EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS OF FLOW AND FILM

COOLING WITH ENDWALL CONTOURING AND BLADE TIP

EJECTION UNDER ROTATING TURBINE CONDITIONS

A Dissertation

by

MOHSEN REZASOLTANI

Submitted to the Office of Graduate and Professional Studies of

Texas A&M University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Chair of Committee, Meinhard Taher Schobeiri

Co-Chair of Committee, Je-Chin Han
Committee Members, Robert A. Handler
Hamn-Ching Chen
Head of Department, Andreas A. Polycrapou

December 2015

Major Subject: Mechanical Engineering

Copyright 2015 Mohsen Rezasoltani

 ABSTRACT

Very limited experimental data is available for aerodynamic and film cooling

effectiveness under rotating condition in the literature. As a result, there is a strong need

to study in detail and discover essential features of turbine platform and blade tip film

cooling under engine representative flow and rotating conditions. This dissertation deals

with the specific heat transfer and aerodynamics problematic inherent to high pressure

(HP) turbine sections.

Major efficiency improvement has been achieved by introducing a completely

new endwall contouring technology which decreases the strength of the secondary flow

vortices. Efficiency measurements show for the contoured rotor a maximum efficiency

of 89.9% compared to the reference non-contoured case of 𝜂𝑡−𝑠 = 88.86%. This is an

efficiency increase of 𝜂𝑡−𝑠 = 1.04%.

The new method of endwall contouring not only has improved the turbine

aerodynamic efficiency but it also has substantially improved the film cooling

effectiveness of the contoured endwall. The film cooling experiments were carried out

using pressure sensitive paint (PSP) measurement technique. Measurements were

conducted for three coolant-to-mainstream mass flow ratios (MFR) of 0.5%, 1.0% and

1.5%. Film cooling data is also obtained for three rotational speeds, 3000 rpm (reference

condition), 2550 rpm and 2400 rpm and they are compared with non-contoured endwall

ii
data. For 3000 rpm two more coolant to mainstream mass flow ratio of 0.75% and

1.25% are performed to have a better view of how film cooling effectiveness is

changing. Comparing experimental results of the film cooling effectiveness

investigations of the contoured case with the reference non-contoured case, clearly

shows the improving effect of contouring on film cooling effectiveness for all cases

investigated in this report.

Four different blade tip ejection configurations were utilized to determine the

impact of the hole arrangements on the film cooling effectiveness. plane tip with tip hole

cooling, squealer tip with tip hole cooling, plane tip with pressure-side-edge compound

angle hole cooling and squealer tip with pressure-side-edge compound angle hole

cooling. To avoid rotor imbalance, every pair is installed radially. Film cooling

effectiveness measurements were performed for three blowing ratios (M) of 0.75, 1.25

and 1.75. Film cooling data was also obtained for three rotational speeds; 3000 rpm

(reference condition), 2550 rpm and 2000 rpm. Film cooling measurements were

performed using pressure sensitive paint (PSP) technique.

The experimental investigations were performed in the three-stage multi-purpose

turbine research facility at the Turbomachinery Performance and Flow Research

Laboratory (TPFL), Texas A&M University.

iii
 DEDICATION

I dedicate my dissertation to my father, Hossein, who is fighting against bone

marrow cancer for six years. I couldn’t have gotten here without his encouragement and

love. I love you dad. Keep fighting and BTHO cancer.

I also dedicate this work to my best friend Hoda, the kindest wife, and my

wonderful son Rosstin for being there for me. <3 <3

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank my committee chair, Dr. Schobeiri, my committee co-chair,

Dr. Han, and my committee members, Dr. Handlers, and Dr. Chen, for their guidance

and support throughout the course of this research.

Thanks also go to my friends and colleagues and the department faculty and staff

for making my time at Texas A&M University a great experience. I also want to extend

my gratitude to Toshiba International Corp. by donating a 350 HP VFD to the

Turbomachinery Performance and Flow Research Laboratory (TPFL).

