1.

1 ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF ELECTRIC ENERGY CONVERSION

1.1.1 Coal as thermal fuel

Coal is the raw fuel that provides 42% of the world‘s electricity. This distinguishes coal
as the world‘s primary energy source for electricity generation. The name coal refers to a family
of solid, organic fuels with different properties. Coal is mainly composed of elemental carbon
and is formed by the conversion of deposited organic material. The lowest grade of coal formed
is peat. Under the influence of high pressures and temperatures, the peat is transform into the
coal. Using coal to generate power or heat is an old technique. The heat energy of these fuels is
converted into mechanical energy by suitable prime movers such as steam engines, steam
turbines, internal combustion engines etc.

1.1.2 Coal mining

There are two types of coal mining, strip mining and underground long wall mining. The
environmental impacts from surface versus underground mining are not significantly different.
The main difference between these two mining techniques is that the surface mining subsystem
results in a higher amount of airborne ammonia emissions due to the production of ammonium
nitrate explosives which are used at the mine. Another important difference is that underground
mining requires limestone which emits a large amount of particulates during its production. The
problematic pollutants in emission of coal based generating plants are Sulfur dioxide (SO 2),
Nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2) and certain
hydrocarbons.

1.1.3 Oxides of sulphur (SO2)

Most of the sulphur present in the fossil is oxidized to SO2 in the combustion chamber
before being emitted by the chimney. In atmosphere it gets further oxidized to H2SO4 and
metallic sulphates which are the major source of concern as these can cause acid rain,
impaired visibility, damage to buildings and vegetation. Sulphate concentrations of 9-20
µg/m3 of air aggravate asthma, lung and heart disease.

1.1.4 Acidification

Acidification is one of the main problems arising from existing coal power. It takes place
during many steps in the life cycle of electricity produced by coal combustion. Pumped mine
water contains mud, dissolved sulphate and metal ions. It is also acidic and, therefore, needs to
be neutralizing before being discharged. Drainage water from refuse piles with excavated and
residual minerals can be very acidic, particularly if the rocks contain pyrite (ferric sulphide) that
undergoes oxidation processes when exposed to the atmosphere. These oxidation processes take
place in natural environments, but are greatly accelerated by mining activities, especially when
no alkaline rocks are present to neutralize the acid formed.

1.1.5 Impact on biodiversity

The main environmental effect of electricity produced by coal combustion is probably

related to the ubiquitous emission of greenhouse gases. The release to the atmosphere of such
gases is larger from coal use than for any other fuel used for generating electricity. It is a general
contention that any additional increase of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere will exacerbate
global warming. This can lead to rapid changes in local weather conditions and can thus have
many and profound influences on biodiversity. Organisms that cannot adapt or migrate
successfully under changing climate conditions will be adversely affected.

1.2 ENVIRONMENT IMPACTS OF RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES

Developing renewable energy technologies that exploit the sun, the wind, and geothermal
energy is critical to addressing concerns about climate change and some environmental issues.
However, using renewable energy sources will not eliminate all environmental concerns.
Although renewable energy sources produce relatively low levels of Green House Gas emissions
and conventional air pollution, manufacturing and transporting them will produce some
emissions and pollutants. The production of some photovoltaic (PV) cells, for instance,
generates toxic substances that may contaminate water resources. Renewable energy
installations can also disrupt land use and wildlife habitat, and some technologies consume
significant quantities of water.

To develop sound policies, policy makers must understand the relative environmental
impacts of alternative energy sources, including how the impacts of renewable energy
technologies compare to those of fossil-fuel technologies and to opportunities for improvements

in energy efficiency. Understanding the potential environmental impacts of renewable energy

technologies is also essential for identifying and pursuing designs, manufacturing methods,
project siting, utility operations, and so on to mitigate or offset these effects.

