SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION 1

(Cambridge Assessment International Education)

TOPIC 2: THERMAL PHYSICS
Key areas
1. Kinetic particle model of matter
a) States of matter
b) Particle model
c) Gases and the absolute scale of temperature (Tr. Joshua S)
2. Thermal properties and temperature
a) Thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases.
b) Specific heat capacity
c) Melting, boiling and evaporation
3. Transfer of thermal energy
a) Conduction
b) Convection
c) Radiation
d) Consequences of thermal energy transfer
SPECIFIC LEARNING OBJECTIVES
(a) States of matter:
By the end of this topic area, you should be able to;
1. Know the distinguishing properties of solids, liquids and gases
2. Know the terms for the changes in state between solids, liquids and gases (gas to solid and solid to
gas transfers are not required)
(b) Particle model:
By the end of this topic area, you should be able to;
1. Describe the particle structure of solids, liquids and gases in terms of the arrangement, separation
and motion of the particles, and represent these states using simple particle diagrams.
2. Supplement: Know that the forces and distances between particles (atoms, molecules, ions and
electrons) and the motion of the particles affects the properties of solids, liquids and gases
3. Describe the relationship between the motion of particles and temperature, including the idea that
there is a lowest possible temperature (−273°C), known as absolute zero, where the particles have
least kinetic energy
4. Describe the pressure and the changes in pressure of a gas in terms of the motion of its particles and
their collisions with a surface
5. Describe the pressure and the changes in pressure of a gas in terms of the forces exerted by particles
colliding with surfaces, creating a force per unit area
6. Know that the random motion of microscopic particles in a suspension is evidence for the kinetic
particle model of matter
7. Know that microscopic particles may be moved by collisions with light fast-moving molecules and
correctly use the terms atoms or molecules as distinct from microscopic particles

SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION BY SAKAJJA JOSHUA SOKUTON
(DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS NU –VISION HIGH SCHOOL)
 SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION 2
(Cambridge Assessment International Education)
8. Describe and explain this motion (sometimes known as Brownian motion) in terms of random
collisions between the microscopic particles in a suspension and the particles of the gas or liquid
(c) Gases and the absolute scale of temperature:
By the end of this topic area, you should be able to;

1. Describe qualitatively, in terms of particles, the effect on the pressure of a fixed mass of gas of:
(a) a change of temperature at constant volume
(b) a change of volume at constant temperature
2. Recall and use the equation pV = constant for a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature, including
a graphical representation of this relationship
3. Convert temperatures between kelvin and degrees Celsius; recall and use the equation T (in K) = θ
(in °C) + 273
KINETIC PARTICLE MODEL OF MATTER
The word kinetic comes from the Greek word “Kineo” which means related to motion (movement).
This means that; Kinetic particle model deals with particles in matter in the state of motion.
Question: State the kinetic particle model of matter.
Answer
The kinetic particle theory states that:
 All matter is made up of tiny particles (i.e. atoms, ions, molecules). There are attractive forces
between the particles. The particles are in state of constant and random motion colliding with
each other and with the walls of the container.
 The collision between these particles alone and also with the walls of the container are perfectly
elastic.
 The kinetic particle model is also called the kinetic molecular model or the kinetic theory.
 One can explain the ways that matter behave in these three states using the kinetic particle model.
1. Why does an ice cube change shape as it melts?
2. How can we smell perfume from across a room?
3. Why does it take time to melt a solid?
 When a substance is heated, its particles gain energy and move faster. The higher the temperature,
the faster the particles move.
Key words
1. A model: Is a way of representing a system which we cannot experience directly.
2. Kinetic particle model of matter: a model in which matter consists of moving particles
3. Atom: the smallest part of an element that can exist.
4. Molecule: two or more atoms joined together by chemical bonds.
STATES OF MATTER
 States of matter are the different forms of existence of matter. Recall that matter is anything that
occupies space and has weight,
 Matter can exist as;

SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION BY SAKAJJA JOSHUA SOKUTON
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(a) Solid (e.g. ice),
(b) Liquid (e.g. water)
(c) Gas (e.g. water vapour). This is also called steam /water in gaseous phase

Warm up Quiz
1. Compare the arrangement and motion of the particles in ice and in liquid water.
Answer
Arrangement:
 Ice: In lattice / regular / arranged / orderly / fixed in place
 Water: Random / irregular / not arranged / not orderly
Motion
 Ice: Particles vibrate
 Water: Particles move (around) or slide over each other.

PARTICLE ARRANGEMENT IN THE THREE STATES OF MATTER

closely packed distant apart far apart

DISTINGUISHING PROPERTIES OF THE THREE STATES OF MATTER

SOLIDS LIQUIDS GASES

 Particles are closely packed  Particles are distant apart  Particles are far apart
(has small spaces)
 They have a fixed (definite)  Takes the shape of its  Takes the shape of its
shape container (indefinite shape) container (does not have a
fixed shape)
 They have a fixed volume  Liquids also have a fixed  Occupies any available
volume volume (Not fixed) – it
expands to fill its container
 Does not flow  Can flow easily  Flow faster
 Have strong intermolecular  Average intermolecular  Weak intermolecular forces
forces forces
 Incompressible (cannot be  Incompressible (cannot be  Compressible to some
squashed) squashed) extend (can be squashed)
 More denser  Average in density  Very low density
1. Gases can be compressed, but liquids and solids cannot. This is because gas molecules are so far
apart, they can easily be pushed closer together. Liquid and solid molecules are already so close
together that they can’t be pushed closer.

SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION BY SAKAJJA JOSHUA SOKUTON
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2. Solids and liquids have a fixed volume, but gases will expand to have the same volume as the
container they’re in. This is because the strong forces between molecules in a solid or liquid keep
the molecules close together. There are almost no forces between gas molecules.
3. Solids are generally more dense than liquids, and liquids are generally more dense than gases.
Remember, density is mass per unit volume (p.6). The distances between the molecules in a liquid
are larger than in a solid, so there will be fewer molecules in a particular volume. This is true when
you compare a gas to a liquid too — the molecules are further apart in a gas than a liquid, so there is
less mass per unit volume.
CHANGES OF STATE
 Change of state is brought about by the effect of heating and cooling. When a solid is heated, it melts
to become a liquid, heat the liquid it boils to become a gas. These are the changes of state. Cooling a
gas causes it to liquefy and a liquid when cooled at lower temperatures will start to solidify (freeze).
Interchange in the states of matter

a) Solid- liquid: melting or liquefaction

b) Solid-gas: sublimation
c) Liquid to gas: evaporation
d) Liquid – solid: freezing or solidification
e) Gas- liquid : liquefaction or condensation
f) Gas to solid: deposition
Important points to note.
1. Melting point is defined as the temperature (a degree) at which a solid turns into a liquid or a
temperature at which a solid melts
2. The constant temperature at which a liquid boils (turns into gas) is called the boiling point
3. Freezing point is the temperature at which a liquid turns into a solid

Key words
1. States of matter: solid, liquid or gas
2. Changes of state: changing from one state of matter to another
3. Evaporation: changing from a liquid to a gas at any temperature
4. Boiling: changing from liquid to gas at a fixed temperature called the boiling point
5. Melting: changing from solid to liquid

SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION BY SAKAJJA JOSHUA SOKUTON
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6. Condensing: changing from gas to liquid
7. Solidifying/freezing: changing from liquid to solid

DESCRIBING THE PARTICLE STRUCTURE OF SOLIDS, LIQUIDS AND GASES

Each state of matter can be described by describing the arrangement, separation and motion of its
particles.

State Arrangement and separation of Motion of particles

particles
Solid  The particles are closely packed, in a  Because the particles are so tightly
regular pattern. Notice that each packed, they cannot move around.
particle is close in contact with all its However, they do move a bit
neighbors.  Particles vibrate about a fixed position
and the hotter the solid, the more they
vibrate.
Liquid  The particles are distant apart (packed  Particles move slightly around because
slightly less closely together than in a the particles are slightly less packed than
solid). a solid. So the particles are both
 The particles are arranged randomly vibrating and sliding past (over) each
rather than in a fixed pattern. other.
 The hotter the liquid, the faster its
particles move
Gas  The particles are further apart (widely  Particles move freely about , bouncing
separated from one another) off one another and off the walls of the
 They are no longer in contact unless container
they collide with each other.  In air at room temperature, the average
 In air, the average separation between speed of the particles is about 500m/s
the particles is about ten times their and this increases with temperature.
diameter.
Particle movement, temperature and the absolute zero
The kinetic theory uses the idea that as particles heat up, they gain more kinetic
energy and so move faster. As a substance cools down, its particles lose kinetic
energy and slow down. This suggests that there is a theoretical lower limit to
how cold anything can be. If these particles lose all their kinetic energy and
stop moving, it is not possible for the substance to cool any further.
(a. gas b. liquid c. solid)
The lowest possible temperature anything can reach is -273oC. This
temperature is taken as 0K and is known as the absolute zero.

Exam tip: What is the absolute zero?

Absolute zero is the temperature at which particles have zero kinetic energy. It is the least possible
temperature that can ever be achieved and is equal to zero kelvins (0K) or -273oC.

SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION BY SAKAJJA JOSHUA SOKUTON
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EXPLANATIONS USING THE KINETIC MODEL
1. Liquids take up the shape of their container because their particles are free to move about within
the bulk of the liquid
2. Gases fill their container because their particles move about freely with complete freedom.
3. Solids retain their shape because their particles are tightly packed together. This is due to the
strong forces of attraction between them, this explains why a solid has a fixed shape and volume
4. Gases diffuse (spread out) from place to place for example we can smell perfume from across the
room. The perfume particles can spread around because they are free to move. (They have a higher
degree of freedom to move due to weaker forces of attraction between them. This explains why
particles in a gas are far apart.
5. Most solids expand when they melt. This is because the particles are slightly distant apart in a
liquid than in a solid
6. Liquids expand a lot when they boil. This is because particles in a gas are further apart than in a
liquid. On the other way round. Gases also contract a lot when they condense.

EVIDENCE FOR THE KINETIC THEORY (KINETIC PARTICLE MODEL)

 Atoms and molecules are far too small to see, even with a microscope, but experiments show the
effects of moving atoms and molecules. These experiments do not prove there are moving particles,
but they do provide support for the idea
Question: What gives evidence for the kinetic particle model of matter?

Answer
 Brownian motion  Diffusion

Exam tip: The random motion of microscopic particles in a suspension is evidence for the
kinetic particle model of matter. This random movement of particles is called Brownian motion.
BROWNIAN MOTION
 In 1827, a scientist called Robert Brown was using a microscope to study pollen grains when he
noticed tiny particles jiggling about. At first he thought that they might be alive, but when he
repeated his experiment with tiny grains of dust suspended in water, he saw that the dust also moved
around. This motion is now known as Brownian motion, and it happens because the moving particles
are constantly knocked about by the fast - moving particles of the air.
Question: What is Brownian motion?
 Brownian motion is the motion of small particles suspended in a liquid or gas, caused by molecular
bombardment or
 It is the random motion (Zigzag motion) / movement of particles suspended in a liquid or gas caused
by bombardment of the smoke with air molecules of bombardment of the pollen grain with water
molecules.

SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION BY SAKAJJA JOSHUA SOKUTON
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Brownian motion can be demonstrated by;
 Placing pollen grains in water and observing them under a microscope.
 Using of a smoke cell: A similar experiment can be done using smoke particles. The oxygen and
nitrogen molecules that make up the air are far too small to see, so we have to look at something
bigger, and look for the effect of the air molecules.
EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE BROWNIAN MOTION USING A SMOKE CELL
Requirements
 A smoke cell  A paper straw  A microscope
Procedure
 Glue two microscopic slides together to make a cell. Ensure to attach a source of light to it.
 Use a paper straw to generate a smoke sample. Take care to dispose it off safely.
 Enclose the smoke inside the smoke cell and focus / observe or view it under a microscope in a low
magnification.
(An experimental arrangement for observing Brownian motion)

Motion of a single smoke particle

a: The smoke particles are just large enough to show up under the microscope. The air molecules that
collide with them are much too small to see.
b:The invisibly small molecules repeatedly hit the smoke particle making it change direction. The dotted
line shows the path of the smoke particles
Observation:
 The smoke particles (white specks) are seen to be moving randomly in a zigzag manner.
Explanation (Exam tip)
 The continuous random motion of the smoke particles in the smoke cell is due to the bombardment
(collision) of smoke particles with fast moving air molecules inside the smoke cell.

SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION BY SAKAJJA JOSHUA SOKUTON
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 A smoke particle is massive compared to an air molecule but if there are more high-speed molecules
striking one side of it than the other at a given instant, the particle will move in the direction in
which there is a net force. The imbalance, and hence the direction of the net force, changes rapidly in
a random manner
 Conclusion: This therefore proofs that particles in matter are in constant motion hence it is an
evidence for the kinetic particle model of matter.
GASES AND THE ABSOLUTE SCALE OF TEMPERATURE
By the end of this topic area, you should be able to;

1. Describe qualitatively, in terms of particles, the effect on the pressure of a fixed mass of gas of:
(a) a change of temperature at constant volume
(b) a change of volume at constant temperature
2. Recall and use the equation pV = constant for a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature,
including a graphical representation of this relationship
3. Convert temperatures between kelvin and degrees Celsius; recall and use the equation T (in K) = θ
(in °C) + 273
GASES AND THE KINETIC MODEL
The kinetic model can help us understand how gases behave.
 The particles of a gas move around inside its container, bumping into the sides. The gas causes
pressure on the walls of the container because the gas particles are constantly colliding with the
walls. Illustration

Question: Explain how gas particles causes pressure on the walls of its container?
 Particles of a gas move around inside its container (they are in constant random motion). As they
move, they collide with each other and the walls of the container.
 As a result, the momentum of the gas particles changes. This change in momentum gives rise to an
impulse (Recall: Impulse = change in momentum) or it gives rise to a force (Force = rate of change
of momentum or Force = Impulse /time)
 This force per unit area gives a pressure (Pressure = Fore /Area) hence gas particles exert a pressure
on the walls of its container.

SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION BY SAKAJJA JOSHUA SOKUTON
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Factors that affect the force and hence the pressure the gas exerts on a box
There are two factors affect the force, and hence the pressure that the gas exerts on the box.
1. The number of molecules that hit each side of the box in one second.
2. The force with which a molecule collides with the wall.
Pressure in a car Tyre
 If the piston in a bicycle pump is pushed inwards, but the temperature of the gas inside is kept
constant, then more molecules will hit the piston in each second, but each collision will produce the
same force because the temperature and therefore the average speed of the molecules is the same.
 The increased rate of collisions alone means that the force on the piston increases and thus the
pressure rises.
 If the temperature of the gas in a container rises then the molecules move faster and hit the sides
faster and more often; both of these factors cause the pressure to rise.
Important points
 The pressure of a gas is caused by atoms or molecules hitting the walls, changing momentum and so
causing a force. The pressure is the force per unit area on the walls of the container
BOYLE’S LAW
 Boyle’s law states that, for a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature, the volume is inversely
proportional to the applied pressure.
 Mathematically Boyle’s law is expressed as;
1
𝑝 ∝ (At constant temperature)
𝑉
This equation can simply be written as

pV= constant or pV = k

 For solving problems involving Boyle’s law, the equation pV= constant, (k) for two states is used
i.e.

𝑝1 𝑉1 = 𝑝2 𝑉2
Where;
 𝑝1 is the initial pressure  𝑉1 is the initial volume
 𝑝2 is the final pressure  𝑉2 is the final volume occupied by the gas

SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION BY SAKAJJA JOSHUA SOKUTON
(DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS NU –VISION HIGH SCHOOL)
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Graphical representations of Boyle’s law (the relationship between pressure and volume of a fixed
mass of gas at constant temperature)
a) A graph of p against V 1
b) A graph of p against 𝑣

The graph of p against V is like a decay curve The graph p against 1/V is a straight line

Expert tip:
1. Units: In the equation 𝑝1 𝑉1 = 𝑝2 𝑉2 it does not matter what units we use for p and V, as long as we
use the same units for both values of p and the same units for both values of V. The standard unit of
pressure is the Pascal (Pa). 1 Pa = 1 N/m2. Pressure can also be measured in kPa, N/cm2 or
atmospheres. One atmosphere is approximately 100 kPa. Volume is usually measured in m3, dm3,
cm3 or litres.
2. Inversely proportional: Two quantities are inversely proportional when increasing one quantity
decreases the other by the same factor and doubling one quantity halves the other.
WORKED EXAMPLE
1. A cylinder contains 0.80 m3 of nitrogen gas at a pressure of 1.2 atmosphere (1 atm = 1.01 × 10 5 Pa).
A piston slowly compresses the gas to a pressure of 6.0 atm. The temperature of the gas remains
constant. Calculate the final volume of the gas.
Answer
Hint: Note from the question that the temperature of the gas is constant, and that its mass is fixed
(because it is contained in a cylinder). This means that we can apply Boyle’s law.
Step 1: Write down the quantities that you know, and that you want to find out
{𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛; 𝑝1 = 1.2 atm, 𝑝2 = 6.0atm, 𝑉1 = 0.8m3 and 𝑉2 =? m3 }
 Note that we don’t need to worry about the particular units of pressure and volume being used
here, so long as they are the same on both sides of the equation. The final value of V2 will be in
m3 because V1 is in m3.
Step 2: Quote the Boyles equation for two states and make V2 the subject of the formula, substitute for
values 𝑝1, V1, 𝑝2 and find V2
p1V1 = p2V2
 Making 𝑉2 the subject of the formula, we have

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𝑝1 𝑉1
𝑉2 =
𝑃2
 Substituting for values of p1, V1 and 𝑝2 into the above expression, we shall have,
1.2atm x 0.8m3
𝑉2 =
6.0atm
𝑉2 = 0.16 m3
So the volume of the gas is reduced to 0.16 m3. The pressure increases by a factor of 5, so the volume
decreases by a factor of 5.
2. A balloon contains 0.04 m3 of air at a pressure of 120 kPa. Calculate the pressure required to reduce
its volume to 0.025 m3 at constant temperature.
Answer
 Write down what is given and what you are required to find or calculate
{𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛: 𝑣1 = 0.04m3 , 𝑣1 = 0.025m3 , 𝑝1 = 120 kPa & 𝑝2 =? kPa or Pa}
 From Boyles law (pV = constant)
p1V1 = p2V2
 Making 𝑝2 the subject of the formula, we have
𝑝1 𝑉1
𝑃2 =
𝑉2
 Substituting for values of p1, V1 and V2 into the above expression, we shall have,
120kPa x 0.04m3
𝑃2 =
0.025m3
𝑃2 = 192kPa

𝑃2 = 1.92 x105 Pa
3. A scuba diver releases a bubble of air. The bubble has a volume of 2 cm3. He watches it rise to the
surface, expanding as it rises. The diver is at a depth where the pressure is 5 atmospheres. What will
the volume of the bubble be when it reaches the surface, where the volume is 1 atmosphere? Assume
that the temperature does not change
Answer
Step 1: Write down the quantities that you know, and that you want to find out
{Given; 𝑝1 = 5 atm, 𝑝2 = 1atm, 𝑉1 = 2cm3 and 𝑉2 =? cm3 }

SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION BY SAKAJJA JOSHUA SOKUTON
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 Note that we don’t need to worry about the particular units of pressure and volume being used
here, so long as they are the same on both sides of the equation. The final value of V2 will be in
cm3 because V1 is in cm3.
Step 2: Quote the Boyles equation for two states and make V2 the subject of the formula, substitute for
values 𝑝1, V1, 𝑝2 and find V2
p1V1 = p2V2
 Making 𝑉2 the subject of the formula, we have
𝑝1 𝑉1
𝑉2 =
𝑃2
 Substituting for values of p1, V1 and 𝑝2 into the above expression, we shall have,
5atm x 2cm3
𝑉2 =
1atm
𝑉2 = 10 cm3

Progress check questions

1. What do each of the terms in the equation 𝑝1 𝑉1 = 𝑝2 𝑉2 represent?
2. The pressure on 6 dm3 of nitrogen gas is doubled at a fixed temperature. What will its volume
become?
3. A flask holds 6 litres of air at a pressure of 2 atmospheres. Calculate the volume when the gas is
compressed by increasing the pressure to 6 atmospheres. Assume that the temperature remains
constant.
THERMODYNAMIC TEMPERATURE SCALES
Question: What is meant by the term a temperature scale?
 A temperature scale is a range of values from which temperature can be measured.
 It should be noted that the scale of thermodynamic temperature does not depend on the property of
any particular substance.
 There are four temperature scales.
a. The Celsius scale: It was named after the Swedish scientist Celsius who suggested it. The unit for
temperature on the Celsius scale is a degrees Celsius denoted by the symbol (0C)
 Note: On the Celsius scale the lower fixed point is the temperature of pure melting ice and is taken
as 0ºC. The upper fixed point is the temperature of the steam above water boiling at normal
atmospheric pressure, 105Pa (or N/m2), and is taken as 100ºC.
b. The kelvins scale: This scale uses kelvin (K) as the unit of measuring temperature. The scale uses
the absolute zero (-273°C) as its reference point. Thus, 0 K on Kelvin scale is equivalent to –273ºC
on the Celsius scale. It is worth noting that a temperature change of 1 K is equal in size to a change
of 1ºC.

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c. Fahrenheit Scale: This scale uses degree Fahrenheit (°F) as the unit of measuring temperature. Two
values in this scale are fixed such that the temperature at which water freezes into ice is defined as
32°F and the boiling point of water is defined to be 212°F. The two have a 180°F separation (under
standard atmospheric process)
d. Reaumur Scale: This scale uses the degree Rankine (0°Re). In this scale, lower fixed point is the
freezing of water (0°Re) and upper fixed point in the boiling of water 80°Re.

TEMPERATURE AND THE CELSIUS SCALE

 Temperature is a measure of how hot or cold something is. Temperature is measured using a
thermometer. Most thermometers take a minute or so to measure temperature. This is because
thermal energy has to be transferred to or from the thermometer until it is at the same temperature as
the thing it is measuring

Exam tip: The temperature of a gas is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules. In a
hot gas, the molecules move faster hence they have greater kinetic energy than in a cold gas.
 A bath of water at 50 °G can have the same temperate as a cup of tea, but it has more internal energy
than t cup of tea because it has far more molecules.
 The temperature of a firework may reach 1500 °C, which means its particles have very high kinetic
energy, but has less total energy than the bath because it has very few particles.
THE FIXED POINTS
 A fixed point is defined as a reproducible invariant temperature; the boiling point, freezing point, or
triple point of a substance, such as water, that is used to calibrate a thermometer or define a
temperature scale. There are two fixed points namely;
a. The Lower fixed point (L.F.P) –Melting point of pure ice
b. The upper fixed point (U.F.P) –Boiling point of pure water
 A scale and unit of temperature are obtained by choosing two temperatures, called the fixed points i.e.
(Lower fixed point and Upper fixed point) and dividing the range between them into a number of
equal divisions or degrees.
 Fundamental interval (F.I): This is the difference between the upper fixed point and the lower fixed
point Lower and upper fixed points of different temperature scales

 The absolute (thermodynamic scale of temperature does not depend on the physical properties but
instead the scale relies on the two fixed points

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Absolute zero
Question: What is meant by the term absolute zero?
 Absolute zero is defined as the lowest possible temperature (taken as zero kelvin/0K) on the
thermodynamic temperature scale that can be achieved.
 It is the temperature at which a substance has minimum internal energy (the atoms or molecules of
the substance have no random kinetic energy but may still have some potential energy).
Triple point of water
 This is the temperature and pressure at which the three states of water (solid water /ice, liquid water
and water vapour) sexists in equilibrium. The triple point occurs at 0.01oC and 611.2Pa.
 The size of the unit of temperature on the thermodynamic scale of temperature is chosen to be the
same as the size of the degree on the Celsius scale – a 1oC change in temperature is the same as a
change of 1 kelvin (1K)
Conversion of temperature
The unit of temperature on the Celsius scale is the degree Celsius (°C), which is exactly equal to the
kelvin
The equation linking temperature θ on the Celsius scale and thermodynamic temperature T is

𝜃/𝑜 𝐶 = 𝑇/𝐾 − 273

𝑇/𝐾 = 𝜃/𝑜 𝐶 + 273
In this equation, θ is measured in °C and T in K. Note that the degree sign ° always appears with the
Celsius symbol, but it is never used with the kelvin symbol K.
Worked example
1. The temperature of the liquid is measured as 35°C. What is the temperature, to 3 significant figures,
on the thermodynamic (kelvin) scale of temperature?
Answer
 We use the equation 𝑇/𝐾 = 𝜃/𝑜 𝐶 + 273
 But to 3 significant figures, this equation becomes
𝑇/𝐾 = 𝜃/𝑜 𝐶 + 273
𝑇/𝐾 = (35 + 273)𝐾 = 308𝐾
PROGRESS CHECK & PRACTICE QUESTION
1. A block of metal is heated so that its temperature rises from 27°C to 150°C. Determine, to 3
significant figures on the thermodynamic (kelvin) scale of temperature:
a) the temperature of 150°C
b) the temperature rise of the block