Finally, thanks to my mother and father for their encouragement and to my wife

for her patience and love.

v
 NOMENCLATURE

C Oxygen concentration

Cx Axial chord length of the rotor blade (Cx=4.16 cm)

D Mass Diffusion Coefficient (𝑚2 /𝑠)

f (Pratio) Relation between intensity ratio and pressure ratio

G Mass flux (𝑘𝑔/𝑚2 − 𝑠)

I Pixel intensity for an image

LE Leading edge of the blade

M Average blowing ratio ( =cVc /mW2)

MFR Mass Flow Ratio (% of mainstream core flow)

Mr Relative Mach number

PS Pressure Surface

SS Suction Surface

Tc Stator-Rotor gap Coolant temperature (K)

Tf Local film temperature (K)

T temperature (K)

U Tangential average velocity (m/s)

V Average absolute velocity of mainstream air (m/s)

Vu Tangential component of absolute velocity (m/s)

vi
W Relative average velocity of mainstream air (m/s)

PO 2 Partial pressure of oxygen

Pt Total pressure (Pa)

Ptr Relative total pressure (Pa)

Vc Avg. velocity of coolant air from the stator-rotor gap (m/s)

DR Coolant-to-mainstream density ratio

MW Molecular weight of gas

Re Reynolds number, 𝑉2 𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑑/𝜈

Greek symbols

α Absolute velocity flow angle (°)

β Relative velocity flow angle (°)

 Local film-cooling effectiveness

𝜈 Kinematic viscosity

 Density (𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 )

ηt-s total-to-static efficiency

𝛼𝐷 Thermal diffusivity (𝑚2 /𝑠)

𝜖 Turbulent diffusivity

𝜔 Turbine rotational speed (rad/s)

vii
Subscripts

∞ Pertaining to mainstream (outside film)

air Mainstream air along with air as coolant

aw Adiabatic Wall

mix Mainstream air along with nitrogen as coolant

ref Reference image with no mainstream and coolant flow

blk Image without illumination (black)

C Coolant

m Mainstream

M Pertaining to mass transfer

X Pertaining to x co-ordinate direction

Y Pertaining to y co-ordinate direction

viii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................ii

DEDICATION ..................................................................................................................iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................... v

NOMENCLATURE ..........................................................................................................vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................ix

LIST OF FIGURES ..........................................................................................................xii

LIST OF TABLES ..........................................................................................................xix

1. INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................... 1

1.1. Turbine Aerodynamic Research .......................................................................... 1

1.2. Endwall Contouring Research ............................................................................. 4
1.3. Endwall Film Cooling Research ......................................................................... 8
1.4. Blade Tip Film Cooling Research ..................................................................... 12
2. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES ...................................................................................... 17

2.1. Contoured Endwall Aerodynamics Performance .............................................. 17

2.2. Endwall Film Cooling Effectiveness Measurement .......................................... 18
2.3. Turbine Blade Tip Film Cooling Effectiveness ................................................ 18
3. EXPERIMENTAL FACILITY .................................................................................. 20

3.1. Interstage Instrumentation ................................................................................. 21

3.2. Five Hole Probe Calibration Facility ................................................................ 24
3.3. New Turbine Component Design ...................................................................... 27
3.3.1. New Ring with Endwall Contouring ..................................................... 27
3.3.2. Blade Tip Geometry ..............................................................................31
3.3.3. Cooling Loops ....................................................................................... 33
4. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE ............................................................................ 37

4.1. Aerodynamic Measurement Theory and Analysis ............................................ 37

4.1.1. Five Hole Probe Calibration ..................................................................44
4.2. Film-Cooling Effectiveness Measurement Theory and Data Analysis ............. 48

ix
 Page

4.2.1. Mass Transfer Analogy Methods .......................................................... 48

4.2.2. PSP Technique ...................................................................................... 51
4.2.3. Film Cooling Effectiveness Measurement Using PSP .......................... 56
4.2.4. Experimental Procedure for Endwall Film Cooling .............................. 61
4.2.5. Experimental Procedure for Blade Tip Film Cooling ........................... 63
4.2.6. Uncertainty Calculations .......................................................................63

5. ENDWALL FILM-COOLING RESULTS ................................................................ 65

5.1. Mass Flow Ratio Effect ..................................................................................... 65

5.2. Contouring Effect .............................................................................................. 66
5.3. Variation of Rotating Conditions ...................................................................... 69
5.4. Pitch-wise Average Film Cooling Effectiveness .............................................. 72
5.5. Influence of Coolant Density on Contoured Endwall Film-cooling ................. 76