1.2.1 Life cycle uses of energy

For renewable energy sources, net energy ratio (NER) is expected to be greater than one,
indicating a positive return over the fossil-fuel energy investment. For fossil-fuel and nuclear
technologies, NERs are smaller than one and essentially represent the overall life cycle
efficiency of the project. NERs are strongly influenced by a number of underlying assumptions,
such as plant capacity and life expectancy. For electricity generation from wind and solar
energy, the strength of the resource (which will affect the capacity factor of the installed
technology) is also a critical assumption. For silicon PV specifically, the NER is highly
dependent upon the thickness of the wafer and the efficiency of the cell/module produced. NERs
would be significantly higher for waste biomass.
1.2.2 Local and regional air pollution

Most renewable energy technologies have much lower life cycle emissions of
conventional air pollutants than conventional coal and natural gas plants. One exception is
electricity generation from biomass, which can produce significant NOx, particulate matter, and
hazardous air pollutants, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Although biomass
has lower nitrogen content than fossil fuels, a substantial quantity of NOx is formed whenever
high-temperature combustion occurs in air, through oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen (N2) at
high temperatures. Although direct emissions of NOx and SOx are expected to be low for
geothermal power plants, flash and dry-steam geothermal facilities can produce significant
quantities of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) from geothermal reservoirs, unless steps are taken to
decrease it.

1.2.3 Land and water use

The amount of land used is a rough substitute for other impacts of new development,
including impacts on ecosystems, cultural and historical resources, scenery, and agricultural
land. When the impacts on land use are measured simply by the surface area they occupy during
their life cycle, some renewable energy technologies appear to have heavy land-use
requirements. However, this approach does not take into account the intensity of land use or
whether the technology allows for simultaneous use of land for other purposes. Whereas coal-
fired power plants fully occupy the sites where they are constructed, small-scale PV installations

may be placed on rooftops where they cause little or no interference with the primary use of the
land for commercial or residential buildings. Thus, smaller scale or distributed solar
technologies may have less of an impact on land use and habitat loss than large-scale, central
station plants. Land-use concerns may also be addressed by deploying renewable energy systems
on previously developed sites, rather than in undeveloped areas.
 Water is a scarce resource in large portions. Recent global circulation model projections
suggest that, if climate change proceeds as expected, under current business-as-usual scenarios,
freshwater supplies will become even scarcer in some parts of the world. Electricity production
using thermoelectric technologies requires vast amounts of water, primarily for cooling. In is
about 43 percent of existing thermoelectric generating capacity uses once-through cooling, 42
percent uses re-circulating wet towers, 14 percent uses re-circulating cooling ponds, and 1
percent uses dry cooling. Water use by power plants is characterized by withdrawals and
consumption. Although consumption is sometimes emphasized over withdrawals, the latter is
important, because power plant operation may be constrained by the amount of water available
for withdrawal and power plant uses may compete with other demands for water. Furthermore,
water returns can be significant sources of thermal pollution and may include discharges of
chemical pollutants, such as chlorine or other biocides used in cooling towers.

1.3 ENVIRONMENT IMPACTS OF DIFFERENT RENEWABLE ENERGY

SOURCES

All energy sources have some impact on our environment. Fossil fuels—coal, oil, and
natural gas—do substantially more harm than renewable energy sources by most measures,
including air and water pollution, damage to public health, wildlife and habitat loss, water use,
land use, and global warming emissions. However, renewable sources such as wind, solar,
geothermal, biomass, and hydropower also have environmental impacts, some of which are
significant. The exact type and intensity of environmental impacts varies depending on the
specific technology used, the geographic location, and a number of other factors. By
understanding the current and potential environmental issues associated with each renewable
energy source, we can takes steps to effectively avoid or minimize these impacts as they become
a larger portion of our electric supply.

