mercury barometer uses a thick walled tube of about 1 m long.
➢ It uses mercury that is poured into the tube.
➢ This mercury tube is inserted into a wider vessel containing mercury. Some mercury runs out of the
tube into the vessel leaving the space at the top of the tube.
➢ The space left at the top of the tube is called a Vacuum.

How a mercury barometer works?

➢ When atmospheric pressure is acting on mercury in the vessel it pushes mercury downwards and
forces it up into the tube.
➢ The mercury rises to a height that is equivalent to atmospheric pressure. The height of mercury, h is
measured on a ruler.

2. Manometer
The instrument that is used to measure gas pressure.

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 ➢ A manometer consists of the u-tube glass which contains mercury and a scale.
➢ Before supplying gas, the height A and B are at the same level.
➢ Then you supply gas which you want to measure its pressure.
➢ The supplied gas pushes down the surface of mercury A, and pushes up the surface B.
➢ The difference between A and B is called height difference.
➢ This difference equals to excess pressure in mm of mercury, so you can measure the gas pressure
by the following calculation:
gas pressure = atmospheric pressure + excess pressure in mm of mercury

Atmospheric pressure can be demonstrated using

The drinking straw-

➢ insert a drinking straw into a bottle of water,

➢ suck on the straw and observe what happens.
➢ Repeat the experiment with the open bottle sealed with a cork having a hole on it,
➢ push the straw through the hole and note what happens.
➢ After sealing the bottle, it becomes impossible to suck water through the straw due to absence of
atmospheric pressure which helps push the liquid up the straw.
➢ When you suck through the straw, you increase the volume of your lungs which reduces air
pressure inside your lungs and mouth.
➢ The atmospheric pressure now pushing down on the surface of the liquid in the bottle is now greater
than the reduced air pressure in the straw.
➢ The pressure difference forces the liquid up the straw into your mouth

Effects of atmospheric pressure.

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 ✓ Drinking using a straw – Drinking a liquid through a straw requires atmospheric pressure to be
present. The atmospheric pressure acts on liquid and helps a person suck it through a straw into the
mouth. A drinking straw cannot be used in a vacuum.
✓ It affects the boiling point of liquids - As height above sea level increases, the column of air
above the liquid surface decreases. Hence, the atmospheric pressure acting on the liquid surface
decreases, thereby reducing the boiling point as less heat energy is required to boil the liquid. The
boiling point is lower at high altitudes like mountain tops and is higher at low altitudes like the sea
level.
✓ Using a siphon – A siphon is a tube which transfers a liquid from a high level to a lower level after
an initial suction action. If sucking the open pipe which is lowered into the liquid, the liquid flows
continuously with no further sucking. The atmospheric pressure acts on the liquid surface and
pushes down on it. The liquid then flows out of the tube without being pumped.
✓ It has a crushing effect on objects it comes into contact with. For an object to maintain shape,
the inside pressure must be equal that outside, otherwise it would crush.
✓ Rubber sucker – When a rubber sucker is pressed against the wall, air is forced out. Atmospheric
pressure then holds it firmly against the smooth surface. Suckers are used a s holders for towels in
the home, for attaching car licenses to windscreens and industry for lifting metal sheets.

Archimedes’ Principle
➢ Archimedes investigated upthrust and discovered the relationship between upthrust and the weight
of the fluid displaced.
➢ A steel ship floats in water yet steel metal sinks.
➢ Floating is not about weight of object but about upthrust.
➢ Upthrust (buoyant force) is the upward force (push) exerted by a fluid (gas or liquid) on the object
immersed (covered) in it.
➢ Archimedes’ Principle states that when a body is completely or partially immersed in a fluid, the
loss in weight (upthrust) is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced

Common Examples of Upthrust

✓ In water it is quite easy to carry a person in your arms while on the dry land the person would be
much heavier.
✓ Clothes feel lighter in water, but feel much heavier when lifted out from the water. Notice that an
object in water weighs less because of upthrust.

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Describe an experiment to show that a body wholly immersed in a liquid experiences an upthrust
which is equal to its own weight of the liquid displaced

➢ Materials needed: An iron bar, an overflow can, spring balance, beaker and a compressional
balance

➢ Procedure
a. Weigh a uniform iron bar in air using a spring balance
b. Fill an overflow can with water and allow the excess water to flow out through the spout
c. Place an empty beaker on a compression balance under the spout and record its weight
d. Immerse full length of the iron bar in the water poured into the overflow can while noting the
reading on the spring balance
e. Subtract the weight of an iron bar while suspended in air with the weight after fully
submerged in water to find upthrust
f. Collect the displaced water into the empty beaker placed on the compressional balance
and record its weight
g. Subtract the weight of an empty beaker from the weight of the beaker with water in it to find the
weight of displaced water
h. Compare the weight of water displaced and the apparent loss in weight of the iron bar.

➢ The weight of water displaced is equal to the upthrust created towards iron bar.

➢ A body wholly immersed in a liquid experience an upthrust which is equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced

Factors affect the magnitude of upthrust

➢ Density of the liquid –

The upthrust of the liquid increases as the density (d) of the liquid increases and vice versa.
The denser the liquid, the greater the pressure acting upwards on the bottom surface of the body;
that is, a denser liquid exerts greater upthrust on an object than a less dense liquid.
➢ The volume of the body immersed in the liquid (depth)

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 ➢ The greater the height and the volume of the portion of the object submerged into liquid, the
greater the upthrust exerted on the object.

The law of floatation

•States that a freely floating body displaces a fluid of weight which is equal to its own weight.

APPLICATION OF FLAOTATION

•Floating of ships
When a ship is loaded, it displaces more water to balance the added load. Water creates
an upthrust towards the ship hence the density of the ship becomes smaller than the
density of water hence the ship floats on water.

•Floating and sinking of Submarines

✓ A submarine has ballast tanks which are located internally in the ship.
✓ The ballast tanks expel water by compressing water.
✓ This creates upthrust towards the submarine ship hence the density of the submarine becomes less
than the density of water then the submarine floats on water.
✓ When the submarine admits water into the ballast tanks the density of the submarine becomes
greater than the density of water hence it sinks.

Page 37 of 83
UNIT 6: GAS LAWS
Ideal gases
Ideal gases are theoretical gases but they do not really exist.
The following are characteristics of ideal gases:
❖ They have high temperature and low pressure
❖ The forces between the particles are negligible.
❖ The actual volume of the particle is negligible compared with the space in which the particles move.
❖ The time that the particles are actually in contact with each other or with the walls of a container is
negligible compared with the time between two successive collisions with the walls.
❖ All collisions are perfectly elastic i.e. kinetic energy before collisions is equal to the kinetic energy
after collision.

There are three gas laws

❖ Boyle’s Law
❖ Charles’ Law
❖ Pressure Law

Boyle`s Law
➢ The volume of a given mass of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure if the
temperature remains constant. Remember reducing the volume of a given mass of
a gas increases its pressure.

Charles’ law
➢ It states that the volume of the given mass of a gas is directly proportional to its
absolute temperature if pressure is constant.

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Pressure law
➢ It states that the pressure of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its
absolute temperature if the volume remains constant.
Mathematically: Pressure α Temperature

Practice questions

1. Explain any three applications gas laws.

❖ Many gases are stored under high pressure in order to occupy a smaller volume. This is an
application of Boyles’ law.
❖ The mechanical bicycle pump is based on Boyles’ law.
❖ When flying hot – air balloons, we apply Charles’ law. As the air inside the balloon is heated, its
volume increases and density decreases. The density of hot air is less than that of cold air. The
difference in density between the hot air inside the balloon and the cold air outside the balloon
will make the hot –air balloon to rise.
❖ A ball and a balloon swell up when left in the sun on a hot day if it is not completely inflated (if it
is completely inflated, it will rupture). This follows Charles’ law.

