UNIT IV

21CV43 – Flow through Open Channel

7.1. Definition of an Open Channel

An open channel may be defined as a passage in which liquid flows with its upper surface
exposed to atmosphere. In open channels the flow is due to gravity, thus the flow conditions
are greatly influenced by the slope of the channel.
7.2. Types of Flow in Channels
The flow in channels is classified into the following types, depending upon the change in the
depth of flow with respect to space and time:
1. Steady flow and unsteady flow
2. Uniform flow and non-uniform (or varied) flow
3. Laminar flow and turbulent flow
4. Subcritical flow, critical flow and supercritical flow.

7.2.1 Steady Flow and Unsteady Flow

When the flow characteristics (such as depth of flow, flow velocity and the flow rate at any
cross-section) do not change with respect to time, the flow in a channel is said to be steady.
Mathematically
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑦
= 0; = 0; =0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

where y, V and Q are depth of flow, velocity and rate of flow respectively.

The flow is said to be unsteady flow when these flow parameters vary with time.
Mathematically,
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑦
≠ 0; ≠ 0; ≠0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

7.2.2. Uniform and Non-uniform (or varied) Flow

Flow in a channel is said to be uniform if the depth, slope, cross-section and velocity remain
constant over a given length of the channel.
Mathematically
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑦
= 0; =0
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠

Flow in a channel is said to be non-uniform (or varied) when the channel depth varies
continuously from one section to another.
Mathematically,
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑦
≠ 0; ≠0
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑠
Varied flow may be further classified as:
i. Rapidly varied flow (R.V.F.): The depth of flow changes abruptly over a comparatively
small length of channel (Fig.7.1).
Examples: Hydraulic jump and the hydraulic drop.
ii. Gradually varied flow (G.V.F.). The depth of flow changes gradually in a long length of
the channel (Fig.7.1)

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 Fig. 7.1. Uniform and non-uniform flow

7.2.3 Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow

The flow in the open channel may be characterised as laminar or turbulent depending upon the
value of Reynolds number, defined as:

where,
V = Average velocity of flow in the channel, and
R = Hydraulic radius (defined as the ratio of area of flow to wetted perimeter)

When, Re < 500 ...flow is laminar

Re > 2000 ...flow is turbulent
500 < Re < 2000 ...flow is transitional.

7.2.4 Subcritical flow, Critical Flow and Supercritical Flow

Since gravitational force is a predominant force in the case of channel flow, therefore Froude
is an important parameter for analysing open channel flows.
The Froud number is defined as
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑉
𝐹𝑒 = √ ; 𝐹𝑒 =
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 √𝑔𝐷
V = Mean Velocity of flow
D = Hydraulic depth of channel
𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴
𝐷= ; 𝐷=
𝑇𝑜𝑝 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 𝑇

(i) When Fe < 1 (or V < √𝑔𝐷 ): The flow is described as subcritical (or tranquil or streaming)
(ii) When Fe = 1: The flow is said to be in a critical state.
(iii) When Fe > 1: The flow is said to be supercritical (or rapid or shooting or torrential).

7.3. Discharge through open channel by Chezy’s Formula

Consider uniform flow of water in a channel as shown in Fig. 7.2. As the flow is uniform, the
velocity, depth of flow and area of flow will be constant for a given length of the channel.
Consider sections 1-1- and 2-2.

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 Fig.7.2. Uniform flow in open channel

Let,
L = Length of channel
A = Area of flow of water
i = slope of the bed,
V = Mean Velocity of flow of water,
P =Wetted perimeter of the cross – section
f = Frictional resistance per unit velocity per unit area.

The forces acting on the water between sections 1-1 and 2-2 are:
1. Component of weight of water along the direction of flow,
2. Friction resistance against flow of water
3. Pressure force at section 1-1
4. Pressure force at section 2-2.
The weight of water between sections 1-1 and 2-2.
W = Specific weight of water x volume of water
=wAL
Component of W along direction of flow = W sin i = w A L sin i
Frictional resistance against motion of water = f x surface area x (velocity)n
The value of n is found experimentally equal to 2 and surface area = P x L
∴ Frictional resistance against motion = f x P x L x V2

As the depths of water at the sections 1-1 and 2-2 are the same, the pressure forces on these
two sections are same and acting in the opposite direction. Hence, they cancel each other.

