Course Title: Fluid Mechanics

Course Code: CV 207 T

Lecture No. 12
Chapter No. 9: Flow in Open Channels

Instructor: Dr. Rafiq Ullah

Department of Civil Engineering
S.S.U.E.T
 Open Channel
Any passage of liquid in which liquid flows with its upper surface exposed to the
atmosphere.
➢ In open channels the flow is due to gravity, thus the flow conditions are greatly
influenced by the slope of the channel.
➢ The open channel flow is also referred to as free surface flow or gravity flow, as in
these channels flow is due to gravity i.e., longitudinal slope.
 Types of Open Channels
Natural channel: The channel developed
naturally and has irregular sections of
varying shapes.
Examples: Rivers, streams, etc.
Artificial channel: The channel which is built
artificially for carrying water for various
purposes and has cross-sections with regular
geometrical shapes (which usually remain the
same throughout the length of the channel).
Examples: Rectangular channel, trapezoidal
channel, parabolic channel, etc.
Prismatic channel: A channel with a constant
bed slope and the same cross-section along its
length is known as a prismatic channel.
 Open Channel Flow and Pipe Flow
Aspect Open Channel Flow Pipe Flow
Cause of flow Gravity (provision of bed slope) Hydraulic head or pressure
Geometry of Cross- Triangular, Rectangular, trapezoidal Circular and flows full
section or semi circular
Surface Roughness Varies between wide limits, the Roughness co-efficient varies from a low
hydraulic roughness varies with value to a very high value, depending
depth of flow. upon the material of the pipe
Velocity Distribution The maximum velocity occurs at a The velocity distribution is symmetrical
little distance below the water about the pipe axis, maximum velocity
surface. The shape of the velocity occurring at the pipe center and the
profile is dependent on the channel velocity at the pipe wall reducing to zero.
roughness.
 Type open channel flow
The flow in channels is classified into the following types, depending upon the change in the
depth of flow with respect to space and time:

1. Uniform flow and non-uniform (or varied) flow

i. Rapidly varied flow (RVF)
ii. Gradually varied flow (GVF)
2. Steady flow and unsteady flow
3. Laminar flow and turbulent flow
4. Subcritical flow, critical flow, and supercritical flow.
 Uniform and Non-uniform Flow
Open channel flow conditions can be characterized with respect to space (uniform and non-
uniform flows) and time (steady and unsteady flows)
Space: how do the flow conditions change along the reach (length) of an open channel system
a. Uniform flow: depth of flow is the same at every section of flow dy/dx = 0
b. Non-uniform flow: depth of flow varies along the flow dy/dx ≠ 0

➢ Uniform flows are possible only in prismatic

channels only.
➢ A uniform flow may be either steady or unsteady,
depending upon whether or not the discharge
varies with time; unsteady uniform flow is rare in
practice.
 Non-uniform Flow (Varied flow)
❑ The flow is rapidly varied if the depth changes abruptly over a comparatively short
distance. Examples of rapidly varied flow (RVF) are a hydraulic jump, hydraulic drop,
flow over a weir, and flow under a sluice gate
❑ The flow is gradually varied if the depth changes slowly over a comparatively long
distance. Examples of gradually varied flow (GVF) are the flow over a mild slope and
the backing up of flow (backwater)
 Steady Flow and Unsteady Flow
Time: how do the flow conditions change over time at a specific section in an open channel
system
❑ Steady flow: depth of flow does not change during the time interval under consideration
dy/dt= 0
❑ Unsteady flow: depth of flow changes with time dy/dt ≠ 0
➢ When the flow characteristics (such as
depth of flow, flow velocity, and the flow
rate at any cross-section) do not change
with respect to time, the flow in a
channel is said to be steady.
➢ The flow is said to be unsteady flow
when these flow parameters vary with
time.
 Laminar and Turbulent Flow
The behavior of open-channel flow is governed by the viscosity and gravity effect relative
to the inertial forces of the flow
Effect of viscosity: depending on the effect of viscosity relative to inertial forces, the
flow may be in a laminar or turbulent state
Reynald number represents the effect of viscous force relative to inertial force
Re < 500, the flow is laminar
𝑉𝑅 𝑝𝑉𝑅
𝑅e = = 500 < Re < 2000, the flow is transitional
𝑣 𝜇 Re > 2000, the flow is turbulent

R = Hydraulic radius (defined as the ratio of the area of flow to the wetted perimeter)

➢ The flow is laminar if the viscous forces are dominant over the inertial force. Viscosity
will determine the flow behavior.
➢ The flow is turbulent if the inertial forces are dominant than the viscous force.
 Subcritical and Supercritical flow
Effect of gravity: depending on the effect of gravity forces relative to inertial forces, the
flow may be subcritical, critical, or supercritical
Froude number represents the ratio of inertial force to the gravity forces

𝑉
𝐹r =
𝑔𝐷
Where;
V = mean velocity of the flow
D = hydraulic depth of the channel

Fr < 1, the flow is in subcritical state 𝑉< 𝑔𝐷

Fr = 1, the flow is in critical state 𝑉= 𝑔𝐷
Fr > 1, the flow is in supercritical state 𝑉> 𝑔𝐷
 Important Terms
1. Depth of Flow (y): It is the vertical distance of the lowest point of a channel section (bed
of the channel) to the free surface.
2. Depth of Flow section(d): It is the depth of flow normal to the bed of the channel.

d = y Cos𝜃

3. Top width (T): It is the width of the channel section at the free surface. (only the width
of the liquid)
4. Wetted Area(A): It is the cross-sectional area of the flow section of the channel.
 Important Terms
5. Wetted Perimeter (P): It is the length of the channel boundary in contact with the
flowing water at any section.