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2. A container holds 50 cm3 of air. The pressure is 10 KPa and the temperature is 17oC. Calculate
the final pressure when the air is compressed to 30 cm3 and temperature is 27oC.

𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐
=
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐

𝑻𝟐 𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏
𝑷𝟐 = 𝑽𝟐 𝑻𝟏

𝑇1 =17oC= 290K 𝑇2 = 27oC= 300K

𝑉1 = 50𝑐m3 𝑉2 = 30𝑐m3
P1 = 10KPa = 10000Pa P2 =?

𝑻𝟐 𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 (300K)(10000Pa)(50𝑐m3 )
𝑷𝟐 = = = 17241.38 Pa
𝑽𝟐 𝑻𝟏 (30𝑐m3 )(290𝐾)

3. The pressure of a gas at 15oC is 760 mm Hg. What pressure will be same gas exert at 50 oC?
𝑃1 𝑃2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
𝑇2 𝑃1
𝑃2 = 𝑇1

𝑇1 =15oC = 298𝐾 𝑇2 =50oC = 313𝐾

𝑃1 = 760 mm Hg 𝑃2 =?
𝑇2 𝑃1 313𝐾 x 760 mm Hg
𝑃2 = = = 798. 3 mm Hg
𝑇1 298𝐾

4. A bicycle pump contains 50cm3 of air at 12oC. Calculate its volume at 27 oC if the pressure is
kept constant
𝑉1 = 50cm3 𝑉2 = ?
𝑇1 = 12oC = 285K , 𝑇2 = 27oC = 300K

𝑉2 𝑉
= 𝑇1 ;
𝑇2 1

𝑇2 x 𝑉1 300𝐾 x 50𝑐𝑚3
𝑉2 = = = 52.6 cm3
𝑇1 285K

5. 750 ml of gas exerts 1 atm of pressure. What volume of the same gas will exert 3.5 atm of
pressure without changing its temperature?
V1 = 750 ml; V2 = ?

P1 = 1 atm P2 = 3.5 atm

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 P1V1 = P2V2.

𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝟏 𝐚𝐭𝐦 𝐗 𝟕𝟓𝟎 𝐦𝐥
V2. = = = 214.29 ml
𝑷𝟐 𝟑.𝟓 𝐚𝐭𝐦

UNIT :7 SCALARS AND VECTORS

Scalar quantities
✓ A scalar quantity is a quantity that has magnitude (size) only.
✓ This means it is only expressed in numerical values and no direction.
✓ Examples of other scalar quantities include pressure, temperature, speed, distance, mass, area,
energy, work, power and volume.

Vector quantities
✓ A vector quantity is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction.
✓ Force is an example of a vector quantity. It has a numerical value and acts in a specified direction.
✓ For example, a force of 5 N downwards.
✓ Other examples of vector quantities include displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum,
magnetic field and impulse.

Representing vectors
•Vectors are represented using a line to show magnitude or size and an arrow to show
direction of the vector.

PROPERTIES OF VECTORS
•They have magnitude represented by a line
•They have directions shown by an arrow
•They can be moved from one position to another as long as the magnitudes and directions
are maintained.
•When the vector is reversed, it is assigned a negative value.

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RESULTANT VECTOR
A resultant vector is a single vector which is equivalent to the combined effect of two or more
component vectors acting at the same point.

Ways of finding the resultant vector

•Vector addition and subtraction
Vectors in the same direction are added and vectors in the opposite direction are subtracted

Calculate the resultant force on the box

𝐹𝑅=250𝑁−(100𝑁+60𝑁)=250𝑁−160𝑁=90𝑁 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 250𝑁

Triangle rule
States that if two sides of a triangle completely represent two vectors both in magnitude and direction
taken in the same order, then the third side taken in opposite order represent the resultant of the two
vectors

Forces of 40N and 50N are acting at right angles. Draw a scale diagram to find
the resultant force. (Use a scale of 1cm to represent 10N).

When two vectors are acting at right angles their resultant is the result after square
rooting the squares of their forces acting at right angle i.e. 402 + 502 = 𝑅2 ⟺
𝑅 = √1600 + 2500 = √4100 = 64.031242 = 64𝑁

Parallelogram rule
States that if two forces acting at a point are represented in size and direction by the sides of the
parallelogram drawn from point, their resultant is represented in size and direction by the diagonal of the
parallelogram drawn from the point.

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Example
Two forces of magnitude 240 N and 420 N are being used to pull a boat at an angle of 60° each other.
Find the resultant force by using a scale diagram. (Use a scale of 1 cm to represent 100 N)

➢ The process of splitting a single vector into horizontal component and vertical component
at an angle is called resolution of a vector.
➢ Vectors can be resolved using the following ways

•𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑥 = 𝐹 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃

•𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑦 = 𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃

Page 43 of 83
UNIT 8: LINEAR MOTION
It refers to motion of objects in a straight line with respect to distance, displacement, speed, velocity and
acceleration.

Distance & Displacement

a) Distance -

➢ It is the length between two points.

➢ It represents different routes one can take to move from one point to another.
➢ Its SI Unit is metres (m), and is a scalar quantity.

b) Displacement –

➢ It is the distance moved in a particular direction.

➢ It represents the most direct, shortest route on a straight line one can take to move from one point to
another.
➢ Its SI Unit is metres and is a vector quantity because it has both magnitude and direction.

c) Speed and Velocity-

➢ Both terms represent how far an object travels per unit time.
➢ Both use the same units, m/s.

d) Speed

➢ It is the distance moved by a body per unit time.

➢ The SI unit of speed is metres per second (m/s).
➢ Speed is a scalar quantity since it shows magnitude only.
➢ Formulae: i) Speed, v = distance moved / time taken

ii) Average speed = total distance moved / total time taken

e) Velocity

➢ It is the displacement moved per unit time.

➢ It also refers to the speed of a body in a particular direction. Velocity = displacement / time taken.
➢ The SI unit of velocity is metres per second (m/s).
➢ Velocity is a vector quantity since it shows both magnitude and direction.

f) Acceleration

➢ It is defined as the change in velocity per unit time.

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 ➢ Acceleration, a = (v – u) / t .i.e. acceleration = change in velocity / time taken = (final velocity (v)
– initial velocity (u)) / time (t).
➢ Acceleration is a vector quantity.
➢ The SI unit of acceleration is m/ s2 or ms-2

Other terms associated with acceleration

• Acceleration is positive when v ˃ u.

• Deceleration / retardation is negative acceleration (decrease in velocity with time). This means
that v ˂ u. Deceleration is usually shown with a negative sign before the value. For example, -4m/s2
means deceleration is 4m/s2

Acceleration due to gravity

✓ When a body is released from a short distance above the earth’s surface, the earth’s gravitational
pull causes it to accelerates down with what is called acceleration due to gravity.
✓ When the body moves with acceleration due to gravity downwards, it is said to have free fall
motion. Ideal free fall motion can only take place in a vacuum since in normal situations the falling
body experiences air resistance.

Determining acceleration due to gravity using a pendulum

➢ Arrange the apparatus as shown in figure below

➢ Measure the length of pendulum (L) and record it in table of results.