Resolving all the forces in the direction of flow,

w A L sin i - f x P x L x V2 = 0
w A L sin i = f x P x L x V2
𝑤 A L sin 𝑖
𝑉2 =
fxPxL
𝑤 𝐴
𝑉 2 = × × sin 𝑖
𝑓 𝑃
𝑤 𝐴
𝑉 = √ × √ × sin 𝑖 ……..(i)
𝑓 𝑃
𝐴
But, = 𝑚 = ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
𝑃
𝑤
√ = 𝐶 = 𝐶ℎ𝑒𝑧𝑦 ′ 𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑓

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 𝐴 𝑤
Substituting the values of 𝑃 and √ 𝑓 in equation (i),

𝑉 = 𝐶 √𝑚 sin 𝑖
For small values of i, sin i ≅ tan i ≈ i
∴ 𝑽 = 𝑪 √𝒎 𝒊
∴ 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑎ℎ𝑟𝑔𝑒, 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐴 × 𝑉
∴ 𝑽 = 𝑨 𝑪 √𝒎 𝒊

7.4. Empirical relations for the Chezy’s constant C:

Some of the important formulae developed for Chezy’s constant C are:
(a) Bazin’s formula:
A French hydraulician H. Bazin’s (1897) proposed the following empirical formula for Chezy’s
constant:
157.6
𝐶=
𝐾
181 +
√𝑚
where, m is the hydraulic radius and K is the Bazin’s constant whose value depends on surface
roughness.
Some typical values of K are:
Sl. No. Surface of channel Bazin’s constant (K)
1. Smooth cement plaster or planed wood 0.11
2. Concrete, brick, or unplaned wood 0.21
3. Smooth rubble masonry or poor brickwork 0.83
4. Earth channels in very good condition 1.54
5. Earth channels in rough condition 3.17
6. Dredged earth channels, average condition 2.36

(b) Kutter’s formula:

Two Swiss engineers Ganguillet and Kutter proposed the following empirical formula (1869)
for the determination of Chezy’s constant C.
0.00155 1
23 + + 𝑁
𝐶= 𝑖
0.00155 𝑁
1 + (23 + )
𝑖 √𝑚
where i= slope of the bed, m = hydraulic radius, N = Kutter’s constant whose value depends
upon the type of the channel surface.
Some typical values of N are given below:
Sl. No. Surface of channel N Kutter’s/Manning’s constant
1. Smooth cement plaster or planed wood 0.010
2. Very smooth concrete and planed timber 0.011
3. Smooth concrete 0.012
4. Glazed brickwork 0.013
5. Vitrified clay 0.014
6. Brick surface lined with cement mortar 0.015
7. Earth channels in best condition 0.017
8. Straight unlined earth channels in good condition 0.020
9. Rivers and earth channels in fair condition 0.025
10. Canal and river of rough surface with weeds 0.030
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(c) Manning’s formula:
Rober Manning (an Irish engineer) gave the following empirical relation for determination of
Chezy’s constant C (1889), which is simplest of all used for uniform open channel flow:
1
𝐶 = 𝑚1⁄6
𝑁
where N is the Manning’s constant also known as rugosity co-efficient whose value depends
on the channel surface., m = hydraulic radius.

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7.5. Most Economical Section of a Channel
The most economical section (also called the best section or most efficient section) is one which
gives the maximum discharge for a given amount of excavation.

A section of a channel is said to be most economical when the:

1. Cost of construction should be minimum
2. Discharge should be maximum
To keep the cost of construction minimum, the wetted perimeter, for the given discharge should
be minimum. This condition is used for determining the dimensions of economical sections of
different forms.

𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑉 = 𝐴 𝐶√𝑚 𝑖
𝐴
𝑄 = 𝐴 𝐶 √𝑃 𝑖
For a given A, i and resistance coefficient C
The above equation can be written as
1
𝑄=𝐾
√𝑃
where, 𝐾 = 𝐴 𝐶√𝐴 𝑖 = Constant.
Q will be maximum, if P is minimum

7.5.1 Most Economical Rectangular Channel Section

Fig. 7.3 shows the cross-section of a rectangular channel.