1.3.1 Environmental impacts of wind energy

1.3.1.1 Land use

The land use impact of wind power facilities varies substantially depending on the site:
wind turbines placed in flat areas typically use more land than those located in hilly areas.
However, wind turbines do not occupy all of this land; they must be spaced approximately 5 to
10 rotor diameters apart (a rotor diameter is the diameter of the wind turbine blades). Thus, the
turbines themselves and the surrounding infrastructure (including roads and transmission lines)
occupy a small portion of the total area of a wind facility. Offshore wind facilities, require larger
amounts of space because the turbines and blades are bigger than their land-based counterparts.
1.3.1.2 Wildlife and habitat

The impact of wind turbines on wildlife, most notably on birds and bats, has been
widely document and studied. A recent survey founded evidence of bird and bat deaths from
collisions with wind turbines and due to changes in air pressure caused by the spinning turbines,
as well as from habitat disruption. Offshore wind turbines can have similar impacts on marine
birds, but as with onshore wind turbines, the bird deaths associated with offshore wind are
minimal. Wind farms located offshore will also impact fish and other marine wildlife.

1.3.1.3 Public health and community

Sound and visual impact are the two main public health and community concerns
associated with operating wind turbines. Most of the sound generated by wind turbines is
aerodynamic, caused by the movement of turbine blades through the air. There is also
mechanical sound generated by the turbine itself. Overall sound levels depend on turbine design
and wind speed. Some people living close to wind facilities have complained about sound and
vibration issues. Under certain lighting conditions, wind turbines can create an effect known as
shadow flicker. This annoyance can be minimized with careful siting, planting trees or installing
window sunshades, or curtailing wind turbine operations when certain lighting conditions exist.

1.3.1.4 Water use

There is no water impact associated with the operation of wind turbines. As in all
manufacturing processes, some water is used to manufacture steel and cement for wind turbines.

1.3.1.5 Life-cycle global warming emissions

While there are no global warming emissions associated with operating wind turbines,
there are emissions associated with other stages of a wind turbine‘s life-cycle, including
materials production, materials transportation, on-site construction and assembly, operation and
maintenance, and decommissioning and dismantlement. Estimates of total global warming
emissions depend on a number of factors, including wind speed, percent of time the wind is
blowing, and the material composition of the wind turbine.

1.3.2 Environmental impacts of solar energy systems

1.3.2.1 Land use

Depending on their location, larger utility-scale solar facilities can raise concerns about
land degradation and habitat loss. Total land area requirements vary depending on the
technology, the topography of the site, and the intensity of the solar resource. Estimates for
utility-scale PV systems range from 3.5 to 10 acres per megawatt, while estimates for
concentrated solar power (CSP) facilities are between 4 and 16.5 acres per megawatt. Smaller
scale solar PV arrays, which can be built on homes or commercial buildings, also have minimal
land use impact.

1.3.2.2 Water use

Solar PV cells do not use water for generating electricity. However, as in all
manufacturing processes, some water is used to manufacture solar PV components.
Concentrating solar thermal plants (CSP), like all thermal electric plants, require water for
cooling. Water use depends on the plant design, plant location, and the type of cooling system.
CSP plants that use wet-recirculation technology with cooling towers withdraw between 600 and
650 gallons of water per megawatt-hour of electricity produced. CSP plants with once-through
cooling technology have higher levels of water withdrawal, but lower total water consumption
(because water is not lost as steam). Dry-cooling technology can reduce water use at CSP plants
by approximately 90 percent. However, the exchanges to these water savings are higher costs
and lower efficiencies.

1.3.2.3 Hazardous materials

The PV cell manufacturing process includes a number of hazardous materials, most of

which are used to clean and purify the semiconductor surface. These chemicals, similar to those
used in the general semiconductor industry, include hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid,
hydrogen fluoride, tri-chloroethane and acetone. The amount and type of chemicals used
depends on the type of cell, the amount of cleaning that is needed, and the size of silicon wafer.
Workers also face risks associated with inhaling silicon dust. Thus, PV manufactures must
follow the rules to ensure that workers are not harmed by exposure to these chemicals and that
manufacturing waste products are disposed of properly.