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 Length, L (cm) Time for 10 Period, T (sec) = Period squared,
oscillations (sec) time for 10 T2(sec2)
oscillations / 10
oscillations
50
60
70
80
90

➢ Pull the pendulum bob away about amplitude of 10 cm, allow it swing freely and start the stop
watch at same time.
➢ Record the time taken for 10 oscillations in the table of results above
➢ Repeat steps ii to iv to get a second reading of time for 10 oscillations (in order to average time so
that you minimize errors).
➢ Repeat steps ii to iv using different pendulum length and record the results in the table.
➢ Complete the table by filling in the remaining columns.
➢ Plot a best fit graph line of Period squared, T2 against length (L) using the data in the table of results
➢ Using the graph of period squared against length to calculate the slope (S) of the graph line. The
gradient /slope (S) = change in period squared/ change in length.
➢ By comparing the simple equation for the period of a pendulum (T2 = 4 π2 L / g ) with the equation
of a straight line (y = mx + c), the slope of the graph becomes g = 4 π2/ s.

Describe an experiment that could be carried out to determine the average speed of an
athlete given the following materials: tape measure, stop watch and a whistle.

a. Measure a distance of 20 m with a tape measure and mark the starting and finishing
points.
b. An athlete must stand on the starting point.
c. An observer must have a stop watch and a whistle.
d. The athlete must start running as soon as the observer blows the whistle and starts the
stop watch.

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e. The athlete can cover the same distance three times then the observer stops the stop
watch.
f. Record the total distance covered as 20 𝑚 𝑥 3 = 60 𝑚.
g. Record the total time taken.
h. Calculate the average speed of the1 athlete as follows:
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒/𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

MEASURING VELOCITY
•Can be measured in a number of ways such as using ticker-tape-timer.

TICKER-TAPE-TIMER
•An electrical vibrator which moves a metal pin up and down 50 times every second.
•This gives one complete vibration as 1/50 second = 0.02s.
•As the pin moves downwards, it presses a dot on the carbon paper disc.
•The tape is attached to a moving body.
•Each successive pair of dots represents a time interval of 0.02 second.
•The distance between any two successive pair of dots is the distance the object has
moved in 0.02 second.
•Therefore, the tape records the distance moved and time taken by a moving body.
•Since the dots are equally spaced, the velocity if the same at all points on the tape.
Velocity of the tape = 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡/𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛.

Motion – time graphs and their interpretations

Distance-time graphs
a. body at rest.

This shows that the distance covered by the body does not change with time.

b. Moving body with constant speed

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 This shows that as the distance travelled by the body increases, the time is also
increasing.
➢It this case, speed can be presented by
✓Speed = ∆𝑠/∆𝑡 moving with constant (uniform) speed.
c. A body moving at an increasing speed

This shows that the speed is increasing (not uniform).

➢This implies that the object is accelerating.

Distance is found by calculating area under the velocity-time graph.

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Worked example
Calculate the distance covered by a particle whose motion is shown in figure below.

Falling objects in fluid

When an object is falling in a resistive media like air and liquid, it experiences three forces –
➢ weight (W),
➢ upthrust (U)
➢ frictional force (Fr), as shown in figure below.

➢ The interaction of these forces determines whether the object will accelerate, decelerate or fall with
constant speed called terminal speed.
➢ Weight is the pull of the earth on the object and always acts downwards; upthrust and viscous
drag / fluid friction / frictional force is upward forces exerted by the fluid molecules.
➢ terminal velocity is the maximum constant speed of a body falling through a fluid.

Falling Objects in Liquid

➢ When a body is falling in liquid, it will accelerate downwards because W is greater than Fr and U
(i.e. W˃ Fr +U). As the object increases speed, Fr increases (while U remains constant for a
particular liquid) until W = Fr + U. At this moment, there is no resultant force acting on the object.
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 ➢ As such the object falls with constant speed called terminal velocity.
➢ The two opposite forces are balanced and cancel each other and the object moves with constant
velocity downwards as shown in figure below.

➢ Note: when W ˃ Fr + U, the object is accelerating; W = Fr + U constant speed

➢ and W ˂Fr + U means the speed of the object decreases.

ii) Falling Objects in Vacuum (Free Fall)

➢ A free fall refers to any object falling under the influence of gravity alone (i.e. the object is falling
under no fluid resistance).
➢ What this means is that the object faces no friction or upthrust. It only falls under gravitational force
(weight), which is acting downwards.
➢ The object falling in vacuum does not reach terminal velocity.
➢ If two objects of different weights (masses) are allowed to fall under this condition, they fall side by
side with the same speed (or same acceleration due to gravity (10 m/s2) up to the bottom of the
beaker).
➢ The motion of a feather and a metal ball falling in a vacuum is shown in figure below.

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Sample questions

1. A cyclist starts from rest and accelerates at 1.0 m/s2 for 30s. the cyclist then travels at a constant
speed for 1 minute and then decelerates uniformly and comes to stop in the next 30s.
a. Find the maximum speed attained in
i. metres per second
v = u + at
v = 0m/s + (1.0 m/s2)(30s)
v = 30m/s

ii. kilometres per hour

1m= 0.001km then 30s = 0.03km
1
And 1s = ℎ
3600
1ℎ
v = 0.03𝑘𝑚 ÷ 3600
3600
v = 0.03𝑘𝑚 x = 𝟏𝟎𝟖𝒌𝒎/𝒉
ℎ

b. Calculate the total distance covered in metres

1
S = ut + 2 at2
1
S = (0m/s)(30s) + 2 (1.0 m/s2)(30s)2

S = 450m

2. A racing cyclist starts from rest and accelerates uniformly to a velocity of 20m/s in 4s.
a. What is the acceleration of the cyclists?
v–u
𝑎= 𝑡
20m/s –0m/s
𝑎= 4𝑠
20m/s
𝑎= = 5m/s2
4𝑠

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UNIT 9: WORK AND ENERGY
Work
✓ Work is said to be done on a body whenever a force produces a displacement on the body.
✓ Work is the product of the force and the distance moved in the direction of the force. The work done
depends on the force applied and the distance.
✓ Work done, W = Force x distance moved in the direction of the applied force. W = F x d. Its SI unit
is the Joule (J) or Nm (Newton metre).

Work done by an object on another

When applying a force to an object, you use up the chemical energy in your body to do work. The chemical
energy is transformed to kinetic energy.

Worked example:

A force of 1000N is applied to push a car. If a car moves a distance of 15 m in the direction of the force,
calculate the work done (15 000J)

Work done by force acting at an angle to the horizontal direction of motion

➢ This is where the Force (F) is acting at an angle to the displacement vector (d)
➢ Work done = F x d x cos θ. Where F= force, d = displacement, and θ (theta) = the angle between
the force and the displacement vector.

Worked example

✓ A student pushes a lawn roller with a force of 800N at an angle of 60o to the lawn surface. Calculate
the work done if the roller is pushed for 30m. (12 000J)

Energy
✓ Energy is the ability to do work. The SI unit energy is same as that of work called joules, J. There
are different forms of energy. These include chemical, potential, kinetic, sound, heat and light
energy.
✓ Potential and kinetic energy are examples of mechanical energy.
✓ Mechanical Energy – It is energy associated with the motion and position of an object.

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 ✓ Potential Energy - It is the energy stored in a body or system due to is position or state (energy of
height).
✓ Mechanical energy exists in every system in the universe. For example, a brick at the top of a
building contains potential energy. As it fails, the potential energy changes to kinetic energy.
✓ PE = work done to raise the object to that height.
✓ PE = F x d = mgh, where m = mass (kg), acceleration due to gravity (10 N/ kg), h = height (m).
✓ Kinetic Energy -It is energy in an object due to movement. An object in motion has kinetic energy.
For instance, a moving car possesses kinetic energy due to its motion.
✓ KE = 1/2 mv2 where, m = mass in kg and v = velocity in m/s b) KE = F x d

Worked Example

A crane is used to lift a body of mass 40 kg through a vertical height of 5 m. Calculate the gravitational
potential energy stored in the body (2 000J)

The law of Conservation of Energy (energy stays constant)

The law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be made nor destroyed but can be changed from
one form into another.