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THERMAL PROPERTIES AND TEMPERATURE
Key areas
1. Thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases
2. Specific heat capacity
3. Melting, boiling and evaporation.
THERMAL EXPANSION OF SOLIDS, LIQUIDS AND GASES
Specific learning objectives.
By the end of this topic area, you should be able to;

1. Describe, qualitatively, the thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases at constant pressure
2. Describe some of the everyday applications and consequences of thermal expansion
3. Explain, in terms of the motion and arrangement of particles, the relative order of magnitudes
of the expansion of solids, liquids and gases as their temperatures rise
THERMAL EXPANSION
 Thermal expansion is the increase in volume of a material when its temperature rises or
 It is the tendency of matter to change in volume in response to temperature alterations /changes.
 Thermal expansion happens because as the temperature of the particles increases the particles
gain energy and move faster, pushing each other further apart i.e. causing a greater separation of
particles.
THERMAL EXPANSION OF SOLIDS
 When solids are heated, they expand only a little, usually too little to see with the naked eye.
However, in large structures such as bridges, buildings and railway trucks, this expansion could
cause problems when there are large changes in temperature.
 To avoid this, railway tracks have small gaps between them to allow for expansion. If no gap was
left, when the tracks expanded on a hot day they would be forced against each other and the track
would bend and buckle.
Illustration

The figure below shows an experiment that demonstrates that a metal ball expands when it is heated
a. The metal ball is cold and has passed through the ring
b. The metal ball is hot. It has expanded and will no longer fit through the ring.
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Explanation
1. When the ball is cold, it just fits through the ring.
2. When the ball, but not the ring, is heated strongly. It now will not pass through the ring. Meaning it
has expanded.
3. When the ball cools down, it contracts and returns to its original size and will once again pass
through the ring.
EVERYDAY APPLICATIONS OF THERMAL EXPANSION
1. Joining two metal plates using a rivet: Rivets are used in shipbuilding and other industries to join
metal plates.
 A red-hot rivet is passed through holes in two metal plates and then hammered until the end
rounded as shown below.

 As the rivet cools, it contracts pulls the two plates together tightly.
2. A bimetallic strip: A bimetallic strip is designed to bend as it gets hot. The strip is made of two
metals joined firmly together. One metal expands much more than the other

 As the strip is heated, this metal expand, causing the strip to bend. The metal that expands more is
on the outside of the curve, because the outer curve is longer than the inner.
 Invar is a metal alloy which expands very little when heated. Brass expands more, and the
difference in expansion causes the strip to bend.
 These strips are used in devices such as fire alarms and thermostats. Thermostats are used to
control the temperature of devices such as oven and electric hot iron box.
3. A metal lid or cap may stick on a glass jar or bottle, and be hard to unscrew. Heating the lid (for
example, by running hot water over it) causes it to expand. The glass expands much less than the
metal lid, meaning that the lid loosens and can be removed.
4. A steel ‘tyre’ can be fitted on to the wheel of a train w the tyre is very hot. It then cools and
contracts, so this fits tightly on to the wheel.

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CONSEQUENCES OF THERMAL EXPANSION
Thermal expansion of materials can cause problems.
1. Metal bridges and railway lines expand on hot days and there is a danger that they might bend
causing accidents. To avoid this bridges are made in sections and rollers are used.
Illustration

 On a hot day, the bridge expands and the gaps between sections decrease. Railway lines are now
usually made from metal alloy that expands very little. On a concrete roadway, you my notice that
the road surface is in short sections. The gaps between are filled with soft tar, which becomes
squashed as the road expands.
2. Changing of shape and dimensions of objects such as doors.
3. Wall collapsing due to bulging.
4. Cracking of glass tumbler due to heating.
5. Bursting of metal pipes carrying hot water or steam is a disadvantage.
THE EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS
 Many thermometers use the expansion of a liquid to measure temperature. As the temperature of the
liquid rises, it expands and the level of liquid in the tube rises.

 Glass containers may crack when hot liquid is placed in them. This is because the inner surface of
the glass expands rapidly, before the thermal energy has passed through to the outer surface. The
force of expansion cracks the glass. To avoid this, glass such as Pyrex has been developed that
expands very little on heating. An alternative is toughened glass, which has been treated with
chemicals to reduce the chance of cracking.
The unusual expansion of water
 As water is cooled to 4°C it contracts, as we would expect. However, between 4°C and 0°C it
expands, surprisingly. Water has a maximum density at 4°C.

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A graph of volume against temperature to illustrate that water expands on cooling

 At 0°C, when it freezes, a considerable volume expansion occurs and every 100cm3 of water
becomes 109cm3 of ice. This accounts for the bursting of unlagged water pipes in very cold weather
and for the fact that ice is less dense than cold water and so floats.
 The unusual (anomalous) expansion of water between 4°C and 0°C explains why fish survive in
a frozen pond. The water at the top of the pond cools first, contracts and being denser sinks to the
bottom. Warmer, less dense water rises to the surface to be cooled. When all the water is at 4°C the
circulation stops. If the temperature of the surface water falls below 4°C, it becomes less dense and
remains at the top, eventually forming a layer of ice at 0°C. Temperatures in the pond are then as
shown in the figure below.

Fish can survive in a frozen pond

 The volume expansion of water between 4°C and 0°C is due to the breaking up of the groups that
water particles form above 4°C. The new arrangement requires a larger volume and more than
cancels out the contraction due to the fall in temperature.

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THE EXPANSION OF GASES
 Gases expand when they are heated, just like solids and liquids. We can explain this using the kinetic
model of matter.
 Consider a gas in a cylinder fitted with a piston as shown below. A gas expands when it is heated at
constant pressure

 At first, the gas is cold and its particles press weakly on the piston. When the gas is heated, its
particles move faster. Now they push with greater force on the piston and push it upwards. The gas
has expanded.

Teachers tip: The expansion of gases as they heat up means that the density of a hot gas is
lower than the density of the same gas when it is cold. This is why hot air rises.
Order of magnitude of thermal expansion (Comparing solids, liquids and gases)
Question: Which expands most, a solid, a liquid or a gas, for a given rise in temperature?
 Solids expand least when they are heated. Some, such as Pyrex glass and invar metal alloy, have
been designed to expand as little as possible.
 Liquids generally expand more than solids.
 Gases expand even more than liquids.
SOME EXCEPTIONS
1. Liquid paraffin expands very rapidly on heating.
2. Petrol (gasoline) is stored in cool underground tanks.
3. If a motorist fills their tank on a hot day, the petrol will heat up and expand. This can cause the fuel
to overflow when it expands.
4. When a material expands, its particles (atoms or molecules) do not get any bigger. However, they
have more energy, so they can move around more and take up more space.
5. It is difficult for the particles of a solid to push their neighbours aside, so a solid does not expand
much.
6. When a gas is heated, its particles move about more rapidly, and it is easy for them to push the walls
of their container further apart, so that the gas takes up more space.

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PRECAUTIONS AGAINST EXPANSION
In general, when matter is heated it expands and when cooled it contracts. If the changes are resisted
large forces are created, which are sometimes useful but at other times are a nuisance.
1. Gaps used to be left between lengths of railway lines to allow for expansion in summer. They caused
a familiar ‘clickety-click’ sound as the train passed over them. These days rails are welded into
lengths of about 1km and are held by concrete ‘sleepers’ that can withstand the large forces created
without buckling. Also, at the joints the ends are tapered and overlap (Figure 2.2.4a). This gives a
smoother journey and allows some expansion near the ends of each length of rail.
2. For similar reasons slight gaps are left between lengths of aluminium guttering. In central heating
pipes ‘expansion joints’ are used to join lengths of pipe, these allow the copper pipes to expand in
length inside the joints when carrying very hot water.
Illustration (Expansion joint)

PAST PAPER QUESTION & ANSWER ON THERMAL EXPANSION

1. Fig. 1.1 shows the structure of a liquid-in-glass thermometer.
(Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625/41 Qn. 5 May/June 2021)

Fig.1.1
The bulb of the thermometer is placed into a beaker of warm water. As the liquid expands, it moves
along the tube.
(a) Explain, in terms of molecules, why a liquid expands when heated. [3]
Answer

 When a liquid is heated, molecules speed up and gain kinetic energy

 Work is done and forces are weakened and molecules move further apart or push others away
causing an increase in volume hence we say a liquid has expanded.
(b) Explain, in terms of molecules, why a liquid expands more than a solid when heated. [3]
Answer.

 The forces pf attraction between liquid molecules weaker than in solids.

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 Liquids require less energy or work done to separate its molecules/ particles than a in a solid
which means a greater separation (expansion) is observed for same work done / same increase
in energy.
(c) A second thermometer has a larger bulb that contains more of the same liquid than the thermometer
shown in Fig. 1.1. It has a different scale. In every other way, it is identical.
(i) Explain how the sensitivity of the second thermometer compares with the sensitivity of the
thermometer in Fig. 1.1. [2]
Answer.

 The second thermometer has a greater sensitivity

 The volume increase of the liquid in second thermometer is greater or the liquid moves a
greater distance for the same temperature increase.
(ii) Explain how the range of the second thermometer compares with the range of the thermometer in
Fig. 1.1. [1]
Answer

 It has a smaller range and smaller temperature increase for liquid / meniscus to reach end of
tube or
 It has a smaller range and expands more / it has a greater sensitivity and tube of same length
(d) (i) State one everyday problem that is a result of thermal expansion. [1]
Answer

 Bridges buckle in hot weather.

(ii) Suggest and explain one way of solving this problem. [2]
Answer

 Suggested solution: Putting gaps at the ends of the bridge and use rollers.
 More details: as the bridge expands the gaps close or the rollers move.
[Total: 10]

HEATING AND COOLING

Sun bathers on hot sandy beaches dive into the sea to cool off. Sand heats up much more rapidly during
day than water does, even when the sand is almost too hot to walk barefoot across, the sea water is
refreshingly cool.
THE HEAT EQUATION
 When a solid, a liquid or a gas is heated, its temperature rises. Plotting a graph of thermal energy
supplied against temperature rise, it is seen that the temperature rise Δθ is proportional to the thermal
energy ΔE supplied, for a particular mass of a particular substance.
ΔE ∝ Δθ…………..eqn (i)

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Variation of thermal energy with temperature

 Similarly, the thermal energy required to produce a particular temperature rise is proportional to the
mass m of the substance being heated
ΔE ∝ m…………..eqn (i)
Variation of thermal energy with mass

 Combining these two relations gives

ΔE ∝ mΔθ
 Introducing a proportionality constant, it follows that;

∆𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝜃 Or ∆𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇
Where c is the constant of proportionality known as the specific heat capacity of the substance. In this
case, specific means per unit mass.
From the equation ΔE = mcΔθ, it therefore follows that, the temperature rise of an object when it is
heated depends on
 the mass of the object.
 the amount of energy supplied to it.
 the substance or substances from which the object is made.
 To rise the temperature of mass m of a substance from 𝑇1 to 𝑇2 , the thermal energy needed is given
by
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇 → Note that ∆𝑇 = (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) so this equation can be written as

𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
 Alternatively: 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝜃 → but ∆𝜃 = (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ) so we have our equation as

𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 (𝜃2 − 𝜃1 )

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WORKED EXAMPLE
1. Calculate the heat that must be supplied to raise the temperature of 5.0kg of water from 20oC to
100oC.
Answer
{𝑚 = 5.0kg , 𝑐 = 4200J/(kg℃), 𝑇2 = 100℃ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇1 = 20℃ , 𝑄 =? J}
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝐸 = 5.0 x 4200 x (100 − 20)J

𝐸 = 1.7 x 106 J
2. Calculate the quantity of thermal energy required to raise the temperature of a mass of 590g of
copper from 25°C to 90°C. The specific heat capacity of copper is 390 J/(kg℃),.
Answer
{𝑚 = 590g = 0.59kg , 𝑐 = 390J/(kg℃), , 𝑇2 = 90℃ and 𝑇1 = 25℃ , 𝐸 =? J}
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝐸 = 0.59 x 390 x (90 − 25)J = 1.49 x 104 J

𝐸 = 1.5 x 104 J

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY (c)

Specific learning objectives.
By the end of this topic area, you should be able to;

1. Know that a rise in the temperature of an object increases its internal energy
2. Describe an increase in temperature of an object in terms of an increase in the average kinetic
energies of all of the particles in the object
3. Define specific heat capacity as the energy required per unit mass per unit temperature
∆𝐸
increase; recall and use the equation 𝑐 = 𝑚∆𝜃
4. Describe experiments to measure the specific heat capacity of a solid and a liquid
TEMPERATURE & INTERNAL ENERGY
Question: What is meant by the term internal energy of a system?
 The internal energy of a system is defined as the sum of the random distribution of kinetic and
potential energies of the molecules. It is determined by the state of the system.
 Note that the rise in termperature of an object is proportional to increase in its internal energy. This
is because at higher temperatures, molecules move faster thus molecules have greater kinetic energy.
A greater value of kinetic energy gives a greater change in the internal energy of the system.

