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Thermal barrier coated surface modifications for gas turbine film cooling: a
review

Article in Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry · July 2020

DOI: 10.1007/s10973-020-10032-2

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Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-020-10032-2

Thermal barrier coated surface modifications for gas turbine film

cooling: a review
V. G. Krishna Anand1 · K. M. Parammasivam1

Received: 23 December 2019 / Accepted: 3 July 2020

© Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, Hungary 2020

Abstract
Gas turbines are widely used in the areas of air propulsion, electric power generation, ship propulsion, external driving
units, and other industrial applications. Efficient coating and cooling methods are often essential for the gas turbine surfaces
to further achieve higher turbine inlet temperature and output efficiency. The thermal barrier coating (TBC) is the type of
multilayered coating applied on rotating and stationary surfaces of the gas turbine components to safeguard them against
the attack of high stream thermal loads and pressure gradients of the hot mainstream flows. TBC can also assist in surface-
modified film cooling of gas turbine components. In this paper, the thermal barrier coated surface-modified film cooling
methods for gas turbine components, viz. leading edge, pressure side, suction side, end wall, flat surfaces of stator guide
vane and rotor blade, were reviewed and discussed in detail. The surface-modified film cooling methods for gas turbine
components are grouped into three broad categories based on their geometric appearance. Each group was reviewed in detail
for geometric and flow parameters, measurement techniques, flow characteristics, and performance parameters. Further, this
study provides an overview of geometric and flow parameters of the compound angled film hole. Finally, the areas required
for future research on the application of surface-modified film cooling methods are recommended in this review.

Keywords Surface modifications · Thermal barrier coating · Film cooling · Performance parameters · Film hole compound
angle
List of symbols I Current (A)
A Area of thermal flux surface ­(mm2) J Distance between the trailing edge of vortex
B Distance between bump trailing edge and film generator and film hole (mm)
hole center (mm) K Thermal conductivity (W m−1 ­K−1)
C Distance between step trailing edge and film L Length of film cooling hole (mm)
hole center (mm) ℓ Width of the trench (mm)
c Specific heat capacity (J ­kg−1 ­K−1) L/D Length-to-diameter ratio of film hole (–)
D Film hole diameter (mm) M Injection (or) blowing ratio (–)
Dt,m Turbulent diffusion coefficient ­(m2 s−1) n Depth of crater (mm)
d Depth of the trench (mm) P/D Pitch-to-diameter ratio of film hole (–)
E Crater diameter (mm) Pr Prandtl number (–)
⃗ Flux vector in the x-direction (–)
E Q Distance between the obstacle and film hole
F Height of blockage within the film hole (mm) exit (mm)
G Height of micro-vortex generator (mm) q″ Surface heat flux (W m−2)
H Height of the barchan dune (mm) R Height of the step (mm)
⃗ Source vector term (–)
H R Thermal resistance ­(m2 K W−1)
h Heat transfer coefficient (W m−2 ­K−1) S Distance between ramp trailing edge and the
leading edge of film hole (mm)
Sc Schmidt number (–)
* V. G. Krishna Anand TI Turbulence intensity (%)
krishnaanand035@gmail.com
TR Reference temperature (K)
1
Department of Aerospace Engineering, Anna University, t Temporal coordinate (s)
MIT Campus, Chennai, India t Time (s)

13
Vol.:(0123456789)
 V. G. Krishna Anand, K. M. Parammasivam

⃗ Solution vector (–)

U BL Boundary layer
u Velocity of flow (m s−1) CFD Computational fluid dynamics
u2 Finite speed of thermal wave propagation (m CL Centerline
­s−1) CR Covering ratio
ū Local average absolute velocity (m ­s−1) CRV Counter-rotating vortex
ūm Main flow average absolute velocity (m ­s−1) DC Discharge coefficient
ū/ūm Average normalized velocity (–) DSGT Double-sided grooved trench
V Voltage (V) EB PVD Electron beam physical vapor deposition
W Height of bump or block (mm) FC Film cooling
X/D Non-dimensional longitudinal length of the test FCE Film cooling effectiveness
surface (–) FCH Film cooling hole
x Spatial coordinate in x-direction (m) HT Heat transfer
Y/D Non-dimensional span side length of the test HTC Heat transfer coefficient
surface (–) IR Injection ratio
Z/D Non-dimensional vertical length from the test KH Kelvin–Helmholtz
surface (–) LA Lateral averaged
LCT Liquid crystal thermography
Greek Symbols LES Large-eddy simulation
α Ramp angle (°) LE Leading edge
α Thermal diffusivity ­(m2 ­s−1) PS Pressure side
β Injection angle of film hole (°) RANS Reynolds averaged Navier strokes
𝛤m Mass fraction of species m (–) RFC Ramp film cooling
∇T Temperature gradient (K m−1) SA Spatial averaged
γ Film hole compound angle (°) SH Showerhead
ε Emissivity (–) SST Shear stress transport
𝜂 Film cooling effectiveness (–) ST Segregated trench
θ Non-dimensional temperature (–) TBC Thermal barrier coating
ρ Density (kg ­m−3) TE Trailing edge
σ Stephen Boltzmann constant (W m−2 ­K−4) TFC Trench film cooling
τ Relaxation time (s) TGO Thermal grown oxide
φ Overall film cooling effectiveness (–) TT Transverse trench
𝜒 Coolant warming factor (–) VG Vortex generator
ωZ Spanwise instantaneous vorticity ­(s−1) YSZ Yttria-stabilized zirconia
Subscripts
ave Averaged
aw Adiabatic wall Introduction
c Coolant
c,exit Coolant at film cooling hole exit Over the years, the temperature of the hot gases entering
c,in Coolant at upstream of impingement plate the gas turbines is continuously increased to achieve higher
e External surface efficiency and power output. The level of temperature for
f With film cooling today’s advanced gas turbines is above the maximum mate-
i Initial rial temperature of gas turbine components, and this was
i Internal made possible with the application of thermal barrier coat-
o Without film cooling ing (TBC) and advanced cooling methods. As shown in
surf Surface Fig. 1, the TBC-assisted cooling methods are often required
t Time to safeguard the gas turbine components and also to increase
w Wall the turbine inlet temperature and service life of the gas tur-
∞ Mainstream bine systems.
The sectional view of the typical aircraft turbofan engine
Abbreviations is shown in Fig. 2. Here, the high-pressure turbine is con-
APS Air plasma spraying tinuously subjected to the impact of high-temperature gases
BD Barchan dune that get exited out of the combustor module. Hence, an
BDSR Barchan-dune-shaped ramp

13
Thermal barrier coated surface modifications for gas turbine film cooling: a review

Fig. 1  Advancement of cooling 1900

technique with turbine inlet Maximum allowable hot gas temperature
temperature and years [108] 1800
MC
1700 Maximum material temperature TBC, C
olig,
d co
a nce
1600 Adv

1500
TBC
oo lig, )

Temperature/°C
1400 mc BC
e fil ting (T
vectiv r coa
1300 Con rrie
a l ba
Therm
1200

1100 olig
e co
vectiv
1000 Con lloys
ed s upera
Ni-bas
900 2nd generation
Single singlr crystel
800 Inconel Directionally crystel
soidified
700
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030
Year

Fig. 2  Sectional view of turbo-

fan gas turbine engine with a Low pressure
Low pressure compressor Fan
high-pressure turbine applied turbine
with thermal barrier coating [4]
Combuster High
(License No. 4714850482254) pressure
compressor

High pressure
turbine

effective cooling mechanism is essential for the continuous As shown in Fig. 1, TBC-assisted film cooling can be an
operation and enhanced life cycle of the turbine components. effective method to operate the gas turbines at higher turbine

13
 V. G. Krishna Anand, K. M. Parammasivam

inlet temperature. The TBC is a type of thermally insulated injection ratio (IR) above 1 and lower distribution of film
layer applied on the wall surfaces of the gas turbine compo- coolant across the spanwise axis of the test surface. [12–14]
nents to safeguard themselves against the high-temperature have also pointed out that the trenched configuration has
environment. The detailed schematic of the TBC system more benefits in comparison with the non-trenched model.
with an approximate thickness of each layer is shown in Some of the benefits of trench film cooling (TFC) are lower
Fig. 3. The first layer (inner layer) of the TBC system is the jet detachment from the wall surface even at higher IR > 1,
bond coat, which is the metallic-coated layer formed above development of lower intensified vortex pairs, and wider
the surface of the superalloy. The outer layer (topcoat) of distribution of local film cooling effectiveness (FCE) across
the TBC is made of the low thermal conductive ceramic the spanwise axis of the test surface. Crater surface modifi-
layer. The most widely used material for a topcoat of the cation has produced higher spanwise averaged FCE (50%)
TBC system is 7 mass% yttria-stabilized zirconia (7YSZ) in comparison with the conventional model without crater
or 8YSZ. Thermally grown oxide (TGO) is formed from the (Lu et al. [15]). The ramp-assisted FC has produced two to
bond coat during its service life operation as an intermedi- three times higher spanwise averaged FCE compared to the
ate layer between the bond and topcoat [1–6]. The topcoat non-ramped model (Na and Shih [16]). Surface-modified FC
of TBC is deposited using the air plasma spraying (APS) or like slot, indent, and protrusion can be effectively applied on
electron beam physical vapor deposition method (EBPVD). the leading edge, pressure side, suction side, end wall and
The APS method is generally used for the deposition of top- flat surface regions of the gas turbine components. Com-
coat on the combustor, shroud components, and the EBPVD putational fluid dynamics (CFD) were used as an effective
method is utilized for the deposition of TBC topcoat for gas tool to analyze the performance characteristics of different
turbine blades and vanes. [7–11] reported that TBC can be methods of cooling [17–25].
effectively used for the development of surface modification Numerous studies [26–39] were carried out by research-
on the wall surfaces of the gas turbine components. ers to analyze the FC characteristics of conventional film
cooling with different hole shapes. Feuerstein et al. [40]
reported a detailed review of different coating methods of
Need for surface‑modified film cooling thermal barrier systems for the modern gas turbine engine.
The review provides the details of important coating tech-
Harrison et al. [12], Khalatov et al. [13] and Schreivo- niques for ceramic top coat and bond coat of the TBC sys-
gel et al. [14] have reported several drawbacks associated tem. The plasma spray technique and electron beam physical
with conventional film cooling (FC), viz. without surface vapor deposition (EBPVD) are the most widely used coat-
modification. Some of the drawbacks related to conventional ing technique for the top ceramic layer of the TBC system.
FC are, viz. the formation of kidney-shaped vortex pairs The shrouded plasma spray and high-velocity oxygen fuel
that can entertain the hot mainstream flow to the wall sur- coating are the most commonly used methods for the depo-
face, separation of coolant jet from the wall surface at high sition of the bond layer of the TBC system. McrAly, diffu-
sion aluminide, and platinum aluminide are usually used for
the bond coat of the TBC system. The EBPVD technique
requires expensive equipment for its implementation and the
Hot, high velocity gas equipment cost is close to 50% of the total cost. However,
Temperature the thermal spray requires low-cost equipment for its imple-
mentation with higher material and labor costs.
-Low thermal conductivity
Porous oxide Goswami et al. [41] described a detailed review of the
(EBPVD or APS) 0.1–3 mm -High strain compliance
-Extreme temperature gradient (–1°C µm–1) thermal barrier coating system for gas turbine applications.
The thermal barrier coating is a composite overlay of bond
0.1–10 µm -Oxiadation product large growth strain
TGO Bond coat -Al reservoir for forming protective Al O coat and ceramic topcoat over the substrate. The TBC sys-
2 3
30–100 µm -Interdiffusion with superalloy tem can safeguard the gas turbine components from the
-Capable of creep and plastic deformation
Ni, Ta, Co... high-temperature environment available in the gas turbine
Al
1–4 µm
-Ni-based superalloy structural component engine. Also, the TBC can deliver a twofold increase in the
Superalloy
-Susceptible to creep and cyclic fatigue
service lifecycle of gas turbine components. The thermal
coated components can produce auto toughening effects
during its service life operation. However, the continuous
Engine cooling air
-Internal surface of superalloy blade or
vane cooled with air from engine
exposure of the TBC system to a high-temperature environ-
ment can lead to the formation of a spallation zone that is
Fig. 3  Detailed schematic of TBC with an approximate thickness of developed due to the nickel enrichment of thermally grown
each layer [4] (License No. 4714850482254)