Fig. 7.3 Rectangular channel section

Let b and y be the base width and

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depth of flow respectively.
Area of flow, A = b × y, ...(i)
Wetted perimeter, P = b + 2y ...(ii)

Note: Alternate notations for

Hydraulic radius (m or R)
Depth of flow (y or d or h)
Bed slope (i or S)

Problems:
1. A rectangular channel 4 m wide has depth of water 1.5 m. The slope of the bed of the
channel is 1 in 1000 and value of Chezy’s constant C = 55. It is desired to increase the
discharge to a maximum by changing the dimensions of the section for constant area of
cross-section, slope of the bed and roughness of the channel. Find the new dimensions of
the channel and increase in discharge.

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2. Determine the most economical section of a rectangular channel carrying water at the rate
of 0.5 m3/s; the bed slope of the channels being 1 in 2000. Take Chezy’s constant C = 50.
Solution.: Discharge, Q = 0.5 m3/s, Bed slope, S = 1/2000, Chezy’s constant, C = 50

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7.5.2 Most Economical Trapezoidal Channel Section
Fig 6.4 shows the cross-section of a trapezoidal channel.

Fig. 6.4 Trapezoidal channel section

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 …. (A)

…. (B)

Fig. 7.5 shows a trapezoidal channel of most economical section.

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 Fig. 7.5 Most economical section of a trapezoidal channel

Best side slope for most economical trapezoidal section:

Side slope will be the best when the section is most-economical or when the wetted perimeter
is minimum.

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Thus, for a side slope of 60°, the length of sloping side is equal to the base width of the
trapezoidal section.
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Problems:
1. A trapezoidal channel has side slopes of 3 horizontal to 4 vertical and the slope of its bed
is 1 in 2000. Determine the optimum dimensions of the channel if it is to carry water at
0.5 m3/s. Take Chezy’s constant as 80.

2. A trapezoidal channel having the side slope equal to 60° with the horizontal and laid on a
slope of 1 in 750, carries a discharge of 10 m3/s. Find the width at the base and depth of
flow for most economical section. Take the value of Chezy’s resitance co-efficient
C = 66.
Solution. Bed slope, S = 1/750
Discharge, Q = 10 m3/s, Chezy’s constant, C = 66
Side slope with the horizontal = 60°

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3. Design an earthen trapezoidal channel for water having a velocity of 0.6 m/s. Side slope of
the channel is 1:1.5 and quantity of water flowing is 3 m3/s. Assume C in Chezy’s formula
as 65.

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7.6. Specific Energy and Specific Energy Curve
The total energy of flow per unit weight of liquid is given by:
𝑉2
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑧 + ℎ +
2𝑔
Where ,
z = Elevation of the channel bottom above the horizontal bottom,
h = Depth of flow
V = Average velocity of flow

Fig.7.6. Specific Energy

If the channel bottom itself is taken as the datum (Fig. 6.6), then total energy for unit weight
of liquid,
𝑉2
𝐸 =ℎ+ ………………(i)
2𝑔

The energy E given by eqn. (i) is known as specific energy.

Specific energy is defined as the energy per unit weight of flowing liquid above the channel
bottom.
Specific energy curve is defined as curve which shows the variation of specific energy with
depth of flow.
The specific energy of a flowing liquid
𝑉2
𝐸=ℎ+
2𝑔
𝑬 = 𝑬𝑷 + 𝑬𝒌
Where
𝐸𝑃 = 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝐸𝑘 = 𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
Consider a rectangular channel in which s steady but non – uniform flow is taking place

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Let Q = Discharge through the channel
b = width of the channel
h = depth of flow
q= discharge per unit width
Then,
𝑄 𝑄
𝑞= = = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (∵ 𝑄 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑏
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑄 𝑞 𝑄
Velocity of flow, 𝑉 = = = (∵ = 𝑞)
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑏 ×𝑦 𝑏 𝑏
Substituting the values of V in equation
𝑉2
𝐸=ℎ+
2𝑔
𝑞2
𝐸=ℎ+ … … . . (𝑖𝑖)
2𝑔ℎ2
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑃 + 𝐸𝑘
Equation (ii) gives the variation of specific energy (E) with the depth of flow (h).
Hence for a given discharge Q, for different values of depth of flow, the corresponding values
of E may be obtained. Then a graph between specific energy (along X-X axis) and depth of
flow, h (along Y-Y axis) may be plotted (Fig.7.7).