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HOW TO INCREASE THE INTERNAL ENERGY OF A SYSTEM.
The internal energy of an object can be increasd by.
 Heating the object which increases its temperature and hence the kinetic energy.
 Doing mechanical work on the object.
If a gas is heated, its molecules move faster and so have more kinetic energy. If the gas is compressed,
the ‘squashing’ imparts kinetic energy to the molecules e.g when a bicycle pump is compressed quickly
the end becomes hotter.

 The increase in internal energy of a system is equal to the sum of the thermal energy added to the
system and the work done on it.

For an ideal gas there are no intermolecular forces so no potential energies.

 The internal energy of an ideal gas is due only to the kinetic energies of its molecules.

Internal energy for solids and liquids

The idea of internal energy can be extended to all states of matter.
1. In a liquid, intermolecular forces are stronger as the molecules are closer together, so the potential
energy contribution to internal energy becomes more significant. The kinetic energy contribution is
still due to the random motion of the molecules in the liquid.
2. In a solid, we can think of the solid as being made up of atoms or molecules which oscillate (vibrate)
about equilibrium positions. Here, the potential energy contribution is caused by the strong binding
(attractive) forces between atoms, and the kinetic energy contribution is due to the motion of the
vibrating atoms.
It therefore follows that;

The amount of internal energy within a system is determined by the state of the system and is
expressed as the sum of a random distribution of kinetic and potential energies associated with the
molecules of the system
THERMAL ENERGY AND TEMPERATURE
 The concept of internal energy is particularly useful as it helps us to distinguish between temperature
and heat (thermal energy). Using an ideal gas as an example, temperature is a measure of the average
(translational) kinetic energy of the molecules. It, therefore, does not depend on how many
molecules are present in the gas. Internal energy (again for an ideal gas), however, is the total kinetic
energy of the molecules, and clearly does depend on how many molecules there are.
 In general, a rise in temperature causes an increase in the kinetic energy of the molecules and, if the
substance is not an ideal gas, a rise in potential energy of the molecules and hence an increase in the
internal energy of the system.

A rise in temperature of an object is related to an increase in the internal energy of the object.

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MEANING OF SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY (c)
In physics, the word ‘specific’ means that unit mass is being considered. Unit mass means 1kg.
If 1 kg of water and 1kg of paraffin are heated in turn for the same time by the same heater, the
temperature rise of the paraffin is about twice that of the water. Since the heater gives equal amounts of
thermal energy to each liquid, it seems that different substances require different amounts of energy to
cause the same temperature rise in the same mass, say 1°C in 1kg.
Question: Define specific heat capacity [2]
Answer
 The specific heat capacity of a substance is defined as the quantity of heat (thermal) energy needed
to raise the temperature of a unit mass (1kg) of a substance by one kelvin (1K) without change of
state. Or
 Specific heat capacity is the energy required per unit mass per unit temperature increase without
change of state.
FORMULA FOR FINDING SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
The specific heat capacity of a substance is given by the equation,
∆𝐸 𝐼𝑉𝑡 𝑃x𝑡
𝑐= 𝑂𝑅 𝑐= 𝑂𝑅 𝑐=
𝑚∆𝜃 𝑚∆𝜃 𝑚∆𝜃
Where ∆𝐸 is the thermal energy supplied, P is the electrical power supplied, I is the current, V is the
voltage, t is the time, m is the mass and ∆𝜃 is the temperature change. Note that the quantity (IVt) is the
electrical energy supplied (E =IVt). This can also be written as E=P.t since P = IV.
 The SI unit for specific heat capacity is a joule per kilogram per degrees celsius. J/ (kgoC). The unit
of specific heat capacity is not the joule and this is why, in the definition of specific heat capacity, it
is important to make reference to the numerical value. A joule per kilogram per kelvin is also used.
 The specific heat capacity of a substance is the thermal energy per unit mass required to raise the
temperature of the substance by one degree.
Values of specific heat capacity for different materials

Material Specific heat capacity/ J/ (kgoC)

Water 4200
Ice 2100
Ethanol 2500
glycerol 2420
Mercury 140
Aluminum 913
Copper 390
Glass 640
Table 2.1

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It should be noted that,
For relatively small changes in temperature, specific heat capacity is approximately constant.
However, over a wide range of temperature, the value for a substance may vary considerably.
Variation of specific heat capacity with temperature

It follows that, unless stated otherwise, specific heat capacity is assumed to be constant.
PROGRESS CHECK QUESTIONS
1. Calculate the thermal energy gained or lost for the following temperature changes. Use Table 2.1
to obtain values for specific heat capacity.
(a) 1.4kg of aluminium heated from 20°C to 85°C
(b) 2.3g of ice at 0°C cooled to –18°C.
2. Calculate the specific heat capacity of water given that 0.25MJ of energy are required to raise the
temperature of a mass of 690g of water by 86K.
FINDING THE SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF A SOLID
Experiment to determine the specific heat capacity of a solid.
Requirements
 A solid whose specific heat capacity is to  Ammeter and voltmeter
be determined  Stop clock
 Immersion heater (electrical heater).  Beam balance
 Thermometer
Experimental setup.

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Experiment procedure
1. A metal of known mass m is placed in an insulated container and heated with an electric heater
which fits into a hole drilled into the metal.
2. A thermometer, fitted into a second drilled hole, measures the temperature change.
3. The electrical power of the heater is IV, where I is the current through the heater and V is the
potential difference across it.
4. A stopwatch records the time t the heater is switched on and the thermometer measures the change in
temperature
Analysis of results
From the formula for thermal energy supplied, and electrical energy supplied,
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝜃 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝐸 = 𝐼𝑉𝑡
If no heat is lost to the surroundings,
𝑚𝑐∆𝜃 = 𝐼𝑉𝑡
 The specific heat capacity of the solid is calculated from the equation
𝐼𝑉𝑡 𝑃x𝑡
𝑐= 𝑜𝑟 𝑐 =
𝑚∆𝜃 𝑚∆𝜃
FINDING THE SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF A LIQUID
Experiment to determine the specific het capacity of a liquid e.g. water
Requirements
1. Liquid whose s.h.c is to be determined 5. Stop clock
2. Immersion (electrical) heater. 6. Thermometer.
3. Ammeter 7. Insulating lid drilled with two holes
4. Voltmeter
Experimental setup

SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION BY SAKAJJA JOSHUA SOKUTON
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(Cambridge Assessment International Education)
Procedure
1. Measure about 0.5kg of water and pour into a beaker insulated with cotton wool.
2. Place a thermometer in the water and cover it with a lid. Place an electrical heater of power 50W
in the water.
3. Take the initial temperature of the water using the thermometer. Switch on the electrical heater
and at the same time start the stop watch.
4. Stir the water with the thermometer until the temperature has increased by 10oC. Stop the watch
and take the reading of the time taken for the temperature of the water to rise by 10oC.
Processing results
Time taken = 7min = 420s
Energy supplied by the heater = power time = 50 x 420 = 21 000J
Energy transferred to the water = m x c x ∆𝜃 = 0.5 x c x 10
Assuming all the energy from the heater is transferred to the water
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝜃 but 𝐸 = 𝐼𝑉𝑡 → 𝐸 = 𝑃 x 𝑡
𝐸 𝑃x𝑡
𝑐 = → 𝑐 =
𝑚∆𝜃 𝑚∆𝜃
50 x 420 21000
𝑐=( ) or 𝑐=
0.50 x 10 0.50 x 10
c = 4200 J/(kgoC)
Question: Why is the experimental value of the specific heat capacity of water not always exact/
accurate?

NB: It is unlikely that a student would be able to obtain such an accurate value for c in an experiment,
as some heat will always be lost to the surroundings.
Safety:
1. Wear eye protection or eye protection must be worn.
2. Take care as the pan and water and aluminium block may become hot.
3. You need to know the power of the 12V electric immersion heater to be used.
Precaution: Do not use one with a cracked seal.

SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION BY SAKAJJA JOSHUA SOKUTON
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 SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION 29
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SAMPLE CALCULATIONS ON SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
WORKED EXAMPLES
1. A student sets up the following apparatus in order to find by experiment the specific heat capacity of
water.

a. He obtains the following results.

Starting temperature = 20oC
End temperature = 42oC
Power supplied by the heater = 50W
Mass of water = 0.50kg
Heating time = 16 minutes (16 x 60) s
Use this data to calculate a value for the specific heat capacity of water.
Answer
𝐼𝑉𝑡 𝑃x𝑡
𝑐= = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉
𝑚∆𝜃 𝑚∆𝜃
50 x (16 x 60)
𝑐=
0.50 x 22
𝑐 = 4363 J/(kg℃)
b. The actual value for the specific heat capacity of water is 4200J/ (kgoC). Explain why the students
value is not equal to this [2]
Answer
 This is because some heat (thermal) energy has been lost to the surroundings.

c. A 15kW heater is used to heat a swimming pool. The pool has dimensions of 5m wide, 15m long,
and a uniform depth of 2.5m. How long will it take to heat the pool from 20oC to 25oC? State any
assumptions you have made in your calculation. (specific heat capacity of water = 4200J/(kgoC),
density of water = 1000kg/m3) [4]
Answer

SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION BY SAKAJJA JOSHUA SOKUTON
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3
{𝑃 = 15kW = 15 x 10 W, 𝑙 = 15m, 𝑤 = 5m , ℎ = 2.5m , 𝑇1 = 20℃, 𝑇2 = 25℃, 𝑐 = 4200J/(kg℃)}
{Required: 𝑉 =? m3 , 𝑚 = ? kg, 𝐸 = ? J, 𝑡 = ? s}
 Volume of the water in the pool.
𝑉 = 5m x 15m x 2.5m = 187.5m3
 Mass of the water in the pool.
𝑚
𝜌= → 𝑚 = 𝜌x𝑉 = 1000kg/m3 x 187.5m3 = 187,500kg
𝑉
𝑚 = 187,500kg
 Thermal energy supplied to the water in the pool.
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇 = 𝑚𝑐 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝐸 = 187 500 x 4200 x (25 − 20)
𝐸 = 3.9 x 109 J
 Find the time from energy and power
Energy supplied (E) 𝐸
Power = i. e. (𝑃 = )
Time (t) 𝑡
Make t the subject of the formula, we have
𝐸 3.9 x 109
𝑡= → 𝑡=( )
𝑃 15 x 103

Time, 𝑡 = 2.62 x 105 s

2. Copper is a type of metal. (Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625/2 Qn. 16 SP for Exam from 2023)

A block of copper has a mass of 2.0kg. The block of copper absorbs 12000J of thermal energy.
The specific heat capacity of copper is 385J /(kg°C). What is the temperature rise of the copper?
Answer
{Given: 𝑚 = 2.0kg, 𝐸 = 12000J , 𝑐 = 385J/(kg℃), ∆𝑇 =? ℃}
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇
𝐸 12000
∆𝑇 = → ∆𝑇 = = 15.58℃
𝑚𝑐 (2.0 x 385)

∆𝑇 = 15.6℃

SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION BY SAKAJJA JOSHUA SOKUTON
[DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS NU – VISION HIGH SCHOOL]
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MELTING, BOILING AND EVAPORATION
Specific learning objectives.
By the end of this topic area, you should be able to;

1. Describe melting and boiling in terms of energy input without a change in temperature
2. Describe the differences between boiling and evaporation
3. Know the melting and boiling temperatures for water at standard atmospheric pressure
4. Describe condensation and solidification in terms of particles
5. Describe evaporation in terms of the escape of more energetic particles from the surface of a
liquid
6. Describe how temperature, surface area and air movement over a surface affect evaporation
7. Know that evaporation causes cooling of a liquid
8. Explain the cooling of an object in contact with an evaporating liquid

MELTING
The following graph shows how the temperature of a substance varies with time as heat energy is
supplied at a constant rate.