13
Thermal barrier coated surface modifications for gas turbine film cooling: a review

oxide. The bond coat is an important multifunctional layer Surface modification with thermal barrier coating
for the TBC system.
Feuerstein et al. [40] reported an extensive coverage on The surface modifications on the gas turbine wall surfaces
TBC materials, coating techniques, application areas, and are formed during the process of application of thermal bar-
economic aspects of TBC. Goswami et al. [41] reported rier coating. Before the application of TBC, the bond coat
extensive details on thermal barrier coating materials and made of MCrAlY material is applied on the metallic wall
methods, failure mechanism, the effect of high-temperature surface and then the overcoat layer, which is the TBC layer
erosion and corrosion, and interfacial phenomenon. How- framed of zirconia-based ceramic material, is applied above
ever, both of these studies [40, 41] have not reported any the bond coat layer. The slot surface modification is applied
details of surface-modified thermal barrier coated film cool- to the gas turbine wall surfaces through a series of steps.
ing methods for the gas turbine components. Also, most of The initial step begins with the coverage of each film cool-
the review studies [42, 43] available on the literature deal ing hole with the plug material that is curable, and then the
with either general gas turbine FC or geometric and flow curing process is applied on the plug material. The mask
parameters associated with conventional FC. However, no material equivalent to the dimension of the slot is applied
review was reported on surface-modified FC methods for gas over the row of film cooling holes. The coating is applied
turbine components. Hence, this study provides a detailed over the substrate and the mask material. The mask and the
review and discussion on thermal barrier coated surface- plug material are finally removed from the wall surface. The
modified film cooling methods for gas turbine components. method of formation of crater surface modification is initi-
The review provides a comprehensive assessment of differ- ated with the filling and coverage of film cooling holes with
ent surface-modified FC methods, various geometric and
flow parameters associated with surface-modified FC, and
different measurement techniques and parameters of surface- Slot (trench)
modified FC. Also, the review provides a detailed overview
of geometric and flow parameters associated with compound
angle FC.

Types of surface‑modified film cooling

Film hole
In the process of film cooling, the low-temperature air (a) Slot type
that bleeds out from the compressor section is ejected out
Indent (crater)
through the cooling holes available on the wall surface in
turn to develop a protective blanket layer that can safeguard
the surface from the attack of hot mainstream flows. The film
cooling with surface modification is a method of cooling,
where the film cooling holes are embedded within geometri-
cal modifications (slot, indentation, protrusion) developed
on the gas turbine wall surfaces with the application of TBC.
The surface-modified film cooling methods are classified (b) Indent type
into three broad groups: (a) slot type, (b) indent type and (c)
protrusion type which is shown in Fig. 4. Protrusion (ramp)
In slot type surface-modified FC, the cooling surface is
grooved into a slot shape developed with the application
of TBC, and the film cooling holes are embedded within
the grooved slot (Fig. 4a). The indent type is where the
film cooling holes are embedded within the depression
Protrusion (step)
framed on the film cooling surface with the application of Film hole
TBC (Fig. 4b). In protrusion type surface-modified FC, the
cooling surface is slightly extended above the original wall
surface and the film cooling holes are embedded ahead or
behind the protruded surface (Fig. 4c).
(c) Protrusion type

Fig. 4  Types of surface-modified film cooling method

13
 V. G. Krishna Anand, K. M. Parammasivam

mask material. The protrusion is formed at the exit of the Mainstream

film cooling hole due to the application of the mask mate-
l
rial. Then the curing process is initiated on the applied mask
material. As a subsequent step, the coating is applied over d
the substrate and the mask material. Care should be taken
L
to ensure that the coating should not adhere to the protru-
sion available on the film cooling hole. The masked material
is finally removed off to exhibit the film hole and surface
modification. Coolant

Fig. 5  Schematic diagram of a trench model

Slot type: trench film cooling

The trench film cooling is a type of slot-assisted film cool- Vertical

defletion
ing, where the film cooling holes are embedded within the
rectangular slot, whose length (ℓ) is larger than its depth Recirculation
(d) as shown in Fig. 5 and here L is the length of the film Mixing

cooling hole.
The flow characteristics of the trench FC are shown in
Fig. 6. Here, the coolant flow ejected from the film hole
Hot gas injection
embedded within the trench moves toward the trailing edge
of the trench wall, and then it is directed to both upward and
sideward regions of the trench wall. The coolant flow ejected
from the lateral side of the trench mixes well with the hot
mainstream flow and then it moves into the trench surface. Fig. 6  Flow characteristics of a trench model [14]
The coolant jet distributed through the trailing edge (TE) of
the trench provides effective protection for the downstream
wall region against the attack of hot mainstream flow [14]. Table 1. Bunker [44] performed experimental investigations
The schematic of the experimental test facility and tested on flat surface slot film cooling and reported that the coolant
plate models [14] are shown in Figs. 7 and 8, respectively. ejected from the slot has stayed close to the wall surface even
In Fig. 8, the term D is the diameter of the film cooling hole. at high IR. The trench FC requires a lower mass flow rate of
The experiments were performed for a momentum flux ratio coolant air in comparison with conventional FC. Also, the
of 8 and a density ratio of 1.6. slot FC delivered 50–75% higher FCE in comparison with
The average normalized velocity (ū/ūm) and non-dimen- conventional film cooling. Waye and Bogard [10] conducted
sional temperature (θfl) at the central plane for the cylindri- experimental studies on a narrow trench model (NTM) and
cal and trenched cylindrical jet are shown in Figs. 9 and 10, found that the NTM produced an effective FCE distribution
respectively. Here, the term ū is the local average absolute on the suction surface of the guide vane model. The TE of
velocity and ūm is the main flow average absolute velocity. the trench has also guided the coolant flow to deliver an
The non-dimensional temperature is defined as the ratio effective spread rate across the lateral axis of the test surface.
of the difference in temperature of mainstream flow with the The trench FC has delivered 40% higher FCE across the
local fluid and the temperature difference of mainstream flow downstream locations of the vaned surface. Generally, the
with the coolant fluid. The parameter θfl can be determined slots required for TFC are developed with the application
using Eq. (12). The dotted line in Figs. 9 and 10 shows the TBC. Zhang et al. [45] reported that the presence of fillet
trajectory of the ejected jet. Also Fig. 9 shows the clear sepa- trench at the inlet and exit location of the film cooling hole
ration of the ejected jet (cylindrical) from the wall surface in (FCH) has resulted in higher FCE with a lower heat transfer
both velocity and temperature fields. coefficient (HTC). Sundaram and Thole [46] experimentally
The separated jet has also entertained the hot main- studied the trench model for its performance on the guide
stream flow to the wall surface. However, in the case of the vane end wall model. The results of the study reported that
trenched cylindrical hole, the coolant jet has remained more the trench model produced better FCE at all IR. The opti-
attached (Fig. 10) to the bottom wall surface and this effect mized slot depth is 0.8 times the film hole diameter (0.8D)
has reduced the entertainment of hot mainstream flow to was reported in the study.
the wall surface. The studies performed on trench surface Zuniga and Kapat [47] observed that the cylindrical
modifications for different FC surface are summarized in hole embedded in the trench has delivered higher FCE in

13
Thermal barrier coated surface modifications for gas turbine film cooling: a review

Fig. 7  Schematic of a experi- (a)

mental test facility, b thermo-
Optical access Periscope lead-through
graphic PIV [14]

Z
Main flow X

Heated surface
Plenum
Cooling hole
insert Return of boundary
layer suction
Cooling
air
Boundary
layer
suction

(b)
Nd-YAG
532 nm

Light sheet
Nd-YAG
optics
355 nm
Homogeniser
FOV

Periscope
Beam splitter

Phosphores-
cence
425/50 nm PIV Camera
Phosphores-
cence
466/40 nm

4 Velocity
30°

2
z/D
0.75D

D D
10 5.2
φ6

0
–2 0 2 4 6 8
x/D
2D

4.55D
0 1 2 3 4
u/um
4
Cylinder hole Trench Temperature

2
z/D

Fig. 8  Schematic of cylindrical and trench hole model [14]

0
comparison with other tested configurations. Also, they –2 0 2 4 6 8
x/D
observed that an increase in pitch-to-film hole diameter
(P/D) ratio has less influence on trench FCE. The pitch is 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
θfl
defined as the lateral center to center distance between two
film cooling holes. Lu et al. [11] performed experimental
studies on flat surface trench FC. The results of their study Fig. 9  Velocity and temperature field at the central plane for cylindri-
cal jet [14]

13
 V. G. Krishna Anand, K. M. Parammasivam

Velocity 1.0D) model has delivered higher FCE for an IR up to 0.83

2
on the guide vane end wall model. The trench model has
delivered a 60% improvement in FCE in comparison with
z/D

the non-trenched model. Kross and Pfitzner [53] performed

0 experimental studies to investigate the effects of the tetrahe-
–2 0 2 4 6 8
dron model at the leading edge of the trench. The presence
x/D of higher tetrahedron at a location upstream of the trench has
modified the freestream boundary layer (BL) and reduced
0 1 2 3 4
u/u m the interaction effects of coolants flow with freestream.
Temperature Islami and Jubran [54] carried out a numerical study to
investigate the effect of turbulence intensity on shaped TFC
2
effectiveness. The results of the study concluded that the
z/D