Fig. 7.7 Specific Energy Curve

Critical depth (hc)

Critical depth is defined as depth of flow of water at which the specific energy is minimum
and is denoted by hc. In the Fig. 7.7, the curve ABC is the specific energy curve and point C
corresponds to minimum specific energy thereby indicating that below this value of specific
energy the given discharge cannot occur. The depth of flow at which the specific energy is
minimum is called critical depth.
The mathematical expression for critical depth can be obtained by differentiating the specific
energy equation (ii) with respect to depth of flow and equating the derivative to zero.
𝑑𝐸 𝑞2
= 0, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐸 = ℎ +
𝑑ℎ 2𝑔ℎ2
𝑑 𝑞2
(ℎ + )=0
𝑑ℎ 2𝑔ℎ2

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 𝑞 2 −2 𝑞2
1+ ( )=0 (∵ 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
2𝑔ℎ2 ℎ3 2𝑔
𝑞2
1− =0
𝑔ℎ3
𝑞2
1=
𝑔ℎ3
𝑞2
ℎ3 =
𝑔
1⁄3
𝑞2
ℎ=( )
𝑔

When the specific energy is minimum, depth of flow is critical and it is denoted by ℎ𝑐 .
Hence critical depth is
𝟏⁄𝟑
𝒒𝟐
𝒉𝒄 = ( ) … … … . . (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝒈
Critical velocity (Vc)
The velocity of flow at critical depth is known as critical velocity; denoted by Vc. Its value is
obtained as follows:
1⁄3
𝑞2
ℎ𝑐 = ( )
𝑔
𝑞2
ℎ𝑐3 =
𝑔
𝑔ℎ𝑐 = 𝑞 2 … … . (𝑖𝑣)
3

𝑄 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 × 𝑉 𝑏×ℎ×𝑉
𝑞= = =
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏

𝑞 =ℎ×𝑉
𝑞 = ℎ𝑐 × 𝑉𝑐
Substituting in eq.(iv)
𝑔ℎ𝑐3 = (ℎ𝑐 × 𝑉𝑐 )2
𝑔ℎ𝑐3 = ℎ𝑐2 × 𝑉𝑐2
𝑔ℎ𝑐 = 𝑉𝑐2
𝑽𝒄 = √𝒈 × 𝒉𝒄 … … … . . (𝑣)

Minimum specific energy in terms of critical depth

Specific energy is given by
𝑞2
𝐸=ℎ+
2𝑔ℎ2
When specific energy is minimum, depth of flow is critical and hence above equation
becomes

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 𝑞2
𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ℎ𝑐 + … … … . (𝑣𝑖)
2𝑔ℎ𝑐 2
1⁄3
𝑞2
But, ℎ𝑐 = ( 𝑔 )
𝑞2
ℎ𝑐3 =
𝑔
𝑞2
substituting the value of ℎ𝑐3 = in eq. (vi)
𝑔
ℎ𝑐3
𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ℎ𝑐 +
2ℎ𝑐 2
ℎ𝑐
𝐸𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ℎ𝑐 +
2

𝟑𝒉𝒄
𝑬𝒎𝒊𝒏 =
𝟐
Critical flow
A critical flow is one in which specific energy is minimum. A flow corresponding to critical
depth is also known as critical flow.

𝑽𝒄 = √𝒈 × 𝒉𝒄

𝑉𝑐
=1
√𝑔ℎ𝑐
But,
𝑉𝑐
= 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 (𝐹𝑒 )
√𝑔ℎ𝑐

∴ 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 (𝐹𝑒 ) = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤

Subcritical flow. The flow is subcritical (or streaming or tranquil) when the depth of flow in
a channel is greater than the critical depth (hc). In this type of flow, Fe < 1.