SOLIDIFICATION
This is the reverse of melting. A hot liquid loses heat to the surroundings which reduces its temperature.
At the ‘melting point’, the particles, instead of losing energy (causing a drop in temperature), arrange
themselves into new “low energy” positions, i.e. the liquid becomes a solid.

Expert tip: The energy which must be put in to melt a solid at its melting point or given out when a
liquid solidifies at its freezing point, is called the latent heat of fusion. In this case there us a change
of state but there is no change in temperature.

SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION BY SAKAJJA JOSHUA SOKUTON
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BOILING
The following graph shows how a temperature of a substance varies as heat is supplied at constant rate

CONDENSATION
Condensation is a reverse of evaporation. If you breathe onto a cold window, you will see the water
vapour (gas) in your breathe turn back to liquid water as tiny droplets on the window. The window takes
energy from the gas causing the particles to move to lower energy positions closer together, i.e. the gas
becomes a liquid.

Expert tip: The energy which must be put to vaporize a liquid at its boiling point, or is given out
when a gas at its boiling point condenses, is called the latent heat of vapourisation. In this case there
is a change of state but no change in temperature.
DETAILED EPLANATION ON MELTING & BOILING
If a solid such as ice is heated at a uniform rate, its temperature rises until it reaches
its melting point. Once completely melted, its temperature
continues to rise until it reaches its boiling point. Once
boiled, the temperature of the gas continues to rise. This
process is illustrated in the graph below
 As a solid is heated from A to B, its temperature rises.
The energy needed to rise the temperature of 1kg of a
substance by 1oC is called the specific heat capacity c of
the substance.
 From B to C the substance is melting. All the energy
supplied is being used to weaken or break the bonds
between molecules, so the molecules do not gain any

SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION BY SAKAJJA JOSHUA SOKUTON
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(Cambridge Assessment International Education)
extra kinetic energy during this stage – the temperature of the substance remains constant.
 The energy needed to melt 1kg of a substance at its melting point is called the specific latent heat of
fusion, Lf. (When a liquid solidifies energy is released). The amount of energy needed to melt m kg
of a substance at its melting point is mLf.
 From C to D the temperature of the liquid rises until it reaches its boiling point. If the specific heat
capacity of the liquid is c, then the heat energy needed to raise the temperature of a mass m of the
liquid by an amount ∆𝜃 is 𝑚𝑐∆𝜃.
 From D to E all the heat energy supplied is being used to break the bonds between molecules
completely, and the temperature of the liquid/gas remains constant until the process is complete. The
energy needed to change 1kg of a liquid at its boiling point into gas is called the specific latent heat
of vapourisation Lv. The value of the specific latent heat of vapourisation is always larger than the
value of the specific latent heat of fusion because the molecules have to break away from each other
completely during vapourisation. When a gas condenses back into a liquid this energy is released as
heat into the surroundings. The amount of energy needed to vaporize m kg of a substance at its
boiling point is mLv.
 From E to F the molecules gain more kinetic energy and the temperature of the gas rises.

BOILING AND EVAPORATION

Both evaporation and boiling involves a change of state from liquid to gas and are both due to the
heating of a substance. Kindly note that the two are different.
Here are some important observations that can help to give a clear understanding of the two.
 The boiling point of water is 100oC, but water does not need to be heated to 100oC before it will turn
into a gas
 After a downpour of rain, the puddles eventually dry up even though the temperature is much lower
than 100oC. We say that water has become water vapour in the air. We can think of vapour as a gas
at a temperature below its boiling point.
 A liquid evaporates more quickly as its temperature approaches its boiling point. This is why the
puddles disappear quickly after a storm in the tropics where the temperature may be 30oC but may
lie around for days in a cold regions, where the temperature is 0oC
USING THE KINETIC MODEL TO EXPLAIN EVAPORATION
 Imagine a beaker containing hot water as shown in the diagram below.

SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION BY SAKAJJA JOSHUA SOKUTON
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 The water will gradually evaporate since the particles of water are moving around as some are
moving faster than others.
 Fast moving high (most) energetic particles escape the surface of the liquid (water) and becomes
particles of water in the air (they become vaporised). This way all the water particles may
eventually escape from the beaker and we say that, the liquid (water) has evaporated.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF EVAPORATION
1. Temperature. Liquids tend to evaporate faster at higher temperatures than when they are at a lower
temperature.
This is because at higher temperatures molecules have higher energy enough to escape the surface of
the liquid than at low temperature thus a liquid will escape more quickly at high temperature.
2. Surface area. The greater the surface area the faster the rate of evaporation. This is because most of
the liquid particles are so close to the surface and can easily escape.
3. Draught. : A draught blowing across the surface increases the rate of evaporation. Draught is
moving air. When particles escape from the water, they are blown away so that they cannot fall back
into the water thus liquid evaporates faster in the presence on blowing wind.
Here are some important observations and their explanations as to how and why they happen.

Observation Explanation
 A liquid evaporates more rapidly when  At higher temperature, more of the
it is hotter. particles of a liquid are moving fast
enough to escape from the surface.

 A liquid evaporates more quickly when  With a greater surface area, more of the
it is spread out, so that it has a greater particles are close to the surface, and so
surface area they can escape more easily.

 A liquid evaporates more quickly when  A draught is moving air. When particles
a draught blows across its surface escape from the water, they are blown
away so that they cannot fall back into the
water.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BOILING ND EVAPORATION

Boiling Evaporation
 Takes place at constant temperature  Occurs at any temperature
 Occurs at any point throughout the liquid  Occurs only at the surface of the liquid
 Does not cause cooling  Causes cooling

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 It is a quick process  Evaporation is a slow process
 Bubbles are formed in the liquid  No bubbles are formed
 Thermal energy supplied by an energy  Thermal energy supplied by the
source surroundings

COOLING BY EVAPORATION
 If you get wet, perhaps because you are caught in rain or you have been swimming, you will notice
that you can quickly get cold.
 The water on your body is evaporating and this cools you down because during evaporation some
heat is lost to the surrounding with the vapor. We say evaporation causes cooling

Expert tip: A liquid cools during evaporation because the most energetic molecules leave or
escape from the liquid surface hence the particles of a liquid will have less kinetic energy (on
average) and so the temperature of the liquid decreases.
Question: Explain how evaporation causes cooling.
Answer
 At any one particular instant the molecules of a liquid have a range of kinetic energies as shown in
the diagram on the right hand side.
 The high energetic particles which also happen to be at the
surface of the liquid may have enough energy to ‘escape’
completely from the surface of the liquid and thus become
vaporized.
 If the fastest moving energetic molecules evaporate, the
average kinetic energy of the molecules left behind
decreases and since temperature is proportional to the mean
kinetic energy of the molecules, its temperature falls slightly
compared to its surroundings thus we say the liquid has
become cold. It therefore follows that evaporation causes cooling.
COOLING OF AN OBJECT IN CONTACT WITH AN EVAPORATING LIQUID
 If an evaporating liquid is in contact with another object, energy will be transferred from the object
into the liquid. This is why you feel cold when water evaporates from you skin.
 The water gets colder as it evaporates and energy leaves your body transferring into the remaining
liquid (water) and as a result you feel cold.
THE MELTING AND BOILING POINT OF WATER AT STANDARD ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE
 At a pressure of 1atm (101325Pa or 1.01 x 105Pa) the boiling point of pure water is 100oC and also
its melting point is 0oC.
 It is important to note that water freezes and melts at the same temperature (0oC).

SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION BY SAKAJJA JOSHUA SOKUTON
[DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS NU – VISION HIGH SCHOOL]
 SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION 36
(Cambridge Assessment International Education)
PAST PAPER QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1. Fig. 1.1 shows a metal pan on an electric hotplate. The pan contains 200cm3 of water.
(Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625/42 Qn 4 Feb/March 2023)

Fig.1.1
The pan is heated. The temperature of the water in the pan increases.
(a) Thermal energy is transferred through the metal pan by conduction. State and explain the
two ways that thermal energy is conducted in a metal. [3]
Answer
 metals have mobile/free electrons
 these electrons (move through the metal) and collide with atoms (transferring their
energy) to them.
 the molecules in the lattice vibrate and pass their energy to those next to them
(b) (i) The water boils and leaves the liquid as a gas. Explain, in terms of forces and distances
between particles, why the gas occupies a much greater volume than it does as a liquid. [2]
Answer
 The attractive forces between particles is (much) greater in liquids than in gases. Thus
particles in gases are (much) further apart (than in liquids).
(ii) State two ways in which boiling differs from evaporation. [2]
Answer (Any two from)
 It takes place throughout the liquid
 It occurs at a fixed temperature
 Boiling does not produce cooling
 Bubbles are formed throughout the liquid
 Boiling is quicker process or takes place at a faster rate.
(c) The water is replaced with 200cm3 of milk. The initial temperature of the milk is 20.0°C. The
boiling point of milk is 95.0°C.

SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION BY SAKAJJA JOSHUA SOKUTON
[DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS NU – VISION HIGH SCHOOL]
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(Cambridge Assessment International Education)
The milk starts to boil when 60700J of thermal energy has been transferred to it. The density of
milk is 1.03g/cm3.
Calculate the value of the specific heat capacity of milk. Give your answer to 3 significant
figures.
Answer
{𝜌 = 1.03g/cm3 , 𝑉 = 200cm3 , 𝑚 =? g , 𝑇2 = 95.0℃ and 𝑇1 = 20.0℃ , ∆𝐸 = 60700J, 𝑐 = ? }
𝑚
𝜌= → 𝑚= 𝜌x𝑉
𝑉
𝑚 = 1.03g/cm3 x 200cm3
𝑚 = 206g
∆𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 ∆𝑇 𝐵𝑢𝑡 ∆𝑇 = (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) → ∆𝑇 = (95.0 − 20.0) = 75°C
∆𝐸 60700
𝑐= =
𝑚(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) 206 x (95.0 − 20.0)

𝑐 = 3.93J/(g℃) or 𝑐 = 393J/(kg℃)
[Total: 11]
2. During a picnic on a warm, dry day, a metal can of lemonade is wrapped in a damp cloth.
Evaporation cools the water in the cloth.
(Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625/41 Qn. 3 May/June 2022)
(a) Explain, in terms of molecules, how evaporation cools the water in the cloth.
Answer
 Fast moving (high speed) and more energetic molecules escape from the cloth into the air
 The average speed and hence the average kinetic energy of molecules decreases.
 Since temperature is directly proportional to the average kinetic energy of the particles, less
energy means the temperature falls and finally the cloth becomes cool.
(b) As the water in the cloth cools, so does the lemonade.
Explain how electrons transfer thermal energy through the metal of the can. [3]
Answer
 Atoms / ions in the hot end of the metal vibrate.
 The vibrating atoms or ions hit electrons in the metal.
 The free moving electrons are propelled and they travel through the metal thereby hitting
distant atoms, this way thermal energy is transferred and the other end becomes hot as
well.
[Total: 6]

SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION BY SAKAJJA JOSHUA SOKUTON
[DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS NU – VISION HIGH SCHOOL]
 SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION 38
(Cambridge Assessment International Education)
3. Fig. 3.1 shows a kitchen tap that supplies instant boiling water.
(Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625/41 Qn. 5 May/June 2022)

Fig.3.1
Cold water passes over an electric immersion heater inside the tap.
The boiling point of water is 100 °C.
(a) State what is meant by boiling point. [2]
Answer
 It is the temperature at which liquid becomes a gas or
 It is the temperature at which a liquid and a gas exist together.
(b) The immersion heater is powered by the mains at a voltage of 230 V. When the tap is
opened, the heater switches on and the current in the heater is 13 A.
(i) Calculate the thermal energy produced by the heater in 60 s. [2]
Answer
{Given: 𝐼 = 13𝐴, 𝑉 = 230V, 𝑡 = 60s and 𝐸 =? J)
𝐸 = 𝐼𝑉𝑡 = (13 x 230 x 60)J

𝐸 = 1.8 x 105 J
(ii) The specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J / (kg °C). The cold water that enters the tap is
at 22 °C.
Calculate the rate at which water at its boiling point emerges from the tap.
Answer
{𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛: 𝐸 = 1.8 x 105 J, c = 4200J/(kg℃), ∆𝑇 = 78℃, 𝑚 =? kg, 𝑡 = 60s, Rate of flow =? kg/s}
∆𝑇 = (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) → ∆𝑇 = (100 − 22)℃ → ∆𝑇 = 78℃
Method 1: Use the heat equation to find the mass of water and use it to find the rate of flow.

SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION BY SAKAJJA JOSHUA SOKUTON
[DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS NU – VISION HIGH SCHOOL]
 SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION 39
(Cambridge Assessment International Education)
𝐸
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇 → 𝑚=
𝑐∆𝑇
1.8 x 105
𝑚=
(4200 x 78)
𝑚 = 0.549kg
𝑚 0.549kg
Rate = = = 9.15 x 10−3 kg/s
𝑡 60s
Rate = 9.15 x 10−3 kg/s
Method 2: Alternatively first find power.
𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉 = (230 x 13)𝑊 = 2990𝑊 ≈ 3000𝑊
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇
 Making m the subject of the formula, we have;
𝐸
𝑚= but 𝐸 = 𝑃𝑡 (Recall: 𝐸 = 𝐼𝑉𝑡 and 𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉)
𝑐∆𝑇
𝑃𝑡
𝑚=
𝑐∆𝑇
 Dividing both side s by t we have;
𝑚 𝑃 𝑚
( )= but ( ) = rate
𝑡 𝑐∆𝑇 𝑡
𝑃 3000
Rate = = ( )
𝑐∆𝑇 4200 x 78
Rate = 9.15 x 10−3 kg/s
(c) The metal tap is earthed and there is a fuse in the cable that connects the heater to the
mains.
1. Explain how the earth wire protects the user. [2]
Answer
 if the tap becomes live or if the live cable touches the metal tap,
 there is a current to the earth in the earth wire which blows the fuse.
2. Explain how the fuse protects the circuit. [1]
Answer
 If the current in earth wire is large 9goes beyond the fuse rating) and fuse melts / blows
off. This stops the current from flowing and the circuit breaks.
[Total: 11]

SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION BY SAKAJJA JOSHUA SOKUTON
[DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS NU – VISION HIGH SCHOOL]
 SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION 40
(Cambridge Assessment International Education)
4. Fig. 4.1 shows a road next to the sea.
(Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625/41 Qn. 6 May/June 2022)

Fig.4.1
(a) On a sunny day, the Sun warms the road.
Describe how energy from the Sun reaches the Earth and warms the road. [3]
Answer
 The process is radiation.
 Here light / infrared / electromagnetic radiation travel through space / vacuum.
 This radiation is absorbed by the road and as a result the temperature of the road
increases.
(b) The temperature of the road is greater than the temperature of the sea.
The surface of the road is black.
Suggest one reason why the temperature of the road is greater than that of the sea. [1]
Answer
 Since the road has a black surface, black surfaces are good absorbers of thermal (heat)
radiation). The sea is a poor absorber of heat radiation.
(c) The air above the road is heated by the warm road.
(i) Describe how this affects the molecules or particles of the air. [2]
Answer
 The air molecules / particle speed up or gain kinetic energy
 The inter particle forces are weakened and the molecules / particles move further apart.
(ii) A cyclist travelling along the road notices that a cool breeze is blowing from the sea to the
land.

SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION BY SAKAJJA JOSHUA SOKUTON
[DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS NU – VISION HIGH SCHOOL]
 SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION 41
(Cambridge Assessment International Education)
Explain how convection produces this breeze. You may include a diagram if it helps your
answer [3]
Answer

 The air above the road is hot and air above the sea is cold. Hot air is less denser
(lighter) than and cold
 This hot less dense air rises above.
 It is replaced by the cold dense air from above the sea setting a convection current .
[Total: 9]
APPLICATION OF COOLING BY EVAPORATION
A REFRIDGIRATOR (FRIDGE)
 Fridges use the cooling effect of evaporation

The refrigerant liquid absorbs thermal energy from the fridge as it evaporates.
How it operates
1. A liquid is compressed then squirted through a narrow hole so its pressure is reduced and it
evaporates.
2. This draws thermal energy from inside the fridge into the liquid. The liquid is then pumped out of the
fridge to the pipes on the back of the fridge where it is compressed and condenses, releasing the
thermal energy to the surroundings. Excess heat is removed by the cooling fins.

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TRANSFER OF THERMAL ENERGY

Key areas to master.
1. Conduction 3. Radiation
2. Convection 4. Consequences of thermal energy transfer
DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS

(a) Conduction: It is the flow of heat through matter from place of higher temperature to a place of
lower temperature without movement of matter as a whole. Or
 Conduction is the flow of thermal energy (heat) through matter from a place of higher
temperature to a place of a lower temperature without movement of the matter as a whole.
 This transfer of heat by conduction requires a material medium for it to occur.
(b) Convection: It is flow of heat through a fluid from places of higher temperature to places of lower
temperature by movement of the fluid itself.
 Convection like conduction also requires a material medium for it to occur..
(c) Radiation: It is the flow of heat from one place to another by means of electromagnetic waves.
 The transfer of heat by radiation does not require a material medium.

1. CONDUCTION
SPECIFIC LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this topic area you should be able to;

 Describe experiments to demonstrate the properties of good thermal conductors and
bad thermal conductors (thermal insulators).
 Describe thermal conduction in all solids in terms of atomic or molecular lattice
vibrations and also in terms of the movement of free (delocalised) electrons in metallic
conductors
 Describe, in terms of particles, why thermal conduction is bad in gases and most
liquids.
 Know that there are many solids that conduct thermal energy better than thermal
insulators but do so less well than good thermal conductors.

HEAT TRANSFER BY CONDUCTION

Conduction is the process where vibrating particles transfer kinetic energy to neighbouring particles.
 In a solid, the molecules are held tightly together. So when one molecule vibrates, it collides with
other molecules nearby and the vibrations quickly pass from molecule to molecule.

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 This process continues throughout the solid and gradually some of the energy is passed all the way
through, causing a rise in temperature at the other side of the solid. It’s then usually transferred to the
internal energy of the surroundings (or anything else touching the object).

 Metals conduct heat so well because the electrons are free to move inside the metal.
 At the hot end the electrons move faster and collide with other free electrons, transferring energy.
These other electrons then pass on their extra energy to other electrons, etc.
 Because the electrons can move freely, this is obviously a much faster way of transferring the energy
through the metal than slowly passing it between vibrating neighbouring molecules.
 This is why heat travels so quickly through metals.
Experiment to demonstrate conduction

CONDUCTION IN SOLIDS
 Conduction is the only way energy can flow through a solid. The energy will move through the solid
but the solid does not move.
 Heat transfer in solids can occur as an excess energy of the vibration being passed along from atom
to atom and this happens in all solids.
 Metals are made of atoms which have free electrons.
 As a result metals allow heat to pass through them easily and they are called good conductors of
heat.
 On the other hand, non-metals do not have free electrons and they don’t allow heat to pass through
them. Non-metals are classified as poor conductor or insulators.
GOOD AND POOR CONDUCTORS (INSULATORS)
 Substances can be classified as either good or bad conductors
a) Thermal Conductor: A thermal conductor is any substance which allows easy flow of heat (thermal
energy) through it. It is simply a substance that conducts thermal energy.

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 Note: An electrical conductor is a substance in which electrical charge carriers, usually electrons
move easily from atom to atom.
Examples of good conductors
Most metals like
1. Aluminium
2. Brass
3. Copper
4. Iron
5. Silver and
6. Mercury

b) A poor conductor (also called an insulator or a bad

conductor) is a substance that do not allow easy flow
of heat (thermal energy) through it. Note that an
insulator can conduct under certain conditions.
Examples of poor /bad conductors.
1. Wood 4. Gases 7. Cork
2. Rubber 5. Liquids 8. Plastics
3. Grass 6. Glass 9. Fabrics

EXPLAINING CONDUCTION IN METALS AN NON METALS

Both metals and non-metals conduct thermal energy. Metals are generally much better conductors than
non- metals. We need different explanations of conduction for these two types of material.

Conduction in metals Conduction in non- metals

Metals have free electrons which carry thermal A glass rod is heated at one end. Thermal energy
energy, making metals good conductors travels from the hot end to the cold end

a glass rod being heated

copper rod being heated
 One end of the glass rod is being heated, the
 The diagram shows a copper rod, heated in
other end is cold. This creates a temperature
the same way as the glass rod

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 Heat conduction is fast in metals because the difference between the two ends, and so
electrons in metallic conductors (copper rod) thermal energy flows along the rod.
are free to move (they are delocalised). Question: What is going on inside the rod?
 These mobile electrons are the particles  At the hot end of the rod, the atoms are
which carry electric current and they also vibrating much more than they are at the cold
carry thermal energy as they get hot and end. As the atoms vibrate, they collide with
move through the metal. their neighbours. This process results in each
 Notice the free electrons, which carry thermal atom sharing its energy with its neighbouring
energy through the metal atoms. Atoms with a lot of energy end up
with less, and those with a little end up with
more. The collisions gradually transfer energy
from the atoms at the hot end to those at the
cold end. Energy is steadily transferred down
the rod, from the hot end to the cold end. This
is how poor conductors (such as glass, ice and
plastic) conduct thermal energy. It is not a
very efficient method of thermal energy
transfer.

CONDUCTIVITY AND THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

 Conductivity is defined as the degree to which a specified material conducts electricity or is the
measure of the conduction power of a material.
 Thermal conductivity: is the rate at which heat passes through a specified material expressed as the
amount of heat that flows per unit time through a unit area with a temperature gradient of one degree
per unit distance.
Factors affecting the rate of thermal conduction in a substance
Heat is conducted faster through a rod if;
 It has a large cross-sectional area
 It is short and,
 It has a large temperature difference between its ends.

COMPARISON OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF SUBSTANCES (METALS)

Different substances have different conducting powers as shown below
Experiment to compare the rate of thermal conduction in different solid substances.
Requirements
1. A tripod stand 6. Paraffin wax
2. A copper rod 7. Match sticks or drawing pins or paper
3. Aluminium rod clips.
4. Iron rod 8. A Bunsen burner.
5. Brass rod

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Experimental setup

Procedure
 A match stick or drawing pin is fixed to one end of each rod using a little melted wax or vaseline.
 The other ends of the rods are heated by a burner.
 When the temperatures of the far ends reach the melting point of wax, the matches drop off.
Observation: The drawing pin or match stick on copper falls first, showing it is the best conductor,
followed by aluminium, brass and then iron.
Conclusion: Copper is better thermal conductor as it transfers heat very fast.
COMPARING BRASS AND WOOD
 The arrangement in figure above can be used to show the difference between brass and wood.

 If the rod is passed through a flame several times, the paper over the wood scorches but not the paper
over the brass. The gummed paper singes and burns on the wooden side of the rod.
 Brass conducts the heat away from the paper quickly, preventing the paper from reaching the
temperature at which it burns. The wood conducts the heat away only very slowly.
 It follows that brass is a better thermal conductor than wood.
IMPORTANT FACTS
Question: Explain why metal objects feel much colder than objects made from bad conductors even if
both of them are in a room at the same temperature
Answer

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 Metal objects below body temperature feel colder than those made of bad conductors – even if all
the objects are at exactly the same temperature. This is because they carry heat away faster from the
hand.
 Liquids and gases also conduct heat but only very slowly.
CONDUCTION IN LIQUIDS
Liquids can also conduct thermal energy, because the particles of which they are made are in close
contact with one another. However, as the particles are free to move, vibrations are not passed on as
easily as in a solid. The particles in gases are very spread out, making gases very poor conductors of
thermal energy
THERMO-CONDUCTIVITY OF WATER
Water is a poor conductor of thermal energy. It is important to note that liquids and gases are poor
conductors of thermal (heat) energy.
Question: Explain why is water a poor conductor of heat (thermal) energy?
Answer
The electrons in water are involved in chemical bonds, they are not free to participate in conduction.
Hence, water lacks free electrons.
Experiment to show that water is a very poor thermal conductor
Requirements
1. Ice cubes and a wire gauze 3. Water in a beaker
2. A Bunsen burner 4. Clamp stand with a boss
Experimental setup

Procedure
1. Clamp the test tube in a slating position as shown in the setup above.