6. BLADE TIP COOLING MEASUREMENTS ........................................................... 79

6.1. Blowing Ratio Effect ......................................................................................... 79

6.1.1. Plane Tip with Tip Hole Cooling .......................................................... 80
6.1.2. Squealer Tip with Tip Hole Cooling ..................................................... 84
6.1.3. Plane Tip with Pressure-side-edge Compound Angle Hole Cooling ....87
6.1.4. Squealer Tip with Pressure-side-edge Compound Angle Hole
Cooling .................................................................................................. 89
6.2. Effect of Rotation Speed Change ...................................................................... 90
6.2.1. Plane Tip with Tip Hole Cooling .......................................................... 91
6.2.2. Squealer Tip with Tip Hole Cooling ..................................................... 92
6.2.3. Plane Tip with Pressure-Side-Edge Compound Angle Hole Cooling...94
6.2.4. Squealer Tip with Pressure-side-edge Compound Angle Hole
Cooling .................................................................................................. 96
6.3. Comparison of Computational and Experimental Results ................................ 97
6.4. Pitch-wise Average Film Cooling Effectiveness .............................................. 99

7. AERODYNAMIC FLOW MEASUREMENT ........................................................ 106

7.1. Interstage Results ............................................................................................ 108

7.1.1. Contour plots ....................................................................................... 110
7.1.2. Radial Pitchwise Averaged Distribution .............................................116
7.2. Performance Results ........................................................................................ 125

8. CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................ 130

8.1. Aerodynamic Flow Measurement ................................................................... 130

8.2. Contoured Endwall Film Cooling Effectiveness ............................................. 131
x
 Page

8.3. Blade Tip Cooling ........................................................................................... 132

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... 135

APPENDIX A INTERSTAGE RESULTS .................................................................... 152

APPENDIX B PSP UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS ....................................................... 165

APPENDIX C PSP MEASUREMENTS PROBLEMS ................................................. 167

xi
 LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 1: Turbine cascade vortex flow pattern by Langston [4] .......................................... 3

Figure 2: Tip leakage vortices at the tip and hub endwall in rotor blades [2] ...................... 4

Figure 3: Failure of the first stage blade of GE-F5 [25] ....................................................... 9

Figure 4: The overall layout of TPFL-research turbine facility ......................................... 21

Figure 5: TPFL Turbine component and instrumentations [55] ......................................... 23

Figure 6: Turbine cross section view of interstage instrumentation ................................... 24

Figure 7: Facility for calibrating five-hole probes and hot-wire [2] ................................... 26

Figure 8: Place the probe tip in the center of the exiting jet ............................................... 27

Figure 9: Turbine components with showing stator cavity and gap ................................... 28

Figure 10: Position of the circumferential gap for ejection of purge flow and
extension of the contouring upstream of second rotor .................................... 29

Figure 11: Variation of contour depth along the suction surface to obtain the best
endwall contouring efficiency [55] ................................................................. 29

Figure 12: Non-contoured (top), new contouring method (bottom) [8, 55] ....................... 30

Figure 13: Four different rotor blade tip configurations: Plain tip with tip hole
cooling (red), Plain tip with pressure-side-edge compound angle hole
cooling (green), squealer tip with tip hole cooling (yellow) and squealer
tip with pressure-side-edge compound angle hole cooling (blue) [49] ........... 32

xii
 Page

Figure 14: Detailed geometry of blade tips: (a) plane tip with tip hole cooling; (b)
squealer tip with tip hole cooling; (c) plane tip with pressure-side-edge
compound angle hole cooling; (d) squealer tip with pressure-side-edge
compound angle hole cooling [56] .................................................................. 33

Figure 15: Section view of the modified stator-rotor turbine assembly for stator-rotor
purge flow and platform film cooling [49, 57] ................................................ 34

Figure 16: Detailed view of the stator-rotor gap design [27] ............................................. 34

Figure 17: Schematic of the blade tip film cooling system [49]......................................... 35

Figure 18: Measuring methods with five-hole probe ......................................................... 38

Figure 19: Example of traversing system for non-nulling method in a research

turbine [2] ........................................................................................................ 39

Figure 20: Process of finding 3 components of velocity vector ......................................... 41

Figure 21: Process of calculating the flow angles and static and total pressure in
improved calibration method ........................................................................... 42

Figure 22: Three components of velocity vectors [2] ......................................................... 44

Figure 23: Calibration curves for probe installed at station 3 ............................................ 45

Figure 24: Calibration curves for probe installed at station 4 ............................................ 46