1.3.2.4 Life-cycle global warming emissions

While there are no global warming emissions associated with generating electricity from
solar energy, there are emissions associated with other stages of the solar life-cycle, including
manufacturing, materials transportation, installation, maintenance, and decommissioning and
dismantlement. Most estimates of life-cycle emissions for photovoltaic systems are between
0.07 and 0.18 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour.

1.3.3 Environmental impacts of geothermal energy systems

1.3.3.1 Water quality and use

Geothermal power plants can have impacts on both water quality and consumption. Hot
water pumped from underground reservoirs often contains high levels of sulfur, salt, and other
minerals. Most geothermal facilities have closed-loop water systems, in which extracted water is
pumped directly, back into the geothermal reservoir after it has been used for heat or electricity
production. In such systems, the water is contained within steel well casings cemented to the
surrounding rock. Water is also used by geothermal plants for cooling and re-injection.
Depending on the cooling technology used, geothermal plants can require between 1,700 and
4,000 gallons of water per megawatt-hour. However, most geothermal plants can use either
geothermal fluid or freshwater for cooling; the use of geothermal fluids rather than freshwater
clearly reduces the plants overall water impact.

1.3.3.2 Air emissions

The distinction between open- and closed-loop systems is important with respect to air
emissions. In closed-loop systems, gases removed from the well are not exposed to the
atmosphere and are injected back into the ground after giving up their heat, so air emissions are
minimal. In contrast, open-loop systems emit hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, ammonia,
methane, and boron. Hydrogen sulfide, which has a distinctive ―rotten egg‖ smell, is the most
common emission. Once in the atmosphere, hydrogen sulfide changes into sulfur dioxide (SO2).
This contributes to the formation of small acidic particulates that can be absorbed by the
bloodstream and cause heart and lung disease. Sulfur dioxide also causes acid rain, which
damages crops, forests, and soils, and acidifies lakes and streams. However, SO2 emissions from
geothermal plants are approximately 30 times lower per megawatt-hour than from coal plants.

Some geothermal plants also produce small amounts of mercury emissions, which must
be mitigated using mercury filter technology. Scrubbers can reduce air emissions, but they
produce a watery sludge composed of the captured materials, including sulfur, vanadium, silica

compounds, chlorides, arsenic, mercury, nickel, and other heavy metals. This toxic sludge often
must be disposed of at hazardous waste sites.

1.3.3.3 Land use

The amount of land required by a geothermal plant varies depending on the properties of
the resource reservoir, the amount of power capacity, the type of energy conversion system, the
type of cooling system, the arrangement of wells and piping systems, and the substation and
auxiliary building needs. The Geysers, the largest geothermal plant in the world, has a capacity
of approximately 1,517 megawatts and the area of the plant is approximately 78 square
kilometers, which translates to approximately 13 acres per megawatt. Like the Geysers, many
geothermal sites are located in remote and sensitive ecological areas, so project developers must
take this into account in their planning processes.
1.3.3.4 Life-cycle global warming emissions

In open-loop geothermal systems, approximately 10 percent of the air emissions are

carbon dioxide and a smaller amount of emissions are methane, a more potent global warming
gas. Estimates of global warming emissions for open-loop systems are approximately 0.1
pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour. In closed-loop systems, these gases are
not released into the atmosphere, but there are a still some emissions associated with plant
construction and surrounding infrastructure. Enhanced geothermal systems, which require
energy to drill and pump water into hot rock reservoirs, have life-cycle global warming emission
of approximately 0.2 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour. To put this into
context, estimates of life-cycle global warming emissions for natural gas generated electricity
are between 0.6 and 2 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour and estimates for
coal-generated electricity are 1.4 and 3.6 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-
hour.

1.3.4 Environmental impacts of hydroelectric energy systems

1.3.4.1 Land use

The size of the reservoir created by a hydroelectric project can vary widely, depending
largely on the size of the hydroelectric generators and the topography of the land. Hydroelectric
plants in flat areas tend to require much more land than those in hilly areas or canyons where
deeper reservoirs can hold more volume of water in a smaller space. Flooding land for a
hydroelectric reservoir has an extreme environmental impact: it destroys forest, wildlife habitat,
agricultural land, and scenic lands.