Law of Conservation of Mechanical Energy

The law states that mechanical energy in a system remains constant provided there are no external forces. It
assumes that no other energy is produced from the system; for example, heat energy, friction and air
resistance are absent. The law also states that in a system the initial Sum of KE + PE is equal to final Sum
of KE + PE

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 ❖ At point A – the ball is at rest and KE = 0 but PE is maximum since the ball is the highest
point.
❖ Ball falling from A to B – The ball is increasing both speed and KE and is decreasing in PE
because the height is decreasing. Gain in KE = loss in PE
❖ Ball at point B – The speed and so the KE are maximum while PE is zero since the ball is at
its lowest height. Gain in KE = loss in PE
❖ Ball rising from B to C - KE is decreasing as the speed is increasing. PE is increasing since
height is increasing. Gain in PE = loss in KE
❖ Ball at point C – KE is zero since the ball is at rest. PE is maximum since the ball is at its
highest point. Gain in PE = loss in KE

Energy-Work Theorem
The energy – work theorem

➢ states that the net work done by the net force on the rigid body is equal to change in kinetic energy
of the body.
➢ Simply put, the theorem states that the work done on a rigid object is equal to the change in its
kinetic energy (W =ΔKE).
➢ The force causes the speed of the body to change from initial value u m/s to a final value v m/s
(causing the body to accelerate).

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UNIT 10: MACHINES
✓ A machine is any device that uses a force applied at one point to overcome a force at another
point.
✓ Force applied is called the effort while the resisting force overcome is called load.
✓ Machines makes work easier or convenient to be done.
Three quantities dealing with machines are;

Terms Used in Machines

Machines can be described using several terms. These terms are mechanical advantage, velocity ratio,
efficiency and the characteristics of a machine.
Mechanical Advantage of a Machine (MA)
✓ The number of times a machine magnifies the effort (force applied) is MA.
✓ In other words, the MA of any machine refers to the number of times the load is greater than the
effort.
✓ The ratio of Load to Effort is called mechanical advantage (MA).
✓ Mathematically, MA = Load / effort.
✓ It has no units since it is a ratio of two forces.
✓ Where MA is greater than 1, it means the machine is designed to overcome a load which is greater
than the effort. An example is a car jack used to lift a motor car.
✓ Where MA is less than 1, it means the machine is designed so that the effort used is greater the load.
For example, a bicycle has a MA of less than 1.
Worked Example:
A man applied a force of 300N to a body of mass 300 Kg on an inclined plane. Calculate the mechanical
advantage of machine.
Solution
MA = L / E = 3000 N / 300 N = 10
Velocity Ratio (VR) of Machines
✓ Velocity ratio (VR) of a machine is the ratio of the velocity of the effort to the velocity of the load.

VR = Velocity of the effort / Velocity of the load

= Effort distance / load distance. Hence velocity ratio may be defined as the number of times the effort
moves further than the load. Just like MA, VR has no units.
Efficiency of the Machine (E)
✓ The efficiency of a machine is defined as the ratio of the work output to the work input expressed
as a percentage.
✓ Efficiency is also the ratio of mechanical advantage to velocity ratio.
Efficiency Formula
Efficiency = work (energy) output / work (energy) input x 100 %

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 ✓ Where work done by the effort = work input, and work done on the load = work out put.
✓ Work input is always greater than work output since work has to be done against friction, air
resistance and weight.
Or Efficiency = MA / VR x 100 % …… (iv)

Examples
1. A machine; the load moves 2 m when the effort moves 8 m. If an effort of 20 N is used to raise a
load of 60 N, what is the efficiency of the machine?
Solution
Efficiency = (M.A / V.R) × 100 M.A = load/effort =60/20 = 3
V.R =DE/ DL = 8/2 = 4
Efficiency = ¾ × 100 = 75%

Simple Machines
a) Levers – this is a simple machine whose operation relies on the principle of moments
b) Pulleys – this is a wheel with a grooved rim used for lifting heavy loads to high levels.
The can be used as a single fixed pulley, or as a block-and-tackle system.
M.A = Load/ Effort
V.R = no. of pulleys/ no. of strings supporting the load
Example
A block and tackle system has 3 pulleys in the upper fixed block and two in the lower moveable
block. What load can be lifted by an effort of 200 N if the efficiency of the machine is 60%?
Solution
V.R = total number of pulleys = 5
Efficiency = (M.A /V.R) × 100 = 60%
0.6 = M.A/ 5 =3, but M.A = Load/Effort
Therefore, load = 3 ×200 = 600 N
c) Wheel and axle – consists of a large wheel of big radius attached to an axle of smaller
radius.
V.R = R/r and M.A = R/r
Example
A wheel and axle is used to raise a load of 280 N by a force of 40 N applied to the rim of the wheel.
If the radii of the wheel and axle are 70 cm and 5 cm respectively. Calculate the M.A, V.R and
efficiency.

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Solution
M.A = 280 / 40 = 7
V.R = R/r = 70/5 = 14
Efficiency = (M.A/ V.R) × 100 = 7/14 × 100 = 50 %
d) Inclined plane: -
V.R = 1/ sin θ M.A = Load/ Effort

Example
A man uses an inclined plane to lift a 50 kg load through a vertical height of 4.0 m. the inclined
plane makes an angle of 300 with the horizontal. If the efficiency of the inclined plane is 72%,
calculate;
a) The effort needed to move the load up the inclined plane at a constant velocity.
b) The work done against friction in raising the load through the height of 4.0 m. (take g=10 N/kg)
Solution
a) V.R = 1 / sin C = 1/ sin 300 = 2 M.A = efficiency × V.R = (72/100)× 2 = 1.44 Effort = load (mg) /
effort (50×10)/ 1.44 = 347.2 N
b) Work done against friction = work input – work output
Work output = m g h = 50×10×4 = 2,000 J
Work input = effort × distance moved by effort
347.2 × (4× sin 300) = 2,777.6 J
Therefore work done against friction = 2,777.6 – 2,000 = 777.6 J
e) The screw: - the distance between two successive threads is called the pitch
V.R of screw = circumference of screw head / pitch P
= 2πr / P
Example
A car weighing 1,600 kg is lifted with a jack-screw of 11 mm pitch. If the handle is 28 cm from the
screw, find the force applied.
Solution
Neglecting friction M.A = V.R
V.R = 2πr /P = M.A = L / E
1,600 / E = (2π × 0.28) / 0.011
E = (1,600 × 0.011 × 7) / 22×2×0.28 =10 N
f) Gears: - the wheel in which effort is applied is called the driver while the load wheel is
the driven wheel.
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 V.R = revolutions of driver wheel / revolutions of driven wheel
Or
V.R = no. of teeth in the driven wheel/ no. of teeth in the driving wheel
Example
g) Pulley belts: -these are used in bicycles and other industrial machines
V.R = radius of the driven pulley / radius of the driving pulley

Sample Questions

1. A man applied a force of 200N to a body of mass 200 kg on an inclined plane. Calculate the
mechanical advantage of machine.
𝐿𝑂𝐴𝐷
Mechanical Advantage, MA = 𝐸𝐹𝐹𝑂𝑅𝑇
10N
LOAD = 200kg x = 2000N
kg
𝐿𝑂𝐴𝐷 2000𝑁
MA =𝐸𝐹𝐹𝑂𝑅𝑇 = = 𝟏𝟎
200𝑁