trenched configuration has delivered effective film coolant

0 coverage on the symmetrical blade surface for both low and
high IR. Also, the trench FCE was not much sensitive to the
–2 0 2 4 6 8
x/D change of turbulence intensity (TI) of the freestream flows.
Chandran et al. [55] reported that the flat trench model
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
θfl
embedded with shaped film hole has delivered higher FCE
only for the higher IR. Khalatov et al. [13] reported that
trenched configuration delivered higher FCE on the flat sur-
Fig. 10  Velocity and temperature field at the central plane for
trenched cylindrical jet [14]
face models in comparison with non-trenched configuration.
Also, the trench model has delivered an effective FC perfor-
mance at higher IR. The turbulence level of the freestream
reported an effective slot height of 0.75D and a slot width of flow has a significant impact on trench film cooling effective-
2D for higher FCE across the spanwise axis of the test sur- ness. Oguntade et al. [56] performed a numerical investiga-
face. The slot TE assists in the effective distribution of film tion on the flat surface trench model and concluded that the
coolant on the test surface. Bernier et al. [48] reported that filleted TE trench has caused the coolant to stay close to the
the non-trenched cylindrical hole configuration produced wall surface even at high IR. The TFC requires lower cool-
lower spanwise averaged FCE even at higher IR. However, ant mass flow and also the ejected coolant produces lower
the trench cylindrical film hole configuration produced better Jet penetration into the mainstream flow. Abdala et al. [57]
FCE at low IR. showed that the double trenched configuration has delivered
Harrison et al. [49] performed heat transfer studies on enhanced FCE in comparison with the conventional single
the suction side of the guide vane embedded with the trench trench configuration for a higher IR. Albert and Bogard [58]
model. They reported that the trench configuration has carried out an experimental study to investigate the trench
delivered an effective heat flux reduction on the test surface FC performance on the pressure and shower head side of
in comparison with the non-trench model. The upstream the guide vane model. The results of their study showed that
heated trench with no tripwire has delivered effective heat the trench model has improved the FCE on the pressure side
transfer (HT) augmentation in comparison with the tripped (PS) and showerhead (SH) region of the vane model particu-
unheated trench model. Islami et al. [50] concluded that larly at IR above 1. The non-trenched cylindrical holes are
the trench-assisted film hole at the leading edge (LE) of the subjected to jet separation even at an IR above 1.
blade model has produced lower jet lift-off even at higher Antar et al. [59] numerically investigated the aerody-
IR in comparison with the non-trenched configuration. The namic analysis of a narrow trench and compared its perfor-
trenched model at the suction side of the guide vane has mance with three different turbulence models. The study
delivered higher spanwise averaged FCE in comparison with concluded that for a higher IR, the k–ε turbulence model
the pressure side. Peng and Jung [51] carried out an experi- produced a better prediction of TFC experimental results in
mental investigation on the flat plate model to analyze the comparison with the shear stress transport (SST) and k–ω
effects of coolant injection pattern on FCE. models. Lee and Kim [60] from their numerical studies on
The results of their study reported that the crossflow cool- TFC reported that the trench width of two times the film
ant injection pattern has delivered higher FCE on the trench hole diameter (2D) and depth of 1D showed higher FCE
model in comparison with the plenum model. The trench in comparison with other tested trench model. Zhang et al.
configuration produced an effective spread rate of film cool- [61, 62] performed studies to analyze the FC performance
ant across the lateral axis of the test surface. Barigozzi et al. of double-sided grooved trench (DSGT) on the flat surface
[52] reported that the double row shallow trench (depth of and pressure side of the guide vane model. They reported

13
 Table 1  Summary of trench surface-modified film cooling for different film cooling surface
Author Type of film cooling β/° γ/° D/mm ℓ/mm d/mm L/D P/D IR TI/% Measurement tech- Data type
surface and surface nique
modification

Bunker [44] Flat surface with 30 0 1.78 2D 0.43D 5.7 3.57 0.75 –4.0 4.5 Thermocouple Centerline (CL) FCE
a slot (K-type)
Waye and Bogard Suction side guide 30 0 4.11 2D–4D 0.5D 5.7 2.78 0.4–1.6 3.9 Steady infrared Lateral averaged (LA)
[10] vane with trench thermography and spatial averaged
(SA) effectiveness
Zhang et al. [45] Flat surface with 30 0 6 2D 0.5D NA 3 0.5–1.5 5.32 Steady infrared LAFCE, heat transfer
inclined trench thermography coefficient (HTC)
and discharge coef-
ficients
Sundaram and Thole Turbine vane end 30 0 4.6 2D 0.4D–1.2D 8.3 3 0.5–3.0 1.3 Steady infrared LA film cooling effec-
[46] wall with trench thermography tiveness
and upstream slot
Zuniga et al. [47] Flat surface with 35 0 2 1.75D, 3.38D 0.75D 7.5 4–12 0.5–2.0 <1 Temperature-sensi- LA film cooling effec-
trench tive paint tiveness
Lu et al. [11] Flat surface with 30 0 12.7 2D, 3D 0.5D–1D NA 3 0.5–2.0 2 Transient infrared Spanwise averaged
trench thermography FCE and HTC
Bernier et al. [48] Flat surface with 30 0 2 2D 0.55D 7.5 6 0.75–2 <1 Temperature-sensi- LA effectiveness and
trench tive paint discharge coefficient
Harrison et al. [49] Suction side turbine 30 0 4.11 2D 1D 4.7 2.775 0.6–1.4 21 Steady infrared LAFCE and HTC
Thermal barrier coated surface modifications for gas turbine film cooling: a review

vane with trench thermography

Islami et al. [50] Turbine vane lead- 110 0 3 2D 0.43D 4.17 5 1.1 5 Steady Reynolds LA film cooling effec-
ing edge with averaged Navier– tiveness
trench Stokes (RANS)
Peng and Jiang [51] Flat surface with 30 0 5 3D 0.4D 2.2 3 0.5–1.5 NA Steady infrared CL and LA FCE
trench thermography
Barigozzi et al. [52] Nozzle guide vane 30 0 1.5 2D 1D–1.2D 10.7 4.8 0.5–2.5 1 Liquid crystal ther- FCE and energy loss
with contoured mography coefficient
end wall and
trench
Kross and Pfitzner Flat surface with 30 0 6 2D 0.75D 5.17 4.55 1–4 1 Steady infrared LA cooling effective-
[53] trench and thermography ness and thermal
upstream tetrahe- profile
dron
Islami and Jubran Turbine vane lead- 35 0 4 2D 0.43D 4 5 0.3–1.3 0.5–10 Steady (RANS) LA and space aver-
[54] ing edge with aged FCE
trench
Chandran et al. [55] Flat surface with a 35 0 5 2D 0.43D 3 3 0.6–1.4 0.2 Steady RANS CL and LA FCE
shaped trenched
hole
Khalatov et al. [13] Flat surface with 30 0 3.2 2D 0.75D 6.25 3 0.5–2.5 1–7 Thermocouple LA and local FCE

13
trench (K-type)
 Table 1  (continued)
Author Type of film cooling β/° γ/° D/mm ℓ/mm d/mm L/D P/D IR TI/% Measurement tech- Data type
surface and surface nique

13
modification

Oguntade et al. [56] Flat surface with 30 0 4.11 2D 0.5D–0.75D 5.7 2.775 0.6–1.4 1 Steady RANS Local and LA FCE
shaped trailing
edge trench
Abdala et al. [57] Flat surface with 30 0 4.11 4D and 2D 1.3D 4.1 2.775 0.5–5 1 Steady RANS Local, LA cooling
double trench effectiveness and
thermal profile
Albert and Bogard Turbine vane pres- 30 0 4.22 2.5D 0.75D 5.2 3 1–3 20 Steady infrared LA and overall FCE
[58] sure side with a thermography
trenched hole
Antar et al. [59] Flat surface with 30 0 4.11 2D 0.5D 5.7 2.775 0.5–1.4 1 Steady RANS Local and LA FCE,
narrow trench pressure coefficient,
thermal profile
Lee and Kim [60] Flat surface with 30 0 4.11 2D–4D 0.25D–1.25D NA 2.77 0.6–1.4 1 Steady RANS LA and spatial aver-
trench aged FCE
Kistenmacher et al. Turbine guide vane 30 0 4.2 2D, 3.8D 1.21D NA 3 0.5–5 21 Steady infrared Overall FCE,
[109] pressure side with thermography dimensionless TBC
the trench temperature
Pakhomov et al. Flat surface with 30 0 3.2 2D 0.75D 6.25 3.13 0.5–2 NA Steady RANS Centerline and local
[110] trench FCE
Zhang et al. [61] Flat surface with 30 0 4 2.25D 0.5D 4 3 0.5–2 1 Steady RANS LA FCE and thermal
Grooved trench profile
Schreivogel and Flat surface with 30 0 6 2D, 3D 0.75D 5.2 4.55 1.2–5.1 1 Steady IR thermog- FCE and HTC
pfitzner [63] straight and seg- raphy and phos-
mented trench phor thermometry
Zhang et al. [62] Turbine guide vane 30 0 1 2D–3D 0.75D NA 3 0.5–2 6.5 Steady RANS LA FCE and HTC
pressure side with
the grooved trench
Hou et al. [64] Flat surface with 35 0 12.7 3D 0.75D 1.75 3 0.5–1 NA Large Eddy simula- FCE and flow charac-
trench tion (LES) teristics
He et al. [65] Turbine guide vane 30 (PS) 52 (SS) 0 0.6 2.1D (PS)1.37D 0.75D NA 3 1.0 5 Steady (RANS) LA FCE and dis-
pressure and suc- (SS) charge coefficient
tion side trench
Li et al. [88] Flat surface with 30 0 8 NA 0.25D, 0.5D 6 2, 3, 4 1.0–2.0 1.2 Liquid crystal ther- LA FCE and HTC
grooved trench mography
Huang et al. [66] Turbine guide vane 35 0 0.6 2.5D 0.75D 3 3 1.0–2.0 5 Steady RANS Local FCE and ther-
pressure and suc- mal profile
tion side trench
V. G. Krishna Anand, K. M. Parammasivam
Thermal barrier coated surface modifications for gas turbine film cooling: a review

that the DSGT produced enhanced FCE on the flat surface θ

0.05 0.15 0.25 0.35 0.45 0.55 0.65 0.75 0.85 0.95
and also on the pressure side of the guide vane model for (a) Round
both low and high IR. Schreivogel and Pfitzner [63] showed 2
ect
rtex eff

Y/D
that the flat surface trench model produces an effective heat K-H vo
transfer augmentation for higher momentum flux ratio in 0
comparison with the non-trench configuration. The span-
wise instantaneous vorticity (ωz) and dimensionless tem- 0 2 X/D 4 6 8
(b) Trenched
perature (θ) distribution on the central plane of the round 2

Y/D
and trenched film hole [64] at an IR of 1 is shown in Figs. 11 ect
rtex eff
K-H vo
and 12, respectively. 0
The instantaneous vorticity is the measure of instant whirl
of the local fluid parcels. The kelvin–Helmholtz (KH) vor- 0 2 4 6 8
X/D
tex is developed as a result of the interaction between the
shear layers of mainstream and coolant flow. The clockwise
Fig. 12  Instantaneous dimensionless temperature at the central plane
KH vortex has entertained a portion of the mainstream flow for round and trenched film hole [64] (License No. 4714850945741)
into the coolant flow region and the counterclockwise KH
vortex has directed the coolant flow into the mainstream
flow as shown in Fig. 11. The presence of clockwise and have reported that the grooved trench model has delivered
counterclockwise KH vortices has resulted in the formation enhanced FCE on the pressure side of the guide vane model
of a high-temperature region as shown by the dotted line in in comparison with the suction surface.
Fig. 12. The KH vortices have produced enhanced mixing
between the coolant and mainstream flows.
The film cooling effectiveness is defined as the ratio of Indent type: crater film cooling
the difference in temperature of the main flow with the adi-
abatic wall and the temperature difference of the main flow The crater film cooling is a type of indent-assisted film
with the coolant fluid. The FCE can be determined using cooling, where the film cooling holes are embedded
Eq. (7). Figure 13 shows the distribution of local FCE on the within depression framed on the surface with the applica-
bottom wall of the test surface for the cylindrical film hole tion of TBC. Fric and Campbell [8] have proposed a method
(SC) and different trenched configurations, viz. transverse to improve the cooling effectiveness where the coolant flow
trench (TT) and segregated trench (ST) for an IR of 1.0. at the exit site is disturbed through a crater surface modi-
Here, the cylindrical film hole configuration has produced a fication developed with the application of TBC. The study
lower FCE across the spanwise axis of the test surface. The showed that the coolant jet ejected from the film hole is
TT model has delivered higher FCE in comparison with the imposed on to the crater wall and then it fills back the crater
SC model. However, the ST model has delivered higher FCE depression and after which the coolant moves toward the
along wall surface in comparison with SC and TT models for external wall surface. The shape of the crater model can be
the same IR as shown in Fig. 13 [65]. Huang et al. [66] from circular (Lu et al. [15]) or spherical (Kim and Kim [67]).
their numerical studies on different trench configurations The studies performed on crater surface modification applied
on different film cooling surface are summarized in Table 2.
Yang et al. [68] performed conjugate heat transfer studies on
ω
S–1 the guide vane end wall model combined with impingement
Z – 3000 – 2400 – 1800 – 1200 – 600 0 600 1200 1800 2400 3000
and film cooling mechanism. Round and crater film hole
(a) Round
2
Y/D