1.3.4.2 Wildlife impacts

Dammed reservoirs are used for multiple purposes, such as agricultural irrigation, flood
control, and recreation, so not all wildlife impacts associated with dams can be directly
attributed to hydroelectric power. However, hydroelectric facilities can still have a major impact
on aquatic ecosystems. For example, though there are a variety of methods to minimize the
impact including fish ladders and in-take screens), fish and other organisms can be injured and
killed by turbine blades. Apart from direct contact, there can also be wildlife impacts both within
the dammed reservoirs and downstream from the facility. Reservoir water is usually more
stagnant than normal river water. As a result, the reservoir will have higher than normal amounts
of sediments and nutrients, which can cultivate an excess of algae and other aquatic weeds.
These weeds can crowd out other river animal and plant-life, and they must be controlled
through manual harvesting or by introducing fish that eat these plants. In addition, water is lost
through evaporation in dammed reservoirs at a much higher rate than in flowing rivers.
1.3.4.3 Life-cycle global warming emissions

Global warming emissions are produced during the installation and dismantling of
hydroelectric power plants, but recent research suggests that emissions during a facility‘s
operation can also be significant. Such emissions vary greatly depending on the size of the
reservoir and the nature of the land that was flooded by the reservoir. Small run-of-the-river
plants emit between 0.01 and 0.03 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour. Life-
cycle emissions from large-scale hydroelectric plants built in semi-arid regions are also modest:
approximately 0.06 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour. However, estimates
for life-cycle global warming emissions from hydroelectric plants built in tropical areas are
much higher. After the area is flooded, the vegetation and soil in these areas decomposes and
releases both carbon dioxide and methane. The exact amount of emissions depends greatly on
site-specific characteristics. However, current estimates suggest that life-cycle emissions can be
over 0.5 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour.

1.3.5 Environmental IMPACTS of Biomass energy systems

1.3.5.1 Deforestation and land degradation

Biomass comprising traditional fuels constitutes about 50% of energy consumption in

developing countries. Deforestation leading to soil erosion, risks of floods, desertification on
account of clearing of forests and woodlands for agriculture and livestock, and so on, are the
common concerns of environmentalists at macro levels. At a micro level, the concerns range
from non-suitability of forest soils for agricultural purposes, health problems due to smoke

caused by burning of fuel-wood, loss in soil fertility due to use of agricultural residues and so
on. Even a shift towards non-wood biomass fuels creates direct competition with animals that
rely upon crop remains and the plants for food. Imbalance between the demand and production
of fuel-wood is reported to be one of the primary factors responsible for forest depletion. The
increasing use of fuel-wood for meeting the domestic and industrial needs of both rural and
urban areas has contributed to forest decline. The environmental impacts of urban fuel-wood
consumption have been severe due to commercial exploitation of fuel-wood for charcoal
production. The demand for charcoal in urban areas has spread deforestation, which begins at
the surrounding areas of urban centres and moving outwards.

1.3.5.2 Loss of soil nutrients

Agricultural residues constitute an important source of energy in rural areas of

developing countries when left on fields improves the fertility of the soil. The use of agricultural
residues for energy would thus be an issue if it reduces the fertility of the soil. It is important to
note that all residues do not have the same effect on the soil. Some residues such as corncobs,
rice husk, jute sticks, cotton stock, coffee pruning, and coconut shells do not decompose easily
and have potential as energy sources. The choice of agricultural residues thus has an impact on
the environment. Cattle dung, similarly, though it is a fertilizer, loses its value as fertilizer if
burnt or left under the sun for a few days. The two categories of residues from agriculture sector
are crop residue and cattle dung. Currently crop residue of cereals is largely used as food and
woody residues are used as fuel. Burning of woody crop residue may not lead to any significant
loss of nutrients to soil. Burning of cattle dung as fuel leads to loss of organic matter and other
nutrients affecting crop production.