6. Hydraulic Radius (Rh): It is the ratio of the cross-sectional area of flow to the
wetted perimeter. It is also called hydraulic mean depth.

𝐴
𝑅=
𝑃
7. Hydraulic Depth (D): It is the ratio of the wetted area A to the top width T.
𝐴
𝐷=
𝑇
 Chezy’s Formula
Open channel flow is different as compared to pipe flow, Darcy Weisbach’s equation is not
feasible to determine flow in an open channel. Hence, for the calculation of steady and
uniform flow through an open channel Chezy’s equation is used:

𝑉 = 𝐶 𝑅𝑆

Where:
V = Mean Velocity of flow
C = Chezy’s coefficient (depends on roughness and flow Reynold number)
R = Hydraulic Radius
S = Channel’s bed Slope (sin𝜃)

(i) Darcy-Weisbach formula (for loss of head) is generally used for the flow through pipes.
(ii) Chezy’s formula (for loss of head) is generally used for the flow through open channels.
 Empirical relations for the Chezy’s constant C
Although Chezy’s equation is quite simple, the selection of a correct value of C is rather
difficult. Some of the important formulae developed for Chezy’s constant C are:
(a) Bazin’s formula:
where, R is the hydraulic radius and K is the Bazin’s constant whose
value depends on surface roughness (see to table)

(b) Kutter’s formula:

where N is the Kutter’s constant whose value depends upon the
type of the channel surface roughness (see to table)

(c) Manning’s formula:

 Tables for Chezy’s constant C

S. No. Surface of channel N S.No. Surface of channel Bazin’s

(Kutter’s/Ma constant
nning’s (K)
constant) 1 Smooth cement plaster or 0.11
1 Smooth cement plaster or planed wood 0.010 planed wood
2 Very smooth concrete and planed timber 0.011 2 Concrete, brick, or unplaned 0.21
3 Smooth concrete 0.012 wood

4 Glazed brickwork 0.013 3 Smooth rubble masonry or 0.83

poor brickwork
5 Vitrified clay 0.014
4 Earth channels in very good 1.54
6 Brick surface lined with cement mortar 0.015 condition
7 Earth channels in best condition 0.017 5 Earth channels in rough 3.17
8 Straight unlined earth channels in good condition 0.020 condition
9 Straight unlined earth channels in good condition 0.025 6 Dredged earth channels, 2.36
average condition
10 . Canal and river of rough surface with weeds 0.030
 Most economical section of a channel
The most economical section (also called the best section or most efficient section) is one.
which gives the maximum discharge for a given amount of excavation (cross-sectional
area, frictional resistance coefficient and bottom slope).
1. From continuity equation, for the channel of constant cross-sectional area the discharge
is maximum when velocity is maximum. 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉
2. From Chezy’s formula, for same value of slope and surface roughness the velocity of
flow will be maximum if hydraulic radius is maximum.
𝑉 = 𝐶 𝑅𝑆
i. For constant area, the hydraulic radius is maximum if the wetted perimeter is
minimum. 𝐴
𝑅=
𝑃
➢ This condition is used to determine the dimensions of economical sections of different
forms of channels.
➢ The best form of channel which complies with this condition is one which has a semi-
circular cross-section
Most economical rectangular channel section
 Assignment # 3
Q.No.1: Determine the best side slope for most economical
trapezoidal section
Q.No.2: Determine the most economical triangular channel section
 Problems
1. Find the rate of flow and conveyance for a rectangular channel 7.5 m wide for uniform
flow at a depth of 2.25 m. The channel is having bed slope as 1 in 1000. Take Chezy’s
constant C = 55. Also state whether the flow is tranquil (subcritical or streaming) or
rapid (supercritical or shooting or torrential).

2. A rectangular channel 4 m wide has depth of water 1.5 m. The slope of the bed of the
channel is 1 in 1000 and value of Chezy’s constant C = 55. It is desired to increase the
discharge to a maximum by changing the dimensions of the section for constant area
of cross section, slope of the bed and roughness of the channel. Find the new
dimensions of the channel and increase in discharge.

3. A trapezoidal channel has side slopes of 3 horizontal to 4 vertical and the slope of its
bed is 1 in 2000. Determine the optimum dimensions of the channel if it is to carry
water at 0.5 m3/s. Take Chezy’s constant as 80.