2. An effort of 250N raises a load of 900N through a distance of 5m. if the effort moves through 25
m, calculate
a. The work done in raising the load
Workdone = load x height = 900N x 5m = 𝟒𝟓𝟎𝟎𝐉

b. The work done by effort

Workdone = force x distance = 250N x 25m = 𝟔𝟐𝟓𝟎𝐉

c. The efficiency of the machine

MA
Efficiency = VR x 100 %
distance moved by effort 25𝑚
But, VR = = =5
distance moved by load 5m
10
Efficiency = x 100 % = 200 %
5

Page 58 of 83
UNIT 11 : ELECTRIC CURRENT AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
Electric current
➢ Electric current is defined as the flow of electrical charge.
➢ The flow can occur in a wire, or through a liquid, or as a spark through the air.
➢ In a circuit diagram the direction of flow can be shown to move from a positive to a negative
terminal which is the opposite direction to the flow of charges (electrons) themselves.
➢ This is called conventional direction of current.

The circuit diagrams below show the direction of electric current and that of electrons when the switch
is closed.

➢ An ammeter is used to measure electric current.

➢ It can either be analogue (those that have a pointer to show a reading) or digital (those that just show
a figure) ammeter.
➢ The unit of measure for electrical current is amperes (A) usually shortened to amps.
➢ An ammeter therefore measures the rate at which electric charges flows past a point in a circuit; in
other words, the quantity of charge that passes per second.
➢ The unit of charge is coulomb (C).
➢ 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐼) = 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝑄)/time → I = Q/t 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡)
➢ So the relationship can also be presented in this way:

Charge (C) = current (A) x time (s)

Q = It
➢ This equation also helps us to determine the quantity of charge if current flowing in the circuit per
given time are known.
➢ For example, if a current of 10A flows around a circuit for 5 s, 50 C of charge flows past a point in
the circuit.

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Electric Circuits.
✓ These are complete paths through which the electric current flows.
✓ The bulb cannot give light if there is a gap left in the circuit.

Activity 1: Current measurements

Design an investigation that can be used to determine amount of electric current in a circuit using an
ammeter if two bulbs are connected in;

a) Series circuit

b). Parallel circuit.

Materials and procedure.

You are provided with 2 cells, some connecting wires, circuit board, a switch, an ammeter and 2
identical bulbs. Connect series circuit shown below.

i. Predict what you think may be the relationship between readings for all positions in this
circuit and why do you think so?

ii. Connect series circuit shown below with ammeter at position (a)

iii. Observe and record the readings in a table.

iv. Repeat steps (iii) and (iv) for positions (b) to (e).

v. Discuss the findings

vi. Make conclusion of your findings

vii. Repeat steps (i) to (vi) for parallel circuit.

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 Conclusion:

✓ In Series circuit current at a = b = c = d.

✓ In Parallel circuit current at a = e = b + c = b + d.

Potential Difference (pd)

➢ The potential difference (pd) between two points in a circuit is the work done when one coulomb of
charge moves from one point to another (the difference in electric potential between the final and
the initial location when work is done upon a charge to change its potential energy).
➢ It is given in volts (V), which is named after Alessandra Volta.
➢ One volt is equal to one joule per coulomb. Potential difference is also referred to as the voltage
because it is expressed in volts.
➢ Voltage is also defined as work done per unit charge.

i.e. 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 (𝑽) = Work done (w) /Charge (Q)

➢ Voltmeter is the device used to measure the potential difference between two points. The circuit
diagram below shows how voltmeter is connected in the circuit. Measuring potential difference, pd.

Electromotive force
➢ Electromotive force is equal to the potential difference across the terminal of a source in an open
circuit (when there is no current flowing in the circuit). Its SI unit is the volt (V).

2: Voltage measurements.

➢ Describe an experiment that can be used to measure voltage across components that are connected
either in series or parallel circuits.
➢ You are provided with connecting wires, voltmeter, 3 identical bulbs, a switch, a circuit board and 2
cells.

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 i. Connect the circuit as shown below in series circuit with the voltmeter at position

ii. Predict your findings for the p.d across (a) to (d). Explain your prediction.

iii. Observe and record your reading in the table of results.

iv. Connect the voltmeter for positions (b) to (d)

v. Connect parallel circuit with the voltmeter in positions (a) to (d) in turns.

vi. Discuss your findings

vii. What can be concluded from the findings of the two circuits?

Conclusion:

• In Series Circuit voltage at d = a + b + c

• In Parallel circuit voltage at d = a = b = c

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UNIT 12: ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE
ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE

➢ Qualitative definition: Is the ability of a substance to slow down an electric current in a

circuit.
➢ Quantitative definition: Is the voltage per unit current.

𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝑹) = 𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝑽) / 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝑰)

If a graph of voltage against current is plotted from the experimental results, the straight-line graph is
obtained. From the graph a relationship can be deduced, that current through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across it provided the temperature remains constant.

i.e. V α I

V = IR

where R is the electrical resistance.

➢ Electrical resistance R, is defined as the measure of the opposition offered to the flow of an electric
current in a conductor.
➢ Electrical resistance varies in different materials.
➢ Good conductors of electricity such as copper will offer less resistance to current flow compared to
a poorer conductor such as carbon. The SI unit for resistance is the ohm (Ω).
➢ The relationship shown below is called Ohm’s law.

➢ Note that the slope of the graph gives the resistance of the conductor.
➢ A conductor that obeys ohm’s law is called ohmic conductor and the one that does not is called a
non-ohmic conductor. More about the later will be covered under semiconductors.

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Ohm’s Law
➢ Ohm’s law states that the current flowing through a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the
pd voltage across its ends if temperature and other physical factors are kept constant.
➢ It also states that resistance of a conductor is the ratio of the potential difference voltage its ends to
the current flowing through it.

RESISTOR COLOUR CODE

Writing the actual value in ohms may not easily fit on the resistor itself. So the resistor colour code is used
to indicate the resistance of a resistor. The following table gives the colours and their respective values.

•The first two colour bands indicate the first two digits.
•The third colour band indicates the number of zeros after the first two digits.

Example:

A resistor of 12000 ohms (12 kiloohms) would have brown as first colour band, red as second colour
band and orange as third colour band.

TOLERANCE:
➢ Tolerance is how much resistance may differ from the marked value expressed as a percentage.
On the resistor colour code, it is given by the fourth band.
➢ A smaller tolerance would mean the resistance is closer to the marked value.
➢ The following table gives the colours and their respective tolerances

➢ RESISTANCE CODE (RESISTANCE STANDARD NOTATION)

In resistance standard notation the position of the letters R or K before or in between figures gives
the magnitude and position of the decimal in given figures Tolerance is given by an extra letter at
the end of the resistors as below

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Resistors in Series

The resistors in the figure above are in series as same current I flows through each and the total voltage
V across all three equals the separate voltage across them. i.e.

V = V1 + V2 + V3

But V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2

and V3 = IR3.

Also, if R is the combined resistance, V = IR

and so IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3

Dividing both sides by I,

Hence, R = R1 + R2 + R3

Note: In series circuit the sum of individual resistance for components give to total resistance.

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1. A p.d. of 24 V from a battery is applied to the network of resistors in below

a. What is the combined resistance of the 6 Ω and 12 Ω resistors in parallel?

1 1 1
=R +R
RT 1 2

(6)(8) 48
RT = (6)+(8)
= 14 = 𝟑. 𝟒 Ω

b. What is the current in the 8 Ω resistor?