1.3.6 Environmental impacts of tidal energy systems

1.3.6.1 Understanding environmental impacts

In spite of the many benefits of exploiting tidal power, there are negative impacts, as
well. For example, the risk to the marine environment and marine mammals is largely unknown.
In order to operate tidal power stations appropriately and analyze the potential contribution tidal
power can make in terms of renewable energy, we must better understand the environmental
impacts of this technology. One important mention is the difference between environmental
effects and environmental impacts. On one hand, environmental effects refer to the wide range
of potential interactions between tidal energy equipment and the marine ecosystems. On the
other hand, environmental impacts are those particular effects that we know for sure will cause
deleterious ecological alterations.

1.3.6.2 Environmental impacts of Tidal energy

In many ways, the environmental impacts of harnessing tidal power are similar to those
of offshore wind power generation. Several assessments over the past few years have identified
the following potential environmental impacts. These indirect ecological impacts would result
from lengthy installation of offshore renewable energy projects.

 Changing of substrates, sediment transit and deposition;

 Alteration of waves and sea currents;
 Noise pollution during installation and operation;
 Alteration of ecosystems for regional organisms;
 Emission of harmful electromagnetic fields;
 Intrusion upon animal migrations; and
 Potential strikes by any moving parts of the tidal system.

1.3.7 Environmental impacts of Hydrogen-based energy systems

There is increasing interest in the role that hydrogen-based energy systems may play in
the future, especially in the transport sector. They appear to be an attractive alternative to current
fossil fuel-based energy systems in the future, since these have been proven to affect climate due
to greenhouse gasses emissions. However, any future hydrogen-based economy would need to
assess the possible global environmental impacts of such alternative energy production.
Emissions of hydrogen lead to increased burdens of methane and ozone and hence to an increase
in global warming. Therefore, hydrogen can be considered as an indirect greenhouse gas with
the potential to increase global warming. The scientists have estimated that the potential effects
on climate from hydrogen-based energy systems would be much lower than those from fossil
fuel-based energy systems. However, such impacts will depend on the rate of hydrogen leakage
during its synthesis, storage and use. The researchers have calculated that a global hydrogen
economy with a leakage rate of 1% of the produced hydrogen would produce a climate impact
of 0.6% of the fossil fuel system it replaces. If the leakage rate was 10%, then the climate impact
would be 6% of that of the fossil fuel system.

1.3.8 Environmental Impacts of Hydrokinetic Energy systems

Hydrokinetic energy, which includes wave and tidal power, encompasses an array of
energy technologies, many of which are still in the experimental stages or in the early stages of
deployment. While actual impacts of large-scale operations have not been observed, a range of
potential impacts can be projected. For example, wave energy installations can require large
expanses of ocean space, which could compete with other uses—such as fishing and shipping—
and cause damage to marine life and habitats. Some tidal energy technologies are located at the
mouths of ecologically-sensitive estuary systems, which could cause changes in hydrology and
salinity that negatively impact animal and plant life.

1.3.9 Greenhouse gas emissions (GHG)

Compared to fossil-fuel-based electricity generation, renewable energy technologies

offer a major advantage in lower emissions of CO2 and other GHGs. In addition, all forms of
renewable electricity production are expected to have significantly lower life cycle GHG
emissions than electricity production from conventional coal and natural gas plants. Renewable
energy would have less of an advantage if carbon capture and sequestration were included with
fossil-fuel power plants, or if energy storage systems, such as battery energy storage,
compressed air energy storage, or pumped hydro storage, were included as part of renewable
energy systems. GHG emissions for some renewable technologies are difficult to estimate. For
example, emissions from bio-power vary, depending on which feedstock is used and the
assumptions about their production. Most CO2 emission (CO2e) values for bio-power range from
15 to 52 g CO2e/kWh for biomass derived from cultivated feed-stocks, excluding emissions
associated with initial land conversion. If carbon capture and storage were added to bio-power
systems, there would also be large reductions in CO2e values.