K-H Vortex
y/D

0 0 SC
0 10 20 30
x/D
0 2 X/D 4 6 8
(b) Trenched
y/D

0 TT
Seperation
2 0 10 20 30
Y/D

Region x/D
Adverse K-H Vortex
0
y/D

ST
effect –ω
0 0
η
10 x/D 20 30
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
0 2 X/D 4 6 8

Fig. 13  Distribution of local film cooling effectiveness at the bot-

Fig. 11  Instantaneous vorticity contour at the central plane for round tom wall for SC cylindrical hole, TT transverse trench, ST segregated
and trenched film hole [64] (License No. 4714850945741) trench for IR of 1.0 [65] (License No. 4714851243600)

13
 V. G. Krishna Anand, K. M. Parammasivam

configuration were framed on the end wall with the appli-

TBC FCE and dimensionless

cation of TBC. The studies were performed at the actual

LA film cooling effective-

LA and SA cooling effec-

Area-averaged (AA) FCE

LA and AA film cooling

engine represented operating conditions. The study was

Spatial averaged FCE

carried out to better understand the aerodynamic and conju-
gate heat transfer behavior of round and crater film cooling

effectiveness
temperature

Overall FCE
holes embedded in the guide vane end wall model. Com-

tiveness
Data type
putations were performed with finite volume-based RANS

ness
solver and standard k–ω turbulence model. The results of
the study conclude that the application of TBC on the guide
vane end wall has a perceptive effect in the reduction of

Steady IR thermography
Steady IR thermography
TI/% Measurement technique

Transient IR Thermog-
end wall temperature for both round and cratered film hole

Infrared thermography
configurations. The TBC has delivered effective protection
on the end wall surface in comparison with the effect of

Steady RANS
Steady RANS
the increase in the coolant mass flow rate. The round film
cooling hole embedded on the end wall surface has pro-

raphy

LES
duced a higher energy loss coefficient at the exit region of
the vane passage. With the increase in coolant mass rate,
the thermal barrier coated end wall shows an improvement

0.5–2.0 NA
2.78 0.5–2.0 3.9
0.5–2.0 3.5
1.4, 3.1 9.8

0.5–5.0 21

2
0.5–2.0 2
in overall cooling effectiveness. The guide vane end wall
model embedded with the crater film cooling hole has deliv-

0.5
L/D P/D IR
ered an effective film cooling performance in comparison
with the round film hole model. The crater configuration

3.45 NA

3
0.25D–0.75D 1.75 3
3
3
3
has delivered effective thermal protection and enhanced
the lifecycle of the thermal barrier coated components due

NA
NA
NA
0.25D–1.25D NA

2
to the better coverage of film coolant. The application of
TBC on the guide vane end wall has produced an effec-

1.25D–2.5D 0.3D–0.8D
tive change in the mixing characteristics of coolant and
0.27D
h/mm

1.2D
0.5D
0.5D
mainstream flow. The study concluded that the application
TBC is an effective mechanism to improve the cooling per-
Table 2  Summary of crater surface-modified film cooling for different film cooling surface

formance on guide vane end wall models when combined

with internal impingement and external film cooling. Fu
2D, 3D
2D, 3D
β/° γ/° D/mm n/mm

et al. [69] performed computational film cooling studies

2D
2D
2D
2D

on the flat surface model embedded with contoured crater

and investigated the effects of crater depth on the flow field

12.7
12.7
12.7
4.11

4.2
40 70 1.8

and film cooling characteristics. The crater depth is varied

in the range of 0.25D–1.25D, with an increment of 0.25D.
30 0
Flat surface with contoured 35 0
30 0
30 0
30 0
30 0

The computations were performed for an injection ratio of

0.5–2.0. The film cooling holes were inclined at 30° to the
Turbine vane end wall with

Turbine guide vane suction

face and surface modifica-

Flat surface with modified

mainstream test surface. Three-dimensional RANS-based

Turbine guide vane pres-
Type of film cooling sur-

Flat surface with crater

Flat surface with crater

sure side with crater

solver with k–ω turbulence model was used for the compu-
tation. The length and width of the crater model were fixed
at 3D and 2D, respectively. The protrusion attached to the
crater has a length of 0.5D and width of 1D. The diameter
crater
crater
crater

of the film cooling hole is 4 mm. The computational domain

side
tion

has a length of 80D with height 10D and a width of 3D. The
results of the study show that there is a significant change
in the flow field at the whole exit due to the interaction of
Khalghatki and Acharya

the film coolant jet with the contorted crater. The results of
Dorrington et al. [70]

Davidson et al. [71]

Kim and Kim [67]

the study also show that the film cooling performance of the
Yang et al. [68]

wall surface is closely related to the crater depth and injec-

Lu et al. [15]
Fu et al. [69]

tion ratio. The crater model has delivered an improved area-

Author

averaged film cooling performance in comparison with the

[72]

round film hole irrespective of the crater depth and injection

13
Thermal barrier coated surface modifications for gas turbine film cooling: a review

ratio. The area-averaged FCE is increased with the increase The results of the study show that the contoured crater model
in crater depth for the injection ratio of 0.5–1.0. The pres- has delivered a 100% improvement in FCE in comparison
ence of protrusion within the contoured crater has reduced with the non-cratered configuration. The improved FCE of
the coolant jet penetration into the mainstream flow, and this the contoured crater model is due to the formation of anti-
effect is mainly due to the weakened kidney-shaped vortex counter-rotating vortex pairs developed at the downstream
pairs. Also, the contoured crater has delivered an effective location of the film cooling jet. The presence of protrusion
lateral spreading on the test surface due to the formation of on the TE of the contoured crater has resulted in an effective
anti-kidney vortex pairs. Dorrington et al. [70] performed lateral spreading of ejected film coolant on the wall surface.
experimental film cooling studies on the suction side of the The study proposed an optimum crater depth of 0.75D for
guide vane model embedded with crater and trench depres- an improved FCE along the test surface.
sion. The crater model has a width of 2D and 3D. The depth
of the crater is fixed at 0.5D. The steady-state IR thermogra-
phy was employed for the surface temperature measurement. Protrusion type: ramp film cooling
The main parameter investigated in the area-averaged FCE.
The turbulence intensity of the mainstream flow is 3.9%. The The ramp film cooling is a type of protrusion-assisted film
pitch-to-diameter ratio of the film cooling hole is 2.78, and cooling, where the film cooling holes are embedded behind
the film cooling hole is inclined at an angle of 30° to the wall or head of the protrusion model [73]. The schematic of
surface. The results of the study show that the crater model the protrusion type right triangular ramp model is shown
delivered higher FCE in comparison with the round film hole in Fig. 14. Here, the film cooling hole is located at a dis-
configuration. The trench model has delivered higher FCE tance of one film hole diameter (D) downstream of the ramp
in comparison with crater and round film cooling hole. Lu trailing edge. The ramp angle (α) and injection angle (β)
et al. [15] carried out the experimental studies to determine are presented in Fig. 14. The ramp angle is defined as the
the film cooling effectiveness and heat transfer coefficient of angle between the ramp model and the bottom wall surface.
the crater model embedded with a cylindrical film cooling The injection angle is the angle between the central axis of
hole. The transient IR thermography was employed for the the film hole and the wall surface. The presence of ramp
surface temperature measurement. The investigations were modifies the hot mainstream boundary layer and deviates
performed at four different injection ratios in the range of it upwards from the wall surface and directs the coolant jet
0.5–2.0. The results of the study reported that the crater toward the wall surface. In protrusion surface-modified FC,
model has delivered an improved FCE in comparison with the protrusion surface can have different geometrical shapes,
the round hole. Also, the crater model has delivered a 50% viz. right triangular ramp, step, vortex generators, bump,
enhancement in FCE in comparison with the non-cratered blockers. The geometrical shape can be developed on the
configuration. However, the crater model has produced a film cooling surface with the application TBC, and it can be
lower lateral averaged FCE across the spanwise axis of the either upstream or downstream of the film cooling hole. The
test surface. Davidson et al. [71] performed experimental film cooling studies performed with ramped surface modifi-
studies to understand the effects of deposition on the FC cations are summarized in Table 3.
performance of the crater model embedded on the pressure Na and Shih [16] performed a numerical investigation
and showerhead side of the turbine guide vane model. The on a flat surface model embedded with the right triangular
results of the study show that the presence of film cooling ramp ahead of the FC hole. The results of their investigation
has increased the accumulation of deposits on the wall sur- showed that the location of the ramp upstream of the FC
face. The deposit behavior is closely related to the type of hole alters the mainstream boundary layer and reduces the
film cooling configuration. Also, the presence of deposits interaction between the coolant and the mainstream flows
has decreased the FCE on the thermal barrier coated surface. and this effect has resulted in improved FCE in compari-
The attached coolant jet characteristics of the trench and son with the non-ramped model. Halder and Samad [74]
crater model has resulted in a thinner layer of contaminant carried out numerical studies and reported that an increase
deposition on the wall surface in comparison with the round in the number of rows of film cooling holes has produced
film hole model. Khalghatki and Archarya [72] performed favorable effects on-ramp film cooling (RFC) and produced
computational studies on a newly proposed contoured crater improved FCE.
model and investigated its effect on the film cooling perfor- The presence of a higher ramp angle and injection ratio
mance. The studies were carried out on a flat surface model has resulted in higher FCE for the double row ramped
embedded with a contoured crater and a cylindrical film model. Yang et al. [75] conducted an experimental investi-
cooling hole that is inclined at 35° to the wall surface. The gation to analyze the film cooling performance of the ramp
length-to-diameter ratio of the film cooling hole is 1.75. The model integrated with a swirling jet. The results of their
crater depth investigated was in the range of 0.25D–0.75D. study showed that the ramp model has delivered an effective

13
 V. G. Krishna Anand, K. M. Parammasivam

Mainstream
flow

LA film cooling effectiveness

LA and SA cooling effective-

Dimensionless concentration
D
Ramp α

LA and CL FCE
LA and CL FCE
β

and LA FCE
Film hole

Data type
Fig. 14  Schematic of right triangular ramp model and film cooling

ness
hole

Steady liquid crystal ther-

film coolant coverage on the flat surface model with and

TI/% Measurement technique

without swirling jet flow. However, a large ramp angle (25°)
with a swirling jet angle of 30° has delivered a higher FCE

< 0.5 PLIF and IR-PIV

Steady RANS
Steady RANS

Steady RANS
in comparison with other tested configurations.

mography
Step‑assisted film cooling

The studies performed on the stepped surface modification

0.36–0.98 NA
0.5

0.2
for different FC surfaces are summarized in Table 4. Abdala

2
and Elwekeel [76] performed numerical studies to investi-

0.3–1.0

0.6–1.6

0.5–1.5

NA 0.6–2.0
gate the effects of different step configuration on FCE. The
schematic of different tested step configuration is shown in

L/D P/D M
Fig. 15.
The distribution of local FCE along the bottom wall of the

3
3

4
test surface for an IR of 1.0 is shown in Fig. 16. The result

0.5D–1D 3.5

3.5
10
7

3
of the investigation showed that the curved step with a width
of 0.125D has delivered a higher FCE in comparison with

11.3–16.7 0, 0.5D
S/mm

0.5D
other step configuration for the same IR.