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2. Place the ice cubes at the bottom of the tube and insert a metal gauze to prevent the ice from rising to
the top.
3. Fill the tube with cold water.
4. Light a Bunsen burner and put it near the top of the open end of the tube and observe what happens
to the water and the ice cubes.
Observation:
 The ice cubes remained as they are even after the water at the top starts boiling meaning heat
(thermal) energy did not reached the bottom since the water at the top of the tube boiled before the
ice at the bottom melts.
Explanation:
 When a liquid is heated from the top as shown in the diagram above, no convection is setup. This is
because the warm liquid remain on top as it is already less dense than the liquid at the bottom.
 However, after a long time, ice placed at the bottom of the tube may be seen to melt as some heat
transfer down by conduction.
USES OF CONDUCTORS
 They are used to make saucepans e.g. saucepans are made from aluminium.
 They are used to make boilers and
 Conductors like iron, aluminum, iron and copper are used to make radiators.
2. CONVECTION
By the end of this topic area you should be able to;
 Know that convection is an important method of thermal energy transfer in liquids and
gases
 Explain convection in liquids and gases in terms of density changes and describe
experiments to illustrate convection.

HEAT TRANSFER BY CONVECTION

Convection is the transfer of thermal energy in a fluid (liquid or gas) from a region of a higher
temperature to a region of a lower temperature by means of convection currents.
A convection current is a movement of a fluid that carries energy from a warmer place to a cooler
one. Convection applies to liquids and gases only. Liquids and gases are fluids because they flow.
Explaining convection in liquids and gases in terms of density changes
The molecules in gases and liquids are free to move about. This allows them to transfer energy by
convection, which is a much more effective process than conduction in liquids and gases.
During convection more energetic molecules of a substance move from a hotter region to a cooler
region — and transfer energy as they do. This is how immersion heaters in kettles, hot water tanks
and convector heaters work.
Note that convection simply can’t happen in solids because the particles in a solid can’t move.
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Exam tip: Cold water is denser (heavier) than hot water. (Hot water is less dense). Heating destroys
mass and since mass is proportional to density, a less mass per unit volume means less density and
this explains why hot water or air is less dense (lighter).

CONVECTION IN LIQUIDS
Experiment to demonstrate convection in liquids
Materials/requirements
 A long straw  Water in a beaker
 A flat bottomed flask or a beaker  Crystals of potassium permanganate
 Tripod stand  A heat source e.g. a Bunsen burner
Experimental set up

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Procedure/steps
 Pour water into the beaker and place it on the tripod stand
 With the help of a long straw, drop a crystal of potassium permanganate to the center of the bottom
of the flask
 Using a Bunsen burner, gently heat the side of the beaker with the crystals at the bottom and observe
what happens
Observation
 As the temperature of the water around the potassium permanganate crystals increases, they begin to
dissolve, forming a bright purple solution. And the purple colored streaks are seen to rise from the
bottom of the beaker to the top.
Explanation
 The permanganate crystal dissolves in water and the hot water of less density start to rise up
displacing the cold denser water downwards
 The streams of physically moving warm liquid is called convection currents.
Conclusion
This purple solution is carried through the water by convection, and so traces out the path of the
convection currents in the beaker
The transfer of heat (thermal) energy by means of convection currents (streams of physically moving
warm liquid) is called convection in liquids.
CONVECTION IN GASES
Experiment to demonstrate convection in gases
Requirements
 A box with a glass window and two chimneys
 A candle
 Smouldering pieces of wick or paper (source of smoke)
Arrangement of apparatus/set up

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NB:
 The right hand glass cylinder is chimney – A
 Left hand glass cylinder is chimney - B
Procedure
 Take a box with a glass window and two chimneys fixed at the top
 Place a lightened candle under one chimney and hold smouldering piece of wick above the other
chimney.
Observation
 The smoke from the smouldering wick is seen to move down through the chimney B then to the
candle flame and finally comes out through chimney A.
Explanation
When the lightened candle was place under one chimney, the air above the candle becomes warm and its
density decreases. This makes the warm air to rise up through chimney A and the cold dense air above
chimney B is drown downwards this chimney and passes through the box and up chimney A.
NB: The smoke particles from the wick is what enables us to see convection currents
Conclusion
 Convection also occurs in gases.
 Convection currents possess energy. It is for this reason that steam is used to rotate a turbine in
geothermal electric plans.
3. RADIATION
By the end of this topic area you should be able to;

By the end of this topic area you should be able to;

 Know that thermal radiation is infrared radiation and that all objects emit this radiation
 Know that thermal energy transfer by thermal radiation does not require a medium.
 Know that for an object to be at a constant temperature it needs to transfer energy away
from the object at the same rate that it receives energy.
 Describe the effect of surface colour (black or white) and texture (dull or shiny) on the
emission, absorption and reflection of infrared radiation.
 Know what happens to an object if the rate at which it receives energy is less or more
than the rate at which it transfers energy away from the object.
 Know how the temperature of the Earth is affected by factors controlling the balance
between incoming radiation and radiation emitted from the Earth’s surface.
 Describe experiments to distinguish between good and bad emitters of infrared
radiation.
 Describe experiments to distinguish between good and bad absorbers of infrared
radiation.

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 Describe how the rate of emission of radiation depends on the surface temperature and
surface area of an object.

HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION

Radiation is the emission or transfer of heat (thermal) energy in form of waves or particles through a
material or space. Thermal radiation is infrared radiation.
Facts; Light that reaches us from the sun and the stars travels to us through space in the form of
electromagnetic radiation. The radiation travels as electromagnetic waves travelling vast distances in a
straight line.
 As well as light, the Earth is bathed with other forms of electromagnetic radiations including infrared
and ultraviolet radiations.
 The hotter an object is, the more the infrared radiations it gives out.
 Surfaces of all luminous bodies emit radiations.
 A human face emits mild radiations.
 While conduction and convection requires a material medium for its transmission or to occur, heat
transfer by radiation does not require a material medium (it can take place without contact or in
vacuum).

CHARACTERISTICS OF INFRARED (IR) RADIATION

 It is produced by warm or hot objects
 It is a form of electromagnetic radiation
 It travels through empty space (and through air) in the form of waves
 It travels in a straight line
 I.R radiations warms the objects that absorbs it
 They’re invisible to the naked eye
 Infrared radiations can be detected by nerve cells in the skin
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LAWS OF THERMAL RADIATION

1. Bodies only radiate heat if their temperature is higher than that of the surrounding and they absorb
heat from the surrounding if their temperature is lower.
2. Radiant energy travels in a straight line.
3. Good absorbers of heat radiation are good emitters of heat radiation. This means that anything
which is good at absorbing heat is also good at losing it
GOOD ABSORBERS, GOOD EMITTERS
On a hot sunny day, car drivers may pack their cars with a sun shield behind the wind screen. Such a sun
screen is usually white (or another light colour) or shiny.
This is so because these colours reflects away the light and infrared radiations that would make the car
uncomfortably hot.
The black plastic parts of the car (such as the steering wheel and dashboard) are very good absorbers of
heat and infrared radiations and becomes too hot to touch if directly exposed to the sun
 It is the surface which determines whether an object reflects or absorbs infrared radiations.
Facts
1. Shiny or white surfaces are the best reflectors (hence worst absorbers)
2. Matt black surfaces are the best absorbers (the worst reflectors)
3. Matt black surfaces are the best emitters
INVESTIGATING RATES OF THERMAL RADIATION
The three factors that affect the rate at which energy is radiated are;
 The nature of the surface –Shiny white surfaces are the worst absorbers (best reflectors) while a
matt black surface are the best absorbers (worst reflectors)
 The temperature of the surface –a hotter surface radiates energy at a greater rate
 The surface area –energy is radiated at a greater rate at a bigger surface area.

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Radiation experiment (Experiment to compare absorbers and emitters of heat radiation)
Requirements
1. A thermometer
2. Three Metal cans one with a
 Matt black surface
 A shiny silver surface
 White surfaces
3. water in a beaker
4. Bunsen burner
Safety/precaution taken in this experiment
 Take care when using hot water
 Wear eye protection when using the Bunsen burner
 Carry out some experiments (or watch demonstrations) showing how hot objects radiate
Experimental set up

Procedure
 Set up the experiment as shown above
 Fill the cans with hot water and light it with a Bunsen flame
 Insert the thermometer in each of the cans
 Observe which can absorbs heat from the flame more quickly
Observation
 The reading of the thermometer on the can with a matt black surface is greater than the reading of
the thermometer on the can with the shiny silver surface and white surface.
ConclusionA matt black surface is a better absorber (hence a good emitter) of thermal radiation than a
white or shiny silver surface.

Revision tip: Dull, darkly-coloured surfaces are much better at absorbing AND emitting
radiation than pale coloured shiny ones. If you need help remembering, think of wearing a
tight black T-shirt on a summer’s day — you’ll be a lot warmer in that than if you wore a
white one instead.
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4. CONSEQUENCES OF THERMAL ENERGY TRANSFER

By the end of this topic area you should be able to;
 Explain some of the basic everyday applications and consequences of conduction, convection
and radiation, including:
c) heating objects such as kitchen pans
d) heating a room by convection.
 Explain some of the complex applications and consequences of conduction, convection and
radiation where more than one type of thermal energy transfer is significant, including:
a) a fire burning wood or coal
b) a radiator in a car

APPLICATIONS OF HEAT (THERMAL ENERGY) TRANSFER

a) A vacuum flask (thermos flask)
b) Windows and ventilators in buildings
c) Natural convection currents over the earth’s surface (sea and land breeze)
d) A car radiator
e) Fire burning wood or coal.

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A VACUUM FLASK (THERMOS FLASK)
 A vacuum flask also known as a thermos flask was invented by Sir James Dewar a Scottish
Physicist and chemist in 1870s to reduce heat losses.
 It was designed such that heat losses due to conduction, convection and radiation are
minimized and it keeps a hot liquid hot and a cold liquid cold.
 Giant vacuum flasks are used to store liquid nitrogen and helium at very low temperatures
Diagram of a vacuum flask

Description
 It consists of a double walled glass container with a vacuum space between the walls
 The inside of the glass walls is silvered and it has felt pads on the sides and at the bottom,
support vessel vertically and a cork lid made of plastic (poor conductor)
How it works
 When a hot liquid is stored, the inside shiny surface does not radiate much heat. The little
radiated heat is reflected back again to the hot liquid by the shiny silvered walls on the outer
surface.
How heat losses are minimized
 Heat loss by conduction and convection is eliminated by the vacuum space between the
double walls of the glass vessel
 Heat loss by convection from the hot liquid upwards is reduced/minimized by the cork
lid/plastic stopper (since it is a poor conductor of heat)
 Heat loss by radiation is minimized by the silvered glass wall. In this case any heat which tries
to escape through the vacuum is reflected back.

NB: The thermos flask can be considered useless when the vacuum seal breaks. This is because
heat losses due to convection, conduction and radiation will not be minimized since the vacuum
seal is broken.

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WINDOWS AND VENTILATORS IN BUILDINGS
 Here, warm exhaled air of less density goes out through the ventilator and fresh air of high
density enters through the windows at a lower level. This refreshes the air in a room

NATURAL CONVECTION CURRENTS OVER THE EARTH’S SURFACE

a) Sea breeze
 During a hot day, heat from the sun increases the temperature of the land faster than the temperature of
sea water.
 This makes the air over the land warmer than the air over the sea water. The warm air is less denser
hence it rises from the land allowing the cold dense air over the sea to blow to the land and one can
feel cold air when standing near the sea during day time. This is called the sea breeze.

b) Land breeze
 At night, the land cools faster than the sea water.
 Warm air from the sea rises and the dense air from the land moves to the sea. This sets up a land
breeze in the sea.
Cold fresh air from the land

Warm air above the sea rises

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HOME INSULATION
 A well-insulated house can avoid a lot of energy wastage during cold weather. Insulation can also
help to prevent the house from becoming uncomfortably hot during warm weather
Illustration (Insulating a house reduces thermal energy loss and heating costs)

Methods of retaining energy in a house in a cool climate, and of keeping a house cool in a hot
climate

Method Why it works

 Thick curtains, draught  Stops convection currents
excluders and so prevents thermal
energy transfer because they
prevent cold air from
blowing in or being drawn
in by convection currents.
 Loft and under floor  Prevents conduction of
insulating materials thermal energy through
floors and ceilings.

 Double and triple glazing of  .The vacuum between glass

windows. They have an air panes cuts out loss or gain
gap (vacuum) between two by conduction and
sheets. convection

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 Cavity walls  Reduces thermal energy loss
or gain by conduction

 Foam or rock wool in wall  Further reduce energy

cavity transfer by convection.