V
I=R
24V
I= = 𝟑𝐀
8Ω

c. What is the voltage across the parallel network?

V = IR
V = (3A)(3.4Ω) = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟐𝐕

d. What is the current in the 6 Ω resistor?

Voltage across parallel network 10.2V
I= therefore, I= = 𝟏. 𝟕 𝐀
6Ω 6Ω

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Factors affecting electrical resistance
There are four factors that affect electrical resistance.
a) Length of a Conductor
➢ The longer the wire, the higher the electrical resistance.
➢ In long conductors, electrons have more collisions with metal ions. This increases the electrical
resistance.
➢ Using the same understanding, shorter wires have low electrical resistance.
A longer wire will have a greater resistance than a shorter wire.
b) Cross section area of a conductor
➢ When a conductor is thicker, there are so many spaces for the electrons to move without
colliding with the metal ions.
➢ This means that thicker wires have low electrical resistance whilst thin wires have higher
electrical resistance.
➢ A thick wire can carry more current than a thin wire. For a wire, the larger the cross-
sectional area, the lower the resistance; the smaller the cross-sectional area, the higher the
resistance.

c) Temperature
Increasing the temperature of a conductor increases the vibrations of the metal atoms in the
conductor. With these collisions, the probability of the flowing electrons colliding with the highly
vibrating metal ions becomes so high. Thus, increasing temperature increases the electrical
resistance whilst decreasing the temperature of a conductor decreases electrical resistance.

d) Type of material
➢ Different materials have different make-ups. Some allow electrons to flow without difficulties
e.g. copper and silver. Hence copper and silver are good conductors of electricity.
➢ It should be known then that good conductors of electricity have low electrical resistance.
Some materials e.g. nichrome, tungsten etc, highly opposes the flow of electrons in them. They
are not good conductors of electric current.
➢ Bad conductors of electric current have high electrical resistance.

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 ➢ EQUATIONS FOR WORKING OUT INTERNAL RESISTANCE
Symbol of internal resistance: r
➢ E = V + v or v = E-V.

➢ E = RI + rI or E = I (R +r) ( pajatu V = RI)

➢ Ir = E –V

➢ r = 𝐸−𝑉
Electrical Power in circuits
➢ Power is the rate of doing work. It is work done per unit time. Power is the rate of transferring
(using up) energy.
➢ Electrical power is the electrical energy transferred per unit time. It is the rate of using up electrical
energy.
FORMULAS:
➢ Power = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 /𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
➢ Energy = Power X Time
➢ SI UNITS:
➢ Energy is measured in joules (J), time taken is measured in seconds (s).
➢ Power is measured in J/s. 1J/1s = 1 watt.
➢ Therefore, the SI unit of power is the watt (W).

➢ EQUATIONS FOR POWER, VOLTAGE AND CURRENT.

Electrical energy
➢ Electrical energy is calculated by multiplying power by time.
➢ Electrical energy = power x time (watt or J/s) (s)
➢ Electrical energy that is used in homes and industries has to be paid for and that is why electricity
supply companies (i.e. ESCOM) charge for the electrical energy they supply.
➢ A joule is a very small amount of energy and a large unit, the kilowatt – hour (kWh) is used. This
means electricity is sold in units of kilowatt – hours (kWh).
➢ As the name suggests, a kilowatt-hour is the electrical energy used by a 1Kw appliance in 1 hour
➢ 1kWh = 1000J/s x 3600s
= 3600000J = 3.6MJ
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 1 KWh of electrical energy = 1 unit
➢ This means a 3KWh electric fire working for 2 hours uses 6KWh of electrical energy usually
called 6 units.

Examples:
➢ 1. If 1 unit (1KWh) costs 15t, work out the cost of a 5KWh oven running for 90 minutes.
Solution:
Power = 5KW, time = 90/60 hours = 1.5h
Electrical energy = power x time
= 5KW x 1.5h
= 7.5KWh
= 7.5 units
1-unit costs 15t
Therefore, 7.5 units will cost = 7.5 x 15t
= 112.5t = K1.125 = K1.13 (to the nearest tambala)
Circuits in a house

There are three types of circuits in a house which are all connected in parallel.

a) Lighting circuits: These are circuits specifically for bulbs and therefore thin wires are
used. The maximum of 5A current is used in these wires.

b) Power circuits: These are for electrical appliances such as Kettles, Coffee makers,
Mixers, Pressing irons, Hair driers, deep freezers, TV, 5 CD changers etc.
The wires used are thicker and are connected to the 3 pin plug outlets (sockets). The maximum current
carried is 13A.

c) Cooker circuits: They use very thick wires that carry current up to 30A. Cookers have
their own special switches and are connected into special wall sockets.

d) Three pin plug: Are used to connect household appliances to the source
(outlets) called the MAINS Electricity. The Mains voltage in Malawi ranges from 220V to 240V. For
normal working, all appliances must work at the voltage close to the mains voltage of supply. Mains
electricity uses alternating form of current (AC) where electrons are pushed forward and pulled
backward 50 times per second (50Hz). It is easier to generate AC than DC.

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Parts of the 3 pin plug

1. Live wire: It has the potential voltage which keeps on changing the direction of current at
a frequency of 50Hz. It is the wire where an electric shock is taken one touches it. It is brown in
colour.

2. Neutral Wire: The wire is made to complete the circuit by attaching it to the ‘Earth’ to a
metal plate in the ground. It is blue in colour.
3. Earth wire: It is also buried in the ‘Earth’ and the other end connected to the Chasis (
body) of the electrical appliance. It is for safety. It is yellow- green in colour.

4. Fuse: It is made up of low melting point wire. It is the weak point in the circuit. It is to
control the flow of current in a circuit by cutting off the current when it is high and connecting
the circuit when the current is low. Higher current in a circuit is caused by Short circuit and
Overloading.

SAFETY WITH ELECTRICITY.

1. Switch off the electrical supply before starting repairs.

2. Use plugs that have a rubber or plastic case, the correct fuse, an earth pin and a cord
grip.

3. Do not overload circuits by using too many adaptors.

4. Do not have long cables trailing across a room or under a carpet that is walked over
regularly.

5. Do not let appliances or cables come into contact with water eg holding a hair drier with
wet hands in a bathroom can be dangerous.

6. Do not connect appliances that use large amounts of power to a lighting circuit eg an
electric fire.

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UNIT 13: OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES
Oscillation.
➢ Oscillation can be defined as a to and fro, or an upward and downward movement of an object from
its rest position or equilibrium position.
➢ Examples of oscillating systems are vibrating springs, pendulums, cantilevers etc.
Characteristics of Oscillating system
(a) Amplitude (A) This is the maximum displacement of an oscillating system from the equilibrium
position. Amplitude is measured in mm, cm or m. This is the distance (A) as shown in the graph:

(b) Frequency (f) This is the number of complete cycles in one second by an oscillating system.

Frequency (f)

The SI unit of frequency is one cycle per second (s-1) called Hertz (Hz).

(c) Periodic Time (T) This is the time taken for a system to perform one complete oscillation.