1D

1D
Zhang et al. [77] carried out a numerical study to analyze
Table 3  Summary of film cooling studies performed with ramped surface modification

the FC performance of the uneven step installed ahead of

8.5–14
14–24

15, 25
the FC hole on the flat surface model. The schematic of the
β/° γ/° D/mm α/°

14

computational domain and different models of uneven step

tested by Zhang et al. [77] is shown in Fig. 17. Here, Dh is
12.7
6.4

the hydraulic diameter of the film cooling hole and W is the

10
5

width of the step. The result of the study reported that an

30 0

35 0
30 0

35 0

30 0

uneven step model has delivered higher FCE in comparison

with the conventional even step model. The uneven step with
the lower midpoint height (hmid of 0Dh) has delivered better
Flat surface with a single and
Type of film cooling surface

Flat surface with ramp and

FC performance in comparison with the other tested step

and surface modification

Halder and Samad [74] Flat surface with double

rowed holes and ramp
Flat surface with ramp

Flat surface with ramp

configuration.
Zheng et al. [78] conducted numerical studies on a flat
surface model integrated with the divided steps as shown in
double ramp

swirling jet

Fig. 18. Here, D is the diameter of the film cooling hole and
W is the width of the step. The result of the study showed
that the divided step (case 4 as shown in Fig. 18) has deliv-
ered higher FCE in comparison with the other tested step
configurations.
Barigozzi et al. [111]

Qingzong et al. [79] performed numerical studies on end

Na and Shih [16]

Al-jabery [112]

Yang et al. [75]

wall film cooling with the stepped slot configuration. The

schematic of the guide vane end wall model with the step
and slot film cooling is shown in Fig. 19. The step end wall
Author

has produced higher FCE even for lower IR; however, an

13
Thermal barrier coated surface modifications for gas turbine film cooling: a review

FCE and thermal profile

Local and LA FCE and
Local and LA FCE

thermal profile
FCE and HTC
TI/% Measurement technique Data type
W = 0.7D W W/2
Normal step Curved step (W) Curved step (W/2)

Steady RANS
Steady RANS
Steady RANS
Steady RANS

W/4 W/8

Curved step (W/4) Curved step (W/8)

Fig. 15  Schematic of different step configuration [76] (License No.

1.0–2.0 0.5
1.0–2.0 0.5
0.5–2.0 0.5

4714860095984)
0.6–1.2 10
C/mm L/D P/D IR

5.5
3.5 3
0.75D 6.97 3
6.97 3

15D 6D
13

Rectangular film hole without step

D/4, D/8 NA

3D
1D

Normal step
0–0.3D
β/° γ/° D/mm R/mm

1.1D
0.3D

Curve step (W)

1.8
10
10
10
Table 4  Summary of step surface-modified film cooling for different film cooling surface

30 0
30 0
35 0
35 0

Curve step (W/2)

Type of film cooling surface and surface modi-

Vane end wall with upstream step and slot film

Abdala and Elwekeel [76] Flat surface with downstream rectangular and

Curve step (W/4)

Flat surface with an upstream divided step
Flat surface with an uneven upstream step

Curve step (W/8)

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
η

Fig. 16  Distribution of FCE for tested step configurations [76]

(License No. 4714860095984)
hole injection
curved step

increment in IR has resulted in lower FCE on the end wall

region.
fication

Bump and block‑assisted film cooling

Sundaram and Thole [46] carried out an experimental inves-

Qingzong et al. [79]

tigation to understand the FC performance of the bump

Zheng et al. [78]
Zhang et al. [77]

model positioned upstream and downstream of the FC hole

on the end wall junction of the guide vane model. The result
Author

of the investigation reported that a bump height of 1.2D

positioned upstream and downstream of the FC hole has

13
 V. G. Krishna Anand, K. M. Parammasivam

Fig. 17  Schematic of a com- (a) Mainstream

putational domain, b different inlet
tested model of uneven step [77]
Mainstream
(License No. 4714860503584) 10Dh 20Dh y 80Dh outlet
X
6.97Dh 0.75Dh
Step
Cooling
air inlet 35°

3Dh Surface2

x/Dh = 31.1
x/Dh = 1.1

(b)

W = 0.1Dh
d = 1.5Dh X
1.5Dh
Step Z

hmid = 0Dh 0.3D hmid = 0.1Dh 0.2Dh hmid = 1.5Dh0.15Dh hmid = 0.2Dh 0.1D hmid = 0.3Dh 0Dh
h h

delivered a 20% enhanced FCE on the guide vane end wall suppress the effects of CRV pairs to generate downwash
surface. The studies performed on the bump and block sur- effects that can make the coolant jet to stay close to the wall
face modification of the different FC surfaces are shown in surface and in turn to produce an effective span wise cover-
Table 5. An et al. [80] carried out an experimental investiga- age on the test surface.
tion on a flat surface model installed with a crescent-shaped The study concluded that the crescent dune positioned
block positioned downstream of the FC hole. The results 0.9D upstream of the FC hole has delivered higher FCE
of the study show that the presence of a crescent-shaped (Figs. 22 and 23) in comparison with other dune position.
block positioned downstream of the FC hole has produced The presence of crescent dune has helped the coolant flow to
an effective lateral spreading of ejected coolant on the wall deliver an effective spread rate across the lateral axis of the
surface and this effect, in turn, leads to an improved span- test surface. The distribution of local FCE on the test surface
wise averaged FCE. for different distances within the trailing edge of the barchan
Zhou and Hu [81] performed an experimental study to dune and film hole center (L in the range of − 3.0D–3.4D) is
analyze the FC performance of barchan dune (BD) posi- shown in Fig. 22 at two different injection ratios (0.85 and
tioned at different locations on the test surface. The sche- 1.25). The plot for the centerline and lateral averaged FCE
matic and flow characteristics of the barchan dune are shown at two different injection ratios (0.85 and 1.25) is shown in
in Figs. 20 and 21, respectively. Here, H is the height of the Fig. 23.
barchan dune, L is the distance between the trailing edge of The centerline FCE is defined as the effectiveness along
barchan dune with the center of the film cooling hole, and the central longitudinal axis of the test surface. Also, the
W is the width of the barchan dune. lateral averaged FCE is defined as the averaged cooling
The incoming mainstream flow forms two opposed rota- effectiveness along the local lateral axis of the test surface.
tional vortices that are formed behind the barchan dune Zhou and Hu [82] performed experimental studies to
when viewed from the XZ plane and these vortices lead to compare the FC characteristics of baseline, shortened,
the suction effect, which has helped in the effective spanwise standard, and elongated dune models. The schematic of the
spreading of the coolant jet on the wall surface. The opposed experimental set up is shown in Fig. 24.
counter-rotating vortex (CRV) pairs are generated near the The elongated barchan dune has delivered an effective
edge of the barchan dune in the YZ plane and these vortices spread rate along the longitudinal and lateral axis of the

13
Thermal barrier coated surface modifications for gas turbine film cooling: a review

Fig. 18  Schematic of a (a) 20D 60D

computational domain, b
different model of upstream
divided steps [78] (License No.
4714860857640) Mainstream

15D
Mainstream
outlet
inlet z
Step
y

3.5D D
Cooling
air inlet

30°

(b) No step (film cooling on a flat surface) Case 1

3 mm Case 2

13 mm

3 mm Case 3

13.75 mm
W = 2 mm 3 mm
Case 4
D 12.5 mm

3 mm Case 5
X
10 mm
y
3 mm Case 6

5 mm

3 mm Case 7

25 mm

test surface as shown in Fig. 25. Also the elongated BD Vortex generator‑assisted film cooling
has delivered a higher effectiveness along the centerline and
spanwise axis of the test surface in comparison with other The experimental and computational investigations carried
dune configuration as shown in Fig. 26. Here, the parameter out on vortex generator (VG)-assisted FC are presented in
z = 0 is the centerline FCE and |Z| ≤ 1.5D is the lateral aver- Table 6. Shinn and Vanka [84] performed large eddy simu-
aged FCE for different tested models of the barchan dune. lation (LES) studies on a flat surface model integrated with
Choi et al. [83] conducted numerical investigation and the micro-ramp VG positioned downstream of the FC hole.
performed optimization studies on a downstream bump The result of the investigation reported that the presence of
(Coanda) integrated with a rectangular slot on a flat sur- micro-ramp VG downstream of the FC hole has delivered
face model. The bump parameters, viz. width (w), height a favorable effect in the generation of counter vortices, and
(h), and streamwise peak position (p), were optimized to this in turn directs the coolant jet to stay close to the bottom
deliver higher area-averaged FCE. The optimized Coanda wall surface.
bump parameters have produced lower jet lift-off and have Sarkar and Ranakoti [85] carried out a numerical study
delivered an improved area-averaged film cooling effective- on a flat surface model integrated with two different VG.
ness along the test surface. The result of their study showed that the downwash type
vortex generator has opposed the effects of counter-rotating

13
 V. G. Krishna Anand, K. M. Parammasivam

Fig. 19  Schematic of the guide

vane end wall model with
step and slot film cooling [79] B
(License No. 4714861089050)

Vane
leading
edge
Mainstream A
Step
t
Coolan
Endwall
A

Step vane A-A

Step Interrupted
Z Slot
Hole5

Hole1 Y Endwall rib

X
vane

Periodic
Interface

vortex pairs with the reduction in jet lift-off, and this effect Performance parameters
has resulted in increased FCE along the longitudinal and for surface‑modified film cooling
lateral axis of the test surface. However, the up-wash type
vortex generator has resulted in decreased FCE along the The Fourier law of heat conduction relates the heat flux with
test surface. Song et al. [86] conducted experimental studies the thermal gradient. However, when heat transfer takes
to investigate the FC performance of VG installed down- place in a very short interval of time the Fourier law is not
stream of the FC hole. The schematic of the vortex generator accurate in the prediction of temperature distribution [87].
and the experimental facility is shown in Figs. 27 and 28, Hence the non-Fourier transient heat conduction equation is
respectively. used and it can be written as
In Fig. 27, the term H represents the height of the vortex
generator, D is the diameter of the film cooling hole, and t 𝜕�q⃗(⃗r, t)
𝜏 + q�⃗(⃗r, t) = −k∇T(⃗r, t) (1)
is the thickness of the test plate. Among the different tested 𝜕t
combinations, the model with a VG and 20° film hole injec- The energy equation for an isotropic material with heat
tion has delivered higher FCE for an IR of 1.5. The com- generation can be written as
parison of local FCE on the bottom wall test surface with
and without VG at 20° film hole injection angle for an IR 𝜕T
𝜌c + ∇.�q⃗ − g = 0 (2)
of 0.5–1.5 is shown in Fig. 29. Here, A20NVG represents 𝜕t
the 20° film hole injection case without vortex generator
In Eq. (2), the term ρ is the density, c is specific heat
and A20VG represents 20° film hole injection with vortex
capacity, and g represents the heat source/sink.
generator.
The thermal barrier coated model initially at a tempera-
ture of T0 is suddenly exposed to a high heat flux at the
location of x = L2 and Tc is the temperature at location x = 0
of the thermal barrier coated substrate model as shown in