 Double glazed windows usually have vacuum between the two panes of glass. This means
that energy can only escape by radiation since conduction an convection both require a
material medium for transmission
 Modern houses are often built with cavity walls with an air gap between the two layers
though it is impossible to have a vacuum in the cavity and convection currents can transfer
the energy across the gap.
Illustration

a. A cavity wall reduces heat loss by conduction because air is a good insulator. However, a
convection current can transfer energy from inner wall to the outer wall.
b. Filling the cavity with foam or mineral (glass or rock) wool prevents convection currents
from forming.
NB: Filling the cavity with foam means small amount of energy is lost by conduction, although
the foam material is a very poor conductor. However this does not stop convection currents
from flowing so there is an overall benefit.
FIRE BURNING WOOD OR COAL
 Wood burns on a bonfire to produce thermal energy. The heating effect you experience when sitting
by a fire is almost entirely due to radiation. Air is a bad conductor and thermal energy transfer due to
convection will heat the air above the fire.

SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION BY SAKAJJA JOSHUA SOKUTON
[DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS NU – VISION HIGH SCHOOL]
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A CAR RADIATOR
A car engine bums fuel and so gets very hot. To eliminate excess heat, the car has a radiator.
 The cooling system transfers some of this thermal energy to the surroundings so the engine does not
overheat.

Cooling system of a car engine black metal radiator cooler fins in a car
This system uses (applies) the following concepts.
1. Specific heat capacity: water flows around the block to absorb thermal energy. Water is a good
choice as it has a very high specific heat capacity.
2. Convection: as the water is heated, a convection current flows in the direction shown by the arrows.
The pump is used to speed up this flow.
3. Conduction: the radiator has metal fins as shown above so the thermal energy is conducted to all
parts of the radiator.
4. Radiation: the fins have a large surface area and are black to increase the rate of thermal energy
radiation.
THERMAL ENERGY TRANSFER, CLIMATE AND WEATHER
GREENHOUSE EFFECT & GLOBAL WARMING
Radiation from the Sun is essential for life on Earth. The Sun’s radiation warms the Earth. The warm
Earth emits some infrared radiation.
Gases in the Earth’s atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide, absorb some of this thermal energy and this
warms our atmosphere. This is the greenhouse effect and without it life on Earth would be
impossible.
However, the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is increasing, trapping more thermal
energy. This means that Earth and its atmosphere are absorbing more infrared radiation than they
emit. This is the cause of global warming
OCEAN CURRENTS
 Convection currents explain the origins of winds and ocean currents, which are two of the major
factors that control climate patterns around the world. For example, warm air rises above the
Equator, and colder air sinks in subtropical areas. This creates the pattern of trade winds that are
experienced in the tropics.

SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION BY SAKAJJA JOSHUA SOKUTON
[DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS NU – VISION HIGH SCHOOL]
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 Ocean currents helps to spread thermal energy from equatorial regions to cooler parts of the Earth’s
surface. Warm water at the surface of the Sea flows towards the poles. In Polar Regions, colder
water sinks and flows back towards the Equator.
 Provided this pattern remains constant, this helps to make temperate regions of the world more
habitable. However, there is evidence that the pattern of ocean currents is changing perhaps a
consequence of global warming.
SAMPLE EXAM STYLE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
1. An electric soldering iron is used to melt solder, for joining wires in an electric circuit. A
soldering iron is shown below.
(Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625/2 Qn. 7 May/June 2007)

Solder is a metal which melts easily. The heater coil inside the metal cylinder heats the copper
tip.
(a) i) Suggest why the tip is made of copper. [1]
Answer
 Because copper is a good thermal conductor.
ii) Suggest why the handle is made of plastic. [1]
Answer (Any one from)
 Because wood is a poor conductor of heat.
 Wood is a good insulator both for heat and electricity
 It helps to stop your hand from getting burned/prevents electrical shock.
(b) The heater coil is switched on. When the tip is put in contact with the solder, some of the
heat is used to melt the solder.
(i) State the process by which heat is transferred from the copper tip to the solder. [1]
(ii) By which process or processes is the rest of the heat transferred to the
surroundings? [2]
Conduction convection evaporation radiation
Answer
(i) Conduction
(ii) conduction, convection, radiation (Any two is given 2 marks)
(iii)
(c) A short time after switching on the soldering iron, it reaches a steady temperature, even
though the heater coil is constantly generating heat. The soldering iron is rated at 40W.
What is the rate at which heat is being lost from the soldering iron?

SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION BY SAKAJJA JOSHUA SOKUTON
[DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS NU – VISION HIGH SCHOOL]
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(Cambridge Assessment International Education)
A. greater than 40W
B. equal to 40W
C. less than 40W [1]
Answer
 B – (equal to 40W)
[Total: 6]
2. Here are five words relating to the transfer of thermal energy.
(Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625/2 Qn. 2 0ct/Nov 2002)
Conductor, convection, evaporation, insulator, radiation
Complete the following sentences by writing the appropriate word from the list
(a) Cooking pots often have a wooden handle, because wood is a good thermal …………… [1]
 Answer: Insulator

(b) Thermal energy reaches Earth from the sun be means of ……………………................ [1]
 Answer: Radiation

(c) Copper is a good …………………………. of thermal energy [1]

 Answer: conductor

(d) The heating element is put at the bottom of an electric kettle, so that …….........................
can rapidly transfer thermal energy throughout the water. [1]
 Answer: Convection
[Total: 4]
3. Match each heat transfer mechanism to its description.

[4]
[Total: 4]

SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION BY SAKAJJA JOSHUA SOKUTON
[DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS NU – VISION HIGH SCHOOL]
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(Cambridge Assessment International Education)
4. The diagram below shows a sauce pan.
(Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625/2 Qn. 7 May/June 2007)

(a) Suggest why the base is made of copper. [1]

Answer
 Because copper is a good thermal conductor.
(b) Suggest why the handle is made of plastic. [2]
Answer (Any one from)
 Because wood is a poor conductor of heat.
 Wood is a good insulator
 It helps to stop your hand from getting burned
(c) The saucepan is placed on the hot hob of a cooker. The soup begins to heat up.
(i) Explain how the heat is transferred from the cooker hob to the soup. [1]
(ii) By which of the following processes is heat transferred through the soup? [1]
Conduction radiation convection evaporation
Answer
(i) Conduction and convection
(ii) Convection
[Total: 5
5. An aluminium saucepan with a plastic handle contains cold water. Fig. 5.1 shows the
saucepan on a hotplate. (Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625/41 Qn. 5 May/June 2021)

Fig.5.1
(a) State why the pan is made from aluminium but the handle is made from plastic. [1]
Answer
SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION BY SAKAJJA JOSHUA SOKUTON
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(Cambridge Assessment International Education)
 Because aluminium is a (good) conductor (of heat) and plastic is a poor conductor /
does not conduct (heat).
(b) The hotplate is switched on and, as the temperature of the water increases, the internal
energy of the water increases.
(i) State, in terms of molecules, what is meant by an increase in internal energy. [1]
Answer
 It is the increase in kinetic energy of molecules or increase in potential energy of
molecules due to random motion.
(ii) Explain, in terms of the atomic lattice and electrons, how thermal energy is transferred
through the aluminium. [3]
Answer (any three from)
 Atoms touching the hotplate / lattice vibrate faster
 These atoms pass on energy / vibration to neighbouring atoms / to other atoms by
collision.
 Atoms pass on energy to electrons
 The electrons hit distant atoms or electrons move through the lattice.
(iii) Eventually, the water reaches boiling point. Thermal energy from the hotplate is still being
transferred to the water.
Explain, in terms of molecules, the effect of this thermal energy on the water. [3]
Answer
 Bonds broken / (attractive) forces overcome.
 Molecules gain potential energy or work done is done to separate the molecules / break
bonds / overcome forces).
 More energetic molecules escape from the surface of the liquid (as a vapour).
[Total: 8]

SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION BY SAKAJJA JOSHUA SOKUTON
[DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS NU – VISION HIGH SCHOOL]
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(Cambridge Assessment International Education)
6. (a) A machine delivers a hot drink in a plastic cup, which is uncomfortably hot to hold. Fig.
6.1 shows the cup with the hot drink.
(Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625/42 Qn. 5 May/June 2021)

Fig.6.1
Fig. 6.2a shows the cup with the hot drink and a holder for the sides of the cup
Fig. 6.2b shows a cross-section through the holder. The holder is made from two strong paper
cylinders separated by a wavy piece of strong paper to make air gaps.

Fig.6.2.a Fig.6.2.b
Explain how using the holder makes it more comfortable to hold the cup. [3]
Answer
 Air is a good insulator (poor conductor) of thermal energy.
 The holder stops / reduces heat loss by conduction since no / less thermal energy
conducted to the hand.
 The temperature (of the outside of the holder) is lower than that of the cup
(b) A student carries out experiments on the cooling of the hot drink described in (a), with and
without the holder in place. He finds that the holder only reduces the rate of cooling slightly.
Suggest and explain another action that reduces the rate of cooling more effectively. [3]
Answer
 Suggestion: put a lid on the cup or cover the cup with an insulating material.
 Explanation: This reduces the rate of evaporation thus preventing heat loss by
convection from the surface.
(d) State the method of thermal energy transfer from a star through the vacuum of space. [1]
Answer: Radiation.
[Total: 7]

SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION BY SAKAJJA JOSHUA SOKUTON
[DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS NU – VISION HIGH SCHOOL]
 SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION 66
(Cambridge Assessment International Education)
7. Fig. 7.1 shows an aluminium block after leaving a furnace in a factory.
(Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625/42 Qn. 5 Oct/Nov 2022)

Fig.7.1
(a) The mass of the block is 1200kg and it is heated in the furnace from 20°C to 380°C. The
aluminium block does not melt. The specific heat capacity of aluminium is 960J/(kg°C).
Calculate the thermal energy gained by the block in the furnace. [3]
Answer
{𝑚 = 1200kg, 𝑐 = 960J/(kg℃), 𝑇2 = 380℃ and 𝑇1 = 20℃ , 𝐸 =? J}
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝐸 = 1200 x 960 x (380 − 20)J = 1.49 x 104 J

𝐸 = 4.1 x 108 J
(b) Fig. 7.1 shows a factory worker standing 3m from the block.
State and explain the main process by which thermal energy is transferred to the worker [3]
Answer
 Thermal radiation.
Explanation
 Electromagnetic / e-m / infrared / IR (radiation emitted from the black surface )
 travels to the worker or is absorbed by the worker OR travels without needing a
medium.
(d) State and explain the main process by which thermal energy is transferred from the outer
surface of the solid metal rollers to their interior. [3]

SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION BY SAKAJJA JOSHUA SOKUTON
[DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS NU – VISION HIGH SCHOOL]
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Answer
Statement: By conduction.
Explanation: any one from:
 The delocalised / free moving electrons
 move from the outer surface to the interior of the rollers or
 travel throughout the solid / through large distances.
 collide with distant particles.
 The lattice vibrations transfer thermal energy to neighbouring particles OR particles vibrate
and cause nearby / adjacent particles to vibrate OR vibrating particles collide with particles
transferring energy. [Total: 9]
8. A metal container is used to cook food. The metal container has thick walls. Hot cooking oil
at a temperature of 120°C is poured into the container.
(a) The outside surface of the container gets hot. Some thermal energy passes through the
metal because vibrating atoms in the metal collide with neighbouring atoms and transfer
energy to them. (Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625/41 Qn. 5 Oct/Nov 2020)
Explain how the rest of the thermal energy is conducted through the metal container to the
outside surface by another process. [3]
Answer
 The vibrating atoms from the hot end of the metal hit free electrons
 Electrons travel a great distance through the metal.
 These free mobile electrons during their motion hit distant particles / atoms transferring
energy to them.
(b) The outside surface of the container is brightly polished and shiny.
Explain how this reduces the power that needs to be supplied to keep the oil at the correct
temperature. [3]
Answer
 Shiny surfaces are poor emitters of thermal (heat) radiation.
 This radiation can be light or infrared / radiation
 Less energy is then lost or the lost energy does not need to be supplied meaning less
power is needed.
(c) The metal container is spherical. The spherical container has a smaller surface area than a
long, thin container of the same volume.
Explain the advantage of using a spherical container. [1]
Answer
 Less thermal energy is emitted since there is less space for energy to be lost.
[Total: 9]
SIMPLIFIED CAMBRIDGE IGCSE PHYSICS NOTES 2023 - EDITION BY SAKAJJA JOSHUA SOKUTON
[DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS NU – VISION HIGH SCHOOL]