Supercritical flow. The flow is supercritical (or shooting or torrential) when the depth of flow
in a channel is less than the critical depth (hc). In this case Fe > 1.

Alternate Depths: For every value of specific energy other than minimum there are two
possible depths of flow (h1 and h2), one greater and other less than critical depth hc; these two
depths for same specific energy are referred to as alternate or conjugate depths.

Condition for maximum discharge for a given value of specific energy:

The specific energy (E) at any section of a channel is given by:
𝑉2
𝐸=ℎ+
2𝑔
𝑄 𝑄
𝑉= =
𝐴 𝑏×ℎ

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 𝑄2 1
∴𝐸 =ℎ+ 2 ×
𝑏 × ℎ2 2𝑔
𝑄2
𝐸 =ℎ+
2𝑔𝑏 2 ℎ2

𝑄 2 = (𝐸 − ℎ)2𝑔𝑏 2 ℎ2

𝑄 = √(𝐸 − ℎ)2𝑔𝑏 2 ℎ2

𝑄 = 𝑏√2𝑔 (𝐸ℎ2 − ℎ3 )
For maximum discharge, Q, the expression (𝐸ℎ2 − ℎ3 ) should be maximum.

𝑑
(𝐸ℎ2 − ℎ3 ) = 0
𝑑ℎ
2𝐸ℎ − 3ℎ2 = 0
2𝐸 − 3ℎ = 0
2
ℎ= 𝐸
3
𝟑𝒉
𝑬=
𝟐
Problems:

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7.7. Hydraulic Jump or Standing Wave

Fig. 7.8 Hydraulic Jump

Consider the flow of water over a dam as shown in Fig. 7.8. The height of water at the section
1-1 is small. As we move towards downstream, the height or depth of water increases rapidly
over a short length of the channel. This is because at the section 1-1, the flow is a shooting flow
as the depth of water at section 1-1- is less than critical depth. Shooting flow is an unstable
type of flow and does not continue on the downstream side. Then this shooting flow will
convert itself into a streaming or tranquil flow and hence depth of water will increase. This
sudden increase of depth of water is called a hydraulic jump or a standing wave. Thus, hydraulic
jump is defined as “The rise of water level, which takes place due to the transformation of the
unstable shooting flow (Super-critical) to the stable streaming flow (sub-critical flow)”.

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7.7.1. Expression for Depth of Hydraulic Jump
Assumptions made:
1. The flow is uniform and pressure distribution is due to hydrostatic before and after the
jump.
2. Losses due to friction on the surface of the bed of the channel are small and hence neglected.
3. The slope of the bed of the channel is small, so that the component of the weight of the
fluid in the downstream of flow is negligibly small.
Consider a hydraulic jump formed in the channel of horizontal bed as shown in Fig. 7.9.
Consider two sections 1-1 and 2-2 before and after hydraulic jump.
Let,
d1 = Depth of flow at section 1-1
d2 = Depth of flow at section 2-2
V1 = Velocity of flow at section 1-1
V2 = Velocity of flow at section 2-2
𝑍1 = Depth of centroid of area at section 1-1 below
free surface.
Fig. 7.9. Hydraulic Jump
𝑍2 = Depth of centroid of area at section 1-1 below
free surface.
A1 = Area of cross -section at section 1-1
A2 = Area of cross -section at section 2-2

Consider unit width of the channel

The forces acting on the mass of water between sections 1-1 and 2-2 are:
(i) Pressure force, P1 on section 1-1,
(ii) Pressure force, P2 on section 2-2
(iii) Frictional force on the floor of the channel, which is assumed to be negligible.

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7.7.2. Expression for loss of energy due to hydraulic jump

When hydraulic jump takes place, a loss of energy due to eddies formation and turbulence
occurs. This loss of energy is equal to the difference of specific energies at sections 1-1 and
section 2-2.

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7.7.3. Expression for depth of Hydraulic jump in terms of upstream Froude Number

7.7.4 Length of Hydraulic Jump

This is defined as the length between the two sections where one section is taken before the
hydraulic jump and the second section is taken immediately after the jump.
For a rectangular channel from experiments, it has been found equal to 5 to 7 times the height
of the hydraulic jump.

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