13
Thermal barrier coated surface modifications for gas turbine film cooling: a review

Fig. 30. Based on the conditions of thermal barrier coated

and optimized param-

FCE and Field velocity
substrate model and with g = 0, Eqs. (1) and (2) are trans-

FCE, thermal profile

formed into

LA and AA FCE
SA and LA FCE

FCE and HTC

𝜕qj 𝜕Tj
Data type

𝜏j + qj = −kj (3)

eters
𝜕t 𝜕x

𝜕Tj 𝜕qj
Steady IR thermography

(4)

Steady RANS and RSM

TI/% Measurement technique

𝜌j cj =−

IR thermography and
𝜕t 𝜕x
In Eqs. (3) and (4), the term j = 1 is used for the substrate

PSP and PIV

and j = 2 is used for the thermal barrier coating layer. The
LDV non-dimensional variables can be written as
PSP

u2 x u22 t Tj 𝛼2 qj ( )1∕2
x= ; t= ; Tj = ; qj = ; u2 = 𝛼2 ∕𝜏2
2𝛼2 2𝛼2 TR k2 u2 TR
0.5–1.25 3.5

1.5

(5)
13

where u2 is the finite speed of thermal wave propagation in

0.5–1.0

0.6–1.5
0.5–3

the TBC, t is the temporal coordinate, and α2 and k2 are the

3.24 NA 1–2
L/D P/D IR

thermal diffusivity and thermal conductivity of the TBC,

respectively.
3

0.25D, 0.5D, 0.75D 6.25 3

3.49 3

The non-dimensional form of non-Fourier heat conduc-

8.3

2.5

tion equation and energy equation can be written as

𝜏j 𝜕qj kj 𝜕T j
+ = −2qj (6)
𝜏2 𝜕t k2 𝜕x
Table 5  Summary of bump and block surface-modified film cooling for different film cooling surface

0–0.75D
B/mm

( )
kj ∕k2 𝜕T j 𝜕qj
0.5D, 0.8D, 1.2D 0

( ) + =0 (7)
𝛼j ∕𝛼2 𝜕t 𝜕x

Then Eqs. (6) and (7) can be expressed in compact vector-

0.2D–0.3D

0.1D, 0.5D

0.5D–1.5D

ized form and can be written as

β/° γ/° D/mm W/mm

0.6D

𝜕U j 𝜕Ej
+ = Hj (8)
7.40

𝜕t 𝜕x
4.6

20

12
8

where
30 0

30 0

35 0

35 0

45 0

⎡ kj ⎤
� �
⎢ T j⎥
Flat surface with barchan

⎡ − 2 qj ⎤
Flat surface with Coanda
Flat surface with down-

bump and rectangular

⎢ 𝜏j ⎥
stream crescent block

qj
⎥; H j = ⎢⎢ 𝜏 j ⎥⎥
bump and upstream

Uj = ; Ej = ⎢
Type of film cooling

Flat surface with an

surface and surface

Sundaram and Thole [46] Vane end wall with

Tj ⎢ 𝛼j q ⎥ ⎣ 0⎦
elliptical bump

⎢ j⎥
and film hole

⎣ kj ⎦
modification

𝜏j 𝛼j kj
dune

𝜏 j = ; 𝛼 j = ; kj =
slot

slot

𝜏2 𝛼2 k2

when j = 2, then 𝛼 2 = 𝜏 2 = k2 = 1. The non-dimensional

hyperbolic heat conduction equation and energy equation
Kawabata et al. [113]

Zhou and Hou [81]

in vectorized form [87] can be written as

Choi et al. [83]
An et al. [80]

𝜕Uj 𝜕Ej
+ = Hj , for j = 1, 2 (9)
𝜕t 𝜕x
Author

13
 V. G. Krishna Anand, K. M. Parammasivam

Fig. 20  Schematic of barchan Y

dune and film hole [81] X
(License No. 4714570751952)
4D

D
=
4m
m
35°

Case1:
H = 0.3D
L W = 2.85D
3D La= Lb = 1.8D
L0 = 1.35D
Ls = 0.45D
0 A A
Case2:
W
28 D H = 0.5D
Z W = 2.85D
La = Lb = 1.8D
L0 Ls La = L b
L0 = 1.35D
H Ls = 0.45D
Barchan dune shaped ramp

Oncoming mainstream flow y 𝜕CA∗ 𝜕CA∗ 1 𝜕 CA

2 ∗
u∗ + v∗ =
z x
𝜕x∗ 𝜕y∗ ReL Sc 𝜕y∗2 (11)
CRV pair
CA∗ (x∗ , 0) = 0, CA∗ (x∗ , ∞) =0
Coolant jet
stream where Sc is the Schmidt number, Pr is the Prandtl number,
C represents the species concentration, A represents species,
and * represents the non-dimensional form. The Reynolds
averaged equation with species continuity can be written as
Suction ( )
Anti-CRV ̃
formed behind ̃
𝜕𝜌𝛤m 𝜕 𝜌̃
u 𝛤
i m ( �� )
𝜕 ��
(12)
the BDSR + = nm − 𝜌uj 𝛤m��
𝜕t 𝜕xj 𝜕xj

where

Fig. 21  Flow characteristics of barchan dune [81] (License No. �� 𝜕𝛤m

−𝜌uj 𝛤m�� = 𝜌Dt,m
4714570751952) 𝜕xj

The heat and mass transfer governing equations and their The term 𝛤m represents the mass fraction, and the term
related film cooling boundary conditions for the non-react- Dt,m represents the turbulent diffusion coefficient. The FCE
ing flow can be written as defied with the ratio of mass fraction can be written as
𝛤w − 𝛤∞
𝜕T ∗ 𝜕T ∗ 1 𝜕2 T ∗ 𝜂= (13)
u∗ + v∗ ∗ = 𝛤2 − 𝛤∞
𝜕x ∗ 𝜕y ReL Pr 𝜕y∗2 (10)
T ∗ (x∗ , 0) = 0, T ∗ (x ∗, ∞) = 1 The main flow parameters related to the surface-modi-
fied film cooling are density ratio, velocity ratio, blowing
ratio, and momentum flux ratio. Waye and Bogard [10] have

13
Thermal barrier coated surface modifications for gas turbine film cooling: a review

η: .05 .15 .25 .35 .45 .55 .65 .75 .85 η: .05 .15 .25 .35 .45 .55 .65 .75 .85
–1 –1
0

Z/D
0

Z/D
1
1
–1 –1
0

Z/D
Z/D
0
1
1
–1 –1
0

Z/D
Z/D
0
1
1
–1 –1
0

Z/D
Z/D
0
1
1
–1
–1

Z/D
0

Z/D
0
1
1
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20

x/D x/D

Fig. 22  Measured Local FCE for barchan dune at different position and injection ratios [81] (License No. 4714570751952)

0.8 BDSR (L = 3.0D), M = 0.85 0.8 BDSR (L = 3.0D), M = 0.1.25

BDSR (L = 0.9D), M = 0.85 BDSR (L = 0.9D), M = 1.25

Certerline effectiveness η CL
0.7 BDSR (L = 2.7D), M = 0.85 0.7 BDSR (L = 2.7D), M = 1.25
Certerline effectiveness η CL

BDSR (L = 3.4D), M = 0.85 BDSR (L = 3.4D), M = 1.25

0.6 Baseline, M = 0.85 0.6 Baseline, M = 1.25

0.5 0.5
0.4
0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
0
5 10 15 20 0
5 10 15 20
X/D X/D
Laterally averaged effectiveness ηLA

0.6
Laterally averaged effectiveness η LA

BDSR (L = 3.0D), M = 0.85 0.6 BDSR (L = 3.0D), M = 0.1.25

BDSR (L = 0.9D), M = 0.85 BDSR (L = 0.9D), M = 1.25
BDSR (L = 2.7D), M = 0.85 BDSR (L = 2.7D), M = 1.25
0.5 BDSR (L = 3.4D), M = 0.85 0.5 BDSR (L = 3.4D), M = 1.25
Baseline, M = 0.85 Baseline, M = 1.25
0.4 0.4

0.3 0.3

0.2 0.2
0.1
0.1
0 0
5 10 15 20
5 10 15 20
X/D
X/D

Fig. 23  Centerline and laterally averaged effectiveness along test surface [81] (License No. 4714570751952)

expressed the density ratio parameter for trench film cooling where ρ is the density of the flow, c is the notation for cool-
as in Eq. (14) ant and ∞ represent the mainstream flow. The velocity ratio
𝜌c for TFC is defined in Eq. (15) (Schreivogel et al. [63]) as
Density ratio (DR) =
𝜌∞ (14)

13
 V. G. Krishna Anand, K. M. Parammasivam

Fig. 24  Schematic of experi- Optical lenses Nd: YAG Laser

mental setup for PSP meas-
Mirror
urement [82] (License No.
4714571293042)
Laser sheet

Main Test plate

stream

Digital delay
generator
Sand paper
Plenum Coolant
Camera flow

η: η: .5 .15 .25 .35 .45 .55 .65 .75 .85 η: .5 .15 .25 .35 .45 .55 .65 .75 .85
.05 .15 .25 .35 .45 .55 .65 .75 .85
2 2 2
z/D

z/D

z/D
0 0 0

–2 Baseline –2 Baseline –2 Baseline

2 2 2

0 0 0

z/D
z/D

z/D

–2 Shortened –2 Shortened –2 Shortened

2 2 2

0 0 z/D 0
z/D

z/D

–2 Standard –2 Standard –2 Standard

2 2 2
z/D

0 0 0
z/D

z/D

–2 Elongated –2 Elongated –2 Elongated

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
x/D x/D x/D
(a) M = 0.6 (b) M = 0.9t (c) M = 1.2

Fig. 25  Measured Local FCE for different barchan dune at various injection ratios [82] (License No. 4714571293042)

uc 𝜌c u c
Velocity ratio (VR) =
um (15) Injection ratio (M) =
𝜌∞ u ∞ (16)

where u is the velocity of the flow. The blowing (or) injec-

tion ratio is another important flow parameter for surface- 𝜌c u2c
Momentum flux ratio (I) = (17)
modified FC. The injection ratio is the product of density 𝜌∞ u2∞
ratio and velocity ratio. The injection ratio and momentum
flux ratio for TFC is given in Eq. (16) (Waye and Bogard
[10]) and Eq. (17) (Barigozzi et al. [52]), respectively.

13
Thermal barrier coated surface modifications for gas turbine film cooling: a review

Baseline 0.9 Baseline

1
Shortened Shortened
0.8
0.9 Standard Standard
Elongated 0.7 Elongated
0.8
0.6

η z/≤ 1.5D
0.7
0.5
η z=0

0.6
0.4
0.5
0.3
0.4 0.2

0.3 0.1

0.2 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

x/D x/D

0.9
Baseline
1 Baseline Shortened
Shortened 0.8 Standard
0.9 Standard Elongated
Elongated 0.7
0.8
η z/≤ 1.5D 0.6
0.7
0.5
η z=0

0.6
0.4
0.5 0.3

0.4 0.2

0.3 0.1

0.2 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

x/D x/D

Fig. 26  Centerline and lateral averaged effectiveness along the test surface [82] (License No. 4714571293042)

( ) P − P∞ where mreal is the actual mass flow rate. The expressions in

Pressure Coefficient Cp = (18) Eq. (14)–(17) are the important flow parameters to study the
0.5𝜌∞ u2∞
FCE of surface-modified FC.
The pressure coefficient for TFC is given in Eq. (18)
T∞ − Taw
(Antar et al. [59]). Here, P is the local static pressure and Film cooling effectiveness (𝜂) = (20)
P∞ is the freestream pressure. The discharge coefficient for T∞ − Tc
TFC is provided in Eq. (19).
The expression for FCE given in Eq. (20) is used to calcu-
� � mreal late the centerline and local film cooling effectiveness (along
Discharge Coefficient Cd = √ (19) the spanwise axis) for the trenched test surface. In Eq. (20),
A⋅ 2𝜌c (p∗c − pm )
the term T∞ represents the temperature of the mainstream
flow and Taw and Tc are the temperature of adiabatic wall

13
 V. G. Krishna Anand, K. M. Parammasivam

1D 1.91D

Velocity and temperature

Velocity fields and FCE

y

Velocity, temperature
X

1.57D
fields, and FCE
Z
Data type H = 1.27D
X

fields
t = 2d
α
TI/% Measurement technique

PIV and thermocouple

D
Steady RANS

Fig. 27  Schematic of film hole and vortex generator [86] (License

(K-type)
No. 4714581209659)
LES

and coolant flow. The lateral (or) spanwise averaged FCE

(He et al. [65]) is an important parameter for the surface-
0.5–1.5 0.1
0.2
1

modified FC, and it is given in Eq. (21) for TFC.