Period (T)
➢ The relationship between Frequency (f) and Periodic Time (T) is: f=1/T and T=1/f

(d) Frequency (f) -It is the number of complete oscillation (cycles) made in one second.
➢ The SI unit for frequency is the hertz (Hz).
➢ One hertz is defined as one oscillation per second or one cycle per second.
➢ 1 Hz = 1 cycle per second; 1 Kilohertz (KHz) = 1,000 cycles / second;1 Megahertz (MHz) =
1,000,000 cycles / second. Radio station broadcast their programs in KHz and MHz

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Relationship between frequency (f) and period (T)

➢ Frequency=number of complete cycles (C)/ Time in seconds (s)

➢ Period =time taken (s) / number of complete cycles
➢ Therefore; T = 1/f ……(1); and f = 1/T…………(2)
➢ From the equation shown above, period (T) is the inverse of frequency (f).
➢ This means that an oscillation with a short period has a high frequency while the oscillation with a
long period has a lower frequency.

Factors affecting frequency of an oscillating system

1. Spiral spring (loaded spring)

a) Mass on spring - The larger mass of the body the lower the frequency (i.e. longer time taken to complete
10 vibrations hence frequency decreases).

b) Material of the spring

✓ Thickness of materials affect the strength of the spring as the strength increases, frequency increases
and type of material affects tension / stretching force.
✓ As the tension increases, frequency increases, shorter periodic time taken. (Spring is not affected by
the length of spring, changes in amplitude)

2. Pendulum

a)Length of pendulum (longer the pendulum, lower frequency)

b)Material of pendulum (wire or plastic)

c) Amplitude changes- the larger the amplitude is, the lower the frequency becomes (frequency is not affected
by mass of bob, small angles /small amplitude).

3. Cantilever

a) Mass at the end

b) Material (type of material –plastic or wooden)

c) Length of ruler affects tension (not affected by amplitude changes)

Activity 1

Aim: To determine the relationship between frequency and the length of a pendulum.

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Materials: String, meter ruler, bob, stop watch, clamp stand.

Procedure:

a) Set up the apparatus as shown in figure below

b) Displace the bob for amplitude of 10cm from rest position, allow it to swing freely and start counting
vibration from 3, 2, 1,0

c) Set up the stop watch at zero and continue counting from 1 up to 10

d) Note and record time taken for 10 vibrations in the table below

Length of pendulum (cm) Time for 10 vibrations (s) Time for one Frequency=
vibration (s) 1/T (Hz)
100
80
60
40
20

e) Repeat the experiment with the string length of 80cm, 60cm, 40 and 20cm

f) Complete the column for frequency; 1/T (Hz)

g) Plot the graph of frequency against length of pendulum

Conclusion

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 ✓ Using graph describe what happens to frequency as the length of pendulum increases (frequency
decreases as the length of the pendulum increases)
✓ Name two variables that remain constant ( mass of bob and amplitude change)

Waves
✓ A wave refers to a disturbance in a medium that carries energy from one point to another.
✓ Waves are produced as a result of oscillations of the particles of the medium (solid, liquid or gas). The
wave passes through a material by oscillations of the particles of the materials.
✓ Energy is transferred from one point to the other when a wave propagates (spreads out). As a wave
moves, the material does not move along with it.
✓ For example, when a stone is dropped in a pool of still water ripples (small waves) are produced from
the point the stone landed and move outwards.

Terms used in waves

✓ A wave pulse is a single disturbance moving through a medium from one point to another.
✓ A wave train is a repetitive periodic pulse
✓ A wave motion is the transmission of energy from one place to another through a material or vacuum.

Characteristics of a wave
A wave passes through a material by the oscillations of the particles of the material. The characteristics of
oscillations of the particles also refer to the characteristics of wave are as follows:

1) Displacement – displacement of a wave is the distance moved by a particle on the surface of the medium
of a wave from its central position.

2) Amplitude (A): Amplitude of a wave is maximum displacement of the particles in the wave from rest
position

3) Frequency (f) – Frequency of a wave is number of waves (cycles) made per unit time. The SI unit of
frequency is Hz.

3) Period (T) – Period of a wave is the time taken for one complete vibration (wave). The SI unit of period
is second.

4) Wavelength (λ)- It is a distance occupied by one complete oscillation. In other words, wavelength is the
distance between successive particles that are in phase.

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In transverse wave, it refers to distance between two consecutive crests or two consecutive troughs. It also
refers to a distance between two consecutive compressions or two consecutive rarefactions in longitudinal
wave. Wavelength is measured in metres.

Formulae for wavelength

i) Wavelength = distance covered by waves/ number of waves= distance covered by one complete cycle

5. Phase of a wave –

✓ This refers to the particles in a wave, which are in the same state of vibration.
✓ When two successive particles are at exactly the same point in their paths and are moving in the same
direction, then the pair of particles is said to be in phase and out of phase (in antiphase) are at
different positions and moving in the opposite directions.

6. Wave velocity or speed (v) - The speed of a wave is the distance moved by the wave per second. It is
measured in metres per second (m/s)

Wave front

✓ Wave front refers to any line drawn on a wave train in which all particles are in phase. They are used
to represent a wave when illustrating their properties.
✓ They are also straight and equally spaced.
✓ Wave fronts are usually at right angles to the direction of the waves and can have a circular shape or
straight shape.

Types of waves

✓ Waves are classified as either mechanical, if they need medium, or electromagnetic, if they do not
need a medium for their propagation.
✓ Examples of mechanical waves include water and sound waves while examples of electromagnetic
waves include radio, x-ray, gamma, visible light and microwave.
✓ Waves can be categorized based on the direction of movement of individual particles of the medium
relative to the direction which the waves travel.
✓ The leads to two types of waves namely: Transverse waves and longitudinal waves.
1. Transverse waves

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 ✓ Transverse waves are waves in which the particles of the medium vibrate at right angles to the
direction in which the wave travels.
✓ They produce crests and troughs. In these waves vibrations are up and down.
✓ Crests or peaks are points where a wave causes maximum positive displacement of the medium.
✓ Troughs are points where a wave causes maximum negative displacement of the medium.
✓ Examples of transverse waves are water waves, light waves, radio waves, string waves and TV waves.

2. Longitudinal waves.

✓ These are waves which travel parallel to the direction of the vibration of the particles of the medium.
They can be recognized by their compressions and rarefactions.
✓ An example of a longitudinal wave is sound wave or wave on slinky spring.
✓ A simple longitudinal wave can be demonstrated using a slinky spring, If the spring is displaced on
one side then released, it moves towards the centre position to the other side. In doing so, it displaces
particles along its way forming regions of high concentration of particles (compressions) separated
by regions of low concentration of particles (rarefactions).
✓ Compressions are the regions where particles are closed together while rarefactions are the regions
where particles are further apart.

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Differences between transverse and longitudinal wave

✓ In transverse wave oscillations are at right angles in the direction of wave while in longitudinal wave
oscillations are parallel to the direction of waves.
✓ The transverse waves produce crests and troughs while the latter produces compressions and
rarefactions.
✓ Some transverse waves travel through a vacuum while the longitudinal waves cannot travel through
a vacuum (e.g. sound needs a medium for transmission).

Properties of a wave

(a) Reflection: This is the sending back or bouncing back of a wave.

Waves like those of water and light are reflected (sent back) when an obstacle is placed in front of their path.

➢ Refraction: This is the sudden change of direction of a wave.

The change of direction of propagation of any wave phenomenon which occurs when the wave
velocity changes

(b) Diffraction is the spreading of waves as they pass through a gap. Waves passing through the
gap spread out in all direction

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 (c) Interference: This is the overlapping of sets of waves.

TYPES OF INTERFERENCE

(i) Constructive Interference When the crest of one wave passes through, or is super positioned
upon, the crest of another wave, we say that the waves constructively interfere. Constructive
interference also occurs when the trough of one wave is super positioned upon the trough of
another wave. In the diagram waves A and B reinforces each other.