( ) 1∑
n
0.5
3 5.35 1.5
IR

Lateral averaged Film cooling effectiveness 𝜂ave = 𝜂

n i=1 i
P/D

(21)
5.84, 4, 3.11 NA
3

In Eq. (21), the term ‘n’ is the number of film cooling

measurement points along the lateral axis of the slotted test
surface. The term 𝜂i is the local FCE along the lateral axis
1.75
2.64
J/mm L/D

of the test surface.

The area-averaged film cooling effectiveness (Kim and
0.2D, 0.4D 4.5D

1D
1D

Kim [67]) for the crater surface modification is given in

Eq. (22).
0.748D

( ) ( ) ( )
∫ ∫ 𝜂
γ/° D/mm G/mm

1.27D

20 1.5
X Z
( ) , d DZ d DX
X Z 0 −1.5
D D (22)
𝜂s , =
Table 6  Summary of vortex generator-assisted surface-modified film cooling

D D 20 × 3
12.7
NA

20

where
20, 30, 40 0
0
0

( )
X Z
( ) Taw , − Th
X Z D D
35 20

𝜂 , =
β/°]

D D T c − Th
35
surface and surface modi-

The term Th is the temperature of the hot mainstream

stream micro-ramp VG

upstream inclined split

Flat surface with down-

Flat surface with down-

flow. The area-averaged FCE for the surface modification

Type of film cooling

stream ramp VG

with ramp VG located downstream of the FC hole is given in

Sarkar and Ranakoti [85] Flat surface with

Eq. (23) (Song et al. [86]). The non-dimensional temperature

plate VG

for TFC is given in Eq. (24).

fication

108D2 ∫ ∫
1
𝜂avg,area = 𝜂dxdy (23)
Shinn and Vanka [84]

T∞ − T
Non-dimensional temperature (𝜃) = (24)
Song et al. [86]

T ∞ − Tc

The term T in Eq. (24) represents the temperature of the

Author

fluid. The heat transfer coefficient (HTC) is an important

13
Thermal barrier coated surface modifications for gas turbine film cooling: a review

Valve
Film cooling hole Tested wall
Blower

Secondary Air
Flowmeter Measuring point
u2, T2
Electric Heater
Flow Straightener

Contraction Nozzle

Mainstream

um, Tm

Stabilizer Exhaust

Rectifier Test section Bumper

Inlet Plenum Blower

Fig. 28  Schematic of the test facility [86] (License No. 4714581209659)

parameter to determine the performance of TFC. The HTC q

��

for trench FC is given in Eq. (25) (Li et al. [88]). hf = (29)

(T∞ − Tsurf )
q
Heat transfer coefficient (h) =
(Taw − Tw ) (25)
q��
h0 = (30)
(T∞ − Tsurf )
where the term ‘q’ in Eq. (25) is the heat flux and Tw is the
wall temperature. The thermal barrier coated non-dimen-
sional surface temperature on the pressure side of the turbine q�� = q��generated − q��conduction − q��radiation (31)
guide vane model with trench surface modification is given
in Eq. 26. IV K
q�� = (32)
4 4
− (Tsurf − Ti ) − 𝜀𝜎(Tsurf − T∞ )
T∞ − TTBC,e A L
𝜏= (26)
T∞ − Tc,vaneinlet The term Tsurf is the temperature of the wall surface, Tc,i
is the internal temperature of the coolant in the plenum, q′′ is
where TTBC,e is the temperature at the external surface of the the heat flux, q′′generated is the internally generated heat flux,
thermal barrier coating and Tc,vaneinlet is the coolant tempera- q′′conduction is heat flux due to conduction, q′′radiation is the heat
ture at the vane inlet (Kistenmacher et al. [109]). In TFC, the flux due to radiation. In Eq. (32), the term I is the current,
rate of heat transferred to the test surface is determined by V is the voltage, A is the area of the heat flux plate, K is
the net heat flux reduction (Δqr) parameter (Harrison et al. the thermal conductivity of the material, L is the thickness
[49]) and it is given in Eq. (27). of the airfoil wall, Ti is the internal temperature evaluated
( ) within the plenum, 𝜀 is the emissivity, and 𝜎 is the Stefan’s
hf 𝜂
Δqr = 1 − 1− (27) Boltzmann constant. Then Eqs. (20)–(27) are applied to the
ho 𝜙
steady-state measurement of FCE and HTC for surface-
where 𝜙 the overall FC effectiveness, hf represents the heat modified film cooling. The schematic sample of the thermal
transfer coefficient with film cooling, and ho represents the barrier coated trench model is shown in Fig. 31.
heat transfer coefficient without film cooling. The overall effectiveness (ϕTBC) of the thermal barrier
coated gas turbine end wall [89] is obtained based on the
Tsurf − T∞ outer end wall temperature (Tw), and it is written as
𝜙=
Tc,i − T∞ (28)
T∞ − Tw 1 − 𝜒𝜂
𝜙TBC = = + 𝜒𝜂
T∞ − Tc,in Bi+h ∕h
1 + Bi R ∞∕R i +1 (33)
( TBC w )

13
 V. G. Krishna Anand, K. M. Parammasivam

0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35

3.0 3.0

Y/D

Y/D
0 0

– 3.0 – 3.0

0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0
X/D X/D
(a) A20NVG at M = 0.5 (b) A20NVG at M = 0.5
3.0 3.0

Y/D

Y/D
0 0

– 3.0 – 3.0

0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0
X/D X/D

(c) A20NVG at M = 1.0 (d) A20NVG at M = 1.0

3.0 3.0
Y/D

Y/D
0 0

– 3.0 – 3.0

0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0
X/D X/D

(e) A20NVG at M = 1.5 (f) A20NVG at M = 1.5

Fig. 29  Distribution of FCE on the bottom wall surface with 20° film hole injection for without and with vortex generator at different IR (A20–
20° injection angle of film cooling hole; NVG No vortex generator; VG with vortex generator) [86] (License No. 4714581209659)

where Bi represents the Biot number, RTBC is the resistance

of TBC, Rw is the resistance of the wall, 𝜒 represents the
1 2 coolant warming factor, and χ represents the film cooling
Imposed effectiveness
Substrate TBC heat flux
htw RTBC kw T∞ − Tc,exit
Bi = ; RTBC ∕Rw = ; 𝜒= (34)
kw tw T∞ − Tc,in
x=0 x = L1 x = L2

Fig. 30  Schematic of TBC-substrate model

13
Thermal barrier coated surface modifications for gas turbine film cooling: a review

and effective-
Velocity fields

FCE and HTC

T∞ φ TBC ,Tw
τ , TTBC

Data type
TBC, RTBC

LA FCE
ness
h∞

FCE
tw
Endwall, k w

Liquid crystal thermography

TI/% Measurement technique
hi Tw, i

IR thermography
Steady RANS

Steady RANS
(LCT)
Tc, in

NA
1.7

0.5
Fig. 31  Schematic sample of thermal barrier coated trench model

0.20, 0.34, 0.54 1

The TBC effectiveness (𝜏 ) is an important parameter that

0.47–2.84
9.82 0.25–1.5

0.3–1.5
depends on the TBC external temperature, and the TBC
effectiveness (𝜏) can be written as

L/D P/D IR
T∞ − TTBC

NA 2
3.5 3
𝜏=
T∞ − Tc,in (35)

0.2D, 1.2D, 2.5D 10

1
where T∞ represents the mainstream temperature, TTBC is

0, 1.75D, 3.5D
the exit temperature of TBC, and Tc,in represents the internal
temperature of the coolant. The net heat flux reduction of
the gas turbine end wall with TBC (Δqr) can be written as
Type of film cooling surface and β/° γ/° D/mm F/mm Q/mm

0.25D

3, 4, 5 0
qw − qw,TBC
Table 7  Summary of film cooling studies carried out on blockage within the film hole

Δqr =
qw (36)

3–5
7.1

The transient test (Lu et al. [11]) can also be applied to

determine the FCE and HTC using Eqs. (37) and (38).
57

64

6
6
� � � √ �
37 0

90 0

Film hole with ridge-shaped tabs 35 0

35 0
Tw1 − Ti h2f 𝛼t1 hf 𝛼t1
= 1 − exp erfc (37)
T f − Ti k2 k

� � � √ �
Film hole with torus-shaped

Film hole with torus-shaped

Tw2 − Ti h2f 𝛼t2 hf 𝛼t2

Cheng-xiong et al. [115] Film hole with ridge tab

= 1 − exp erfc (38)

T f − Ti k2 k
surface modification

The terms Tw1 and Tw2 are the wall temperatures at two
imperfection

imperfection

different times, Ti is the initial temperature of the test sur-

face, Tf is the film temperature, hf is the film heat transfer
coefficient, α is the thermal diffusivity, K is thermal conduc-
tivity, and t1 and t2 are two different time frames.
Yang and Zhang [91]
Jovanovic et al. [90]

Nemdili et al. [114]

Author

13
 V. G. Krishna Anand, K. M. Parammasivam

Surface modification within film hole IR of 1.5. Yang and Zhang [91] performed an experimental
investigation to analyze the FCE and heat transfer charac-
The studies carried out to analyze the FC performance of teristics of ridge-shaped tabs positioned inside the FC holes.
blockage installed within the film cooling hole are presented The schematic of the experimental facility, test section, and
in Table 7. Jovanovic et al. [90] conducted an experimental plate model (with ridge shaped tab) is shown in Figs. 32 and
investigation to analyze the FC performance with the imper- 33, respectively.
fection positioned inside the FC hole. The result of the study The higher covering ratio (CR—0.39) of ridge-shaped
shows that the location of imperfection at the exit site of the tab has delivered higher spanwise averaged FCE at all tested
FC hole has resulted in improved FCE particularly for an IR (0.94, 1.51 and 2.27). The higher CR of the tab has also
resulted in a larger pressure drop with a lower discharge

Heater adjuctor

Infrared camera
Valve Flow meter
Baffles
Primary stream
Test section
Heater
Thermocouple
Coolant air

Valve
Acquisition

Flow meter

Thermocouple

(a)

Thermo-couple Infrared camera

window
Baffles

Primary stream
Foil

Coolant air
Total pressure probe Static pressure probe
for coolant air for coolant air

(b)

Fig. 32  Schematic of a experimental facility, b test section [91] (License No. 4714590120625)