(ii)Destructive Interference When the crest of one wave passes through, or is super positioned
upon, the trough of another wave, we say that the waves destructively interfere. In the diagram
waves X and Y destructively interfere and result in total cancellation.

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Electromagnetic versus Mechanical Waves
➢ Another way to categorize waves is on the basis of their ability or inability to transmit energy
through a vacuum (i.e., empty space).
➢ Categorizing waves on this basis leads to two notable categories: electromagnetic waves and
mechanical waves.

An electromagnetic wave

➢ Is a wave which is capable of transmitting its energy through a vacuum (i.e., empty space).
Electromagnetic waves are produced by the vibration of charged particles.
➢ Electromagnetic waves which are produced on the sun subsequently travel to Earth through the
vacuum of outer space. Were it not for the ability of electromagnetic waves to travel to through a
vacuum, there would undoubtedly be no life on Earth.
➢ All light waves are examples of electromagnetic waves i.e. Microwave, X-rays, TV and radio and
waves are all examples of electromagnetic waves.

A mechanical wave
➢ Is a wave which is capable of transmitting its energy through a medium only.
➢ Mechanical waves require a medium in order to transport their energy from one location to another.
A sound wave is an example of a mechanical wave.
➢ Sound waves are incapable of traveling through a vacuum.
➢ Slinky waves, water waves, stadium waves, and jump rope waves are other examples of mechanical
waves; each requires some medium in order to exist. A slinky wave requires the coils of the slinky; a
water wave requires water; a stadium wave requires fans in a stadium; and a jump rope wave
requires a jump rope.

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UNIT 14: SOUND
Sound is an example of a longitudinal wave which is created through disturbances in the atmosphere caused
by vibrating objects. The direction of the particles of sound is the same as the direction of the wave itself.

Production of Sound
➢ Sound waves are produced by vibrations of the vibrating systems.
➢ Examples of objects that can produce sound are loudspeaker, tuning fork, toothed wheel, siren etc.

AMPLITUDE AND LOUDNESS OF SOUND

➢ The amplitude of a sound wave is the maximum distance the vibrating system moves
backwards and forwards from its rest position.
➢ The amplitude of a sound waves produced increases with an increase in the amplitude of a
loudspeaker cone. An increase in amplitude causes more sound energy to travel out through the
air every second to the ear. Hence the sound becomes louder.
➢ Therefore, the loudness of sound
depends upon the amplitude of the wave that produces it.

➢ FREQUENCY AND PITCH OF SOUND

Sound waves are created by vibrations or oscillations. The number of oscillations per second is
called frequency. Frequency of a sound wave can also be considered as the number of
wavelengths the wave can produce per second.

PITCH OF SOUND
➢ Pitch of sound is a characteristic of musical sound which enables us to distinguish a sharp note
from a hoarse one.
➢ For example, voices of women have higher pitch than men. The humming of mosquitoes has higher
pitch while roaring of a lion has low pitch but more horse.

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 Factors affecting the pitch of sound
(a) Frequency of the sound produced
➢ As frequency of sound increases, the pitch of sound also increases hence pitch of sound is
directly proportional to frequency.
➢ Sound of high frequency has a note of high pitch and a short wavelength. Sound of low frequency
has a note of low pitch and long wavelength.
➢ Relative motion between the source and the observer
➢ When the observer is approaching the source of sound the pitch of sound is greater.
➢ When the observer is moving away from the source of sound the pitch of sound becomes low

Free vibrations, forced vibrations, natural frequency and resonance

Forced vibration
➢ is the one in which an object is made to vibrate at the frequency of another vibrating object.
➢ In other words, it refers to the one in which an object is made to vibrate at the frequency of another
vibrator other than its natural frequency.
➢ For example, the child on the swing is pushed continually. When a vibrating object is forced to
vibrate at its natural frequency, the amplitude may increase rather than decrease.
➢ Forced frequency is a frequency at which an object is forced to vibrate

Natural (free) vibrations

➢ are vibrations at which an object vibrates freely at its natural frequency.
➢ An object makes free vibrations when it swings freely without applying any external force.
➢ For example, a child on a swing will swing freely to and from the rest position if pushed once.
Similarly, the simple pendulum and punch ball also illustrate free vibrations in that when displaced
and released, they swing freely if pushed once.
➢ Natural frequency of an object or system is the frequency at which a body vibrates freely after a
single displacement or push.

Resonance
➢ occurs when a system (body) is made to vibrate at its natural frequency as a result of
vibrations received from another source of the same frequency.
➢ In other words, resonance of a vibrator happens when the forced frequency equals its
natural frequency

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Speed of sound
➢ Sound travels in form of longitudinal waves.
➢ The speed of sound wave depends on the closeness of the particles through which the sound
travels.
➢ Sound travels faster through more dense materials such solids and liquids because of high
particle – to – particle interaction due to small spaces between them and more slowly
through less dense materials such as gases.

Factors affecting the speed of sound waves

1) Temperature – The speed of sound increases as the temperature increases when pressure is constant
because the air expands and becomes less dense hence compressions and rarefactions can be easily
transmitted.

2) Humidity - Sound travels faster in humid air than in dry air since humidity increases the interaction
between air molecules so that sound energy is passed on faster from one particle to another in form of wave.
In other words, water is less dense than air. Therefore, moist air is less dense than dry air. This means that
the speed of sound is greater in moist air than in dry air.

3) Wind direction – Wind moves the air through which the sound waves travel. So the wind velocity must
be added to the sound velocity. Sound wave travels faster in air when traveling in the direction of the wind
since their velocities are added together, and vice versa.

4) Type of substance / strength of intermolecular forces in a medium – The sound waves travel much
faster in a medium whose IMF is stronger because particles are tightly packed hence there is greater
interactions between particles. In other words, the speed of sound is higher in solids and in liquids than in
gases (speed is slowest in gases) since solid and liquid particles are close together so that they pass on the
sound waves more quickly than gases particles which are widely spaced.

5) The nature of gases – Different gases have different densities. Sound travels more quickly in less dense
gases (methane) than in more dense gases (nitrogen) because compressions and rarefactions can be easily
transmitted in less dense gases.

Measuring speed of sound in air

Clap and echo method

An echo is reflected sound wave. A sound wave bounces off when hitting a hard obstacle (building).

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 ✓ Measure large distance of not less than 100m from a large wall of building
✓ Hit a tin with a hammer and a stop watch is started at the same time by a time keeper standing side
by side with the sound producer.
✓ Stop the watch when an echo is heard
✓ Speed of echo sound is worked out using the formula:
✓ Speed = 2d/t where d represents the distance from the building and t the time taken for the echo to
be heard.

Transmission of sound
➢ A sound wave needs a medium or material to travel through because it is a longitudinal
wave and requires a material that can pass on oscillations. Sound cannot travel in a vacuum.
Sound waves can travel through air, solids and liquids.
✓ Suspend an electric bell inside a bell jar.
✓ Connect a vacuum pump to the bell jar as shown in Figure below.

✓ Close the switch before starting the vacuum pump. Explain your observations.
✓ Start the vacuum pump. Explain your observations.
✓ OBSERVATION
Before starting the vacuum pump: When the glass jar is well closed and the switch
is closed, the hammer hits the gong. The sound of an electric bell is heard.
After starting the vacuum pump: When the vacuum pump is started, the sound of
an electric bell becomes fainter until it cannot be heard. But the hammer can be seen
striking the gong. When the air is pumped in once more, the sound of an electric bell
is heard once again.
✓ CONCLUSION
Therefore, sound waves can only be heard if there is a material or medium present to
pass oscillations, so it is not possible for sound to travel through a vacuum.

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