Fig. 33  Test plate with film

hole and ridge-shaped tab [91]
(License No. 4714590120625)
ridge shaped tape a

13
Thermal barrier coated surface modifications for gas turbine film cooling: a review

coefficient and a higher lateral averaged (LA) heat trans-

fer coefficient. The results of the study reported that the
presence of a ridge-shaped model at the LE of the FC hole
has reduced the coolant jet penetration and has resulted in
(a) increased FCE on the test surface. The study also concludes
Leading-exit (b) Trailing-exit
that the mid-range ridge tab (CR—0.21) can be effective in
terms of lower pressure drop and better film cooling effec-
tiveness. Huang et al. [92] carried out experimental stud-
ies on a flat surface model with the pyramid-shaped block
positioned at different locations along the length of the film
(c) Leading-middle (d) Trailing-middle cooling hole as shown in Fig. 34.
The temperature distribution on the test plate for differ-
ent blockage location on the film cooling hole is shown in
Fig. 35. The results of the study show that for only the model
where the blockage is positioned at the leading exit of the
film hole with a blocking ratio of 0.3 has produced higher
(e) Leading-inlet (f) Trailing-inlet FCE for a higher IR and also for the same IR the leading
exit blockage has delivered reduced discharge coefficient in
Fig. 34  Different locations of the pyramid-shaped block within the comparison with perfect film cooling hole.
film hole [92]

Fig. 35  Temperature distribu- Tw(°C)

tion on test plate for different 40.0 44.5 49.0 53.5 58.0 62.5 67.0 71.5 76.0 80.5 85.0

blockage locations on film cool-

ing hole [92] 3
y/d

0
–3
0 4 8 12 16 20
x/d
(a) Perfect case
3 3
y/d

0 0
y/d

–3 –3

0 4 8 12 16 20 0 4 8 12 16 20
x/d
(b)Leading exit (c) Trailing exit
3 3
0
y/d

0
y/d

–3 –3
0 4 8 12 16 20 0 4 8 12 16 20
x/d x/d
(d) Leading middle (e) Trailing middle
3 3
y/d

0 0
y/d

–3 –3
0 4 8 12 16 20 0 4 8 12 16 20
x/d x/d
(f) Leading inlet (g) Trailing inlet

13
 V. G. Krishna Anand, K. M. Parammasivam

Fig. 36  Schematic of simple Z

and compound angle film hole

Y
X

P P

Compound angle hole‑assisted film cooling angle film hole increases with the rise in IR. Aga and Abhari
[104] carried out an experimental investigation to study the
The compound angle film cooling has received consider- FCE and heat transfer effects of cylindrical CA film cooling
able attention over the years, due to its benefits over the hole integrated on the flat test surface model. The result of
simple angle film hole injection [93–98]. The film hole com- the study showed that the CA film hole oriented at 60° and
pound angle (γ) is defined as the angle between the main- 90° has delivered higher spanwise averaged FCE across the
stream flow direction and the film hole axis in the XZ plane lateral axis of the test surface for both low to high IR. Gao
(top view) as shown in Fig. 36. The studies performed on et al. [105] carried out a numerical investigation to analyze
compound angle-assisted FC at different FC surfaces are the performance of the CA film hole embedded on the gas
shown in Table 8. turbine guide vane LE model. The computational domain
Schmidt et al. [99] and Lee et al. [100] performed an used in the study of [105] is shown in Fig. 37.
experimental investigation on a flat surface model with a The schematic of simple and compound angled film holes
shaped compound angle film cooling hole. The results of the at the LE of the guide vane model is shown in Fig. 38. Here,
study conclude that the shaped compound angle (CA) film the term S is the streamwise coordinate from the stagnation
hole has delivered improved FCE at higher IR in comparison line, P is the pitch distance between the film cooling holes,
with a cylindrical compound angle film hole. Nasir et al. and γ is the film hole compound angle. The results of the
[101] performed experimental studies to investigate the FC study showed that − 30° film hole CA has delivered effective
performance of the compound angle FC hole on a flat sur- coolant coverage with better FCE for an IR of 1.4. Li et al.
face model. The results of the investigation showed that the [106] performed experimental studies on a flat surface model
film hole at a larger streamwise angle (55°) and higher CA to investigate the effects of variation of length-to-diameter
(90°) has delivered better FCE and lower HTC on the test (L/D) ratio of a simple and CA film cooling hole. The result
surface. Goldstein and Jin [102] carried out an experimental of the study reported that an L/D ratio of 0.5 and 1 has deliv-
study to investigate the FC performance of the CA film cool- ered higher FCE irrespective of IR and film hole CA.
ing hole. They reported that the compound angle film hole Haydt and Lynch [107] carried out an experimental and
has produced an effective lateral spreading of ejected film numerical study to analyze the aerodynamic and FC charac-
coolant and this in turn has delivered a higher spanwise aver- teristics of the CA film cooling hole integrated on a flat sur-
aged FCE on the test surface. Gao et al. [103] conducted an face model. The results of the study showed that an increase
experimental investigation to analyze the film cooling char- in film hole CA has produced a higher spanwise spreading
acteristics of the gas turbine blade embedded with shaped of film coolant at higher IR and this, in turn, leads to higher
CA film cooling hole at the pressure and suction side. The spanwise averaged FCE. Lower P/D ratio of the CA film
result of the study reported that the shaped CA hole has cooling hole has also produced an effective jet to jet inter-
delivered a better coolant coverage and effectiveness on the action of the ejected film coolant in comparison with the
suction side of the gas turbine model in comparison with higher P/D ratio.
the pressure side. Also, the FCE of the shaped compound

13
 Table 8  Summary of compound angle-assisted film cooling for different film cooling surfaces
Author Type of film cooling surface β/° γ/° D/mm L/D P/D IR TI/% Measurement technique Data type
and surface modification

Schmidt et al. [99] Flat surface with cylindrical 35 60 11.1 4 3 0.5–2.5 0.2 Thermocouple (K-type) Centerline, local and SA FCE
and 15° forward expanded
CA hole
Ekkad et al. [116] Flat surface with cylindrical 35 0, 45, 90 4.75 4.6 4 0.5–2.0 8.5 LCT Heat transfer coefficient
CA hole
Mcgovern and Leylek [117] Flat surface with cylindrical 35 45, 60, 90 11.1 4 3 1.25, 1.88 NA Steady RANS FCE and HTC
CA hole
Nasir et al. [101] Flat surface with cylindrical 55 60 12.7 2.5, 4.9 3 0.5–1.5 11 Unsteady LCT FCE and HTC
CA hole
Goldstein and Jin [102] Flat surface with cylindrical 35 45 6.35 6.3 3 0.5–2.0 0.7 Naphthalene sublimation Mass transfer coefficient and
CA hole technique FCE
Lee et al. [100] Flat surface with shaped CA 35 0, 30, 60 15 4 3 0.5–2.0 < 0.3 Steady LCT LA and SA FCE
hole
Thermal barrier coated surface modifications for gas turbine film cooling: a review

Taslim and Khanicheh [118] Flat surface with cylindrical and 25 45 7.5 8 5.5 0.7–4.0 1 Thermocouple (K-type) RANS Span side averaged FCE
shaped CA hole
Gao et al. [103] High-pressure turbine blade PS 45 45 0.65 9 8.2 0.4–1.5 1.75 PSP Span side averaged FCE
or SS with shaped CA hole
Aga and Abhari [104] Flat surface with cylindrical 30 15, 60, 90 5 4 4 1–2 1 PIV, IR thermography Velocity field, FCE and HTC
CA hole
Sharma and Garg [119] Flat surface with cylindrical 35 0, 30, 45.60 6 1–4 3 0.5 NA Steady RANS LA FCE
CA hole
Gao et al. [105] Guide vane LE model with 30 15, 30, 45 3 6.66 5 0.7–2.0 2 Steady RANS FCE
cylindrical CA hole
Li et al. [106] Flat surface with cylindrical 35 0, 45 3.73 0.5–5.0 5 0.3–2.0 NA PSP LA and AA FCE
CA hole
Haydt and Lynch [107] Flat surface with shaped CA 30 0–60 6.78 6 3 1–4 0.5 IR thermography and steady LA and AA FCE
hole RANS

13
 V. G. Krishna Anand, K. M. Parammasivam

Conclusions
90 Outlet In this paper, the thermal barrier coated surface-modified
Mainsream film cooling methods for the gas turbine components were
220
inlet Secondary reviewed and summarized in detail. Thermal barrier coated
Inlet
surface modification was grouped into three broad catego-
ries, and each group was reviewed in detail for geometric
x
110 and flow parameters, measurement technique, flow charac-
y teristics, and performance parameters. The review also pro-
z
vides an overview of geometric and flow parameters associ-
ated with the compound angle film cooling of gas turbines.
Fig. 37  Model of the computational domain (All dimensions in mm)
[105] (License No. 4715400374526)
The significant findings from this study are:

• The trench surface-modified film cooling method has

secondary inlet delivered an effective film cooling performance on, viz.
leading edge, pressure side, suction side, end wall, and
secondary inlet
flat surface region of the guide vane model and rotor
blade section of the gas turbine.
• The significant geometric parameters of TFC are trench
width and trench depth. The trench width of 2D and
s
trench depth greater than 0.75D has delivered a higher
30° FCE on the test surface.
P • The infrared thermography is the most widely used
10
technique for the surface temperature measurement on
the test surface and a steady RANS method was mostly
employed for the computational investigation of TFC.
(a) • The significant performance parameters of TFC are the
lateral and spatial averaged FCE, heat transfer coefficient,
0° – 15° – 30° and net heat flux reduction parameter.
• The crater-assisted FC has delivered a 50% enhanced
FCE in comparison with a non-cratered configuration
for the flat surface model.
• The crater and trench FC configuration was highly effec-
tive at diminishing the effects of deposition on the pres-
sure side of the guide vane model.
(a) Baeline case ( γ = 0° ) (b) Case ( γ = – 15°) (c) Case ( γ = – 30°) • The significant geometric parameter for RFC is the ramp
–45°
angle, and it has a higher influence on the film cooling
performance of the test surface.
• The curved step model integrated at the upstream loca-
tion of the film cooling hole has delivered higher FCE in
comparison with the straight step model.
• The crescent dune positioned at the upstream location of
– 15° – 30° the film cooling hole has delivered higher FCE in com-
(d) Case ( γ = – 45°) (e) Case ( γ = – 15°) (f) Case ( γ = – 30°) parison with the downstream location. Also, the elon-
gated crescent dune has delivered higher local FCE on
(b) the test surface in comparison with the shorter dune.
• For the flat surface model, the combination of VG and
Fig. 38  Schematic of a Simple angle film hole, b compound angle lower film hole inclination angle (20°) has delivered
film hole at the leading edge of the guide vane [105] (License No.
4715400374526)
higher FCE in comparison with the VG and high film
hole inclination angle (40°).

13
Thermal barrier coated surface modifications for gas turbine film cooling: a review

• The presence of blockage at the leading exit of the film 6. Hardwicke CU, Lau Y. Advances in thermal spray coatings for
cooling hole has delivered a higher FCE in comparison gas turbines and energy generation: a review. J Therm Spray
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pressure drop with lower discharge coefficient and higher related article of manufacture. USA Patent. 2001; Patent No. US
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surface model without surface modification. The shaped Patent No. US 6383602 B1.
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via. flow aligned blockers. USA Patent. 2011; Patent No. US
the suction side of the guide vane model in comparison 8066478 B1.
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cooling performance of the flat surface model. verse trench with various trench configurations. J Turbomach.
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