Figure 25: Calibration curves for probe installed at station 5 ............................................ 47

Figure 26: Measurement of film cooling effectiveness using the heat/mass transfer
analogy [68] ..................................................................................................... 50

Figure 27: Principle of operation of PSP ............................................................................ 52

Figure 28: Emission spectra of UniFIB PSP (www.psp-tsp.com)...................................... 55

xiii
 Page

Figure 29: PSP calibration setup......................................................................................... 58

Figure 30: PSP calibration curve ........................................................................................ 58

Figure 31: calculating film cooling effectiveness by using two coolants alternatively ...... 59

Figure 32: Optical set-up for endwall film cooling using PSP [27] ................................... 61

Figure 33: Optical set-up for blade tip film cooling using PSP .......................................... 62

Figure 34: Film cooling effectiveness distribution on the contoured rotating platform
for 3000 rpm .................................................................................................... 66

Figure 35: Comparison of film cooling effectiveness distribution on the contoured

and non-contoured rotating platform for 3000 rpm ......................................... 67

Figure 36: Film cooling effectiveness distribution on the contoured and non-
contoured rotating platform for 2550 rpm ....................................................... 68

Figure 37: Film cooling effectiveness distribution on the contoured and non-
contoured rotating platform for 2400 rpm ....................................................... 69

Figure 38: Velocity triangles and relative inlet and exit flow angles for design speed
and off-design rotating speeds [27] ................................................................. 71

Figure 39: Pitch-wise average film cooling effectiveness distribution along axial
chord for different rpms (Blowing ratio for MFR=0.5%, 1.0% and 1.5%
are M=0.372, 0.744, and 1.116 respectively) .................................................. 73

Figure 40: Pitch-wise average film cooling effectiveness distribution along axial
chord for different MFRs................................................................................. 74

Figure 41: Total average film cooling effectiveness for different rpms ............................. 75

Figure 42: Film cooling effectiveness distribution at two different density ratios at
3000 rpm and MFR=1% .................................................................................. 77

xiv
 Page

Figure 43: Pitch-wise average film cooling effectiveness distribution for two
different coolant at 3000 rpm, MFR=1% ........................................................ 78

Figure 44: Film cooling effectiveness measured for plane tip with tip hole cooling at
3000 rpm .......................................................................................................... 80

Figure 45: Streamlines based on the relative velocity (CFD results) at 3000 rpm
(blue indicates cooling air, red is freestream air) for plane tip with tip
hole cooling [56, 57]........................................................................................ 82

Figure 46: Distribution of the static pressure (CFD results) at plane tip with tip hole
cooling [56, 57] ............................................................................................... 83

Figure 47: Film cooling effectiveness measured for plane tip with tip hole cooling at
3000 rpm .......................................................................................................... 84

Figure 48: Streamlines based on the relative velocity (CFD results) at 3000 rpm
(blue indicates cooling air, red is freestream air) for squealer tip with tip
hole cooling [56, 57]........................................................................................ 85

Figure 49: Distribution of the static pressure (CFD results) at squealer tip with tip
hole cooling [56, 57]........................................................................................ 86

Figure 50: Film cooling effectiveness measured for plane tip with pressure side hole
cooling at 3000 rpm ......................................................................................... 87

Figure 51: Streamlines based on the relative velocity (CFD results) at 3000 rpm
(blue indicates cooling air) for plane tip with pressure side hole cooling
[56, 57] ............................................................................................................ 88

Figure 52: Film cooling effectiveness measured for squealer tip with pressure side
hole cooling at 3000 rpm ................................................................................. 89

Figure 53: Streamlines based on the relative velocity (CFD results) at 3000 rpm
(blue indicates cooling air) for squealer tip with pressure side hole
cooling [56, 57] ............................................................................................... 90

xv
 Page

Figure 54: Effect of rotation on film cooling effectiveness measured for M=1.25 for
plane tip with tip hole cooling ......................................................................... 91

Figure 55: Streamlines based on the relative velocity (CFD results) at different rpm
(blue indicates cooling air, red is freestream air)- plane tip with tip hole
cooling [56, 57]. .............................................................................................. 92

Figure 56: Effect of rotation on film cooling effectiveness measured for M=1.25 for
squealer tip with tip hole cooling .................................................................... 93

Figure 57: Streamlines based on the relative velocity (CFD results) at different rpm
(blue indicates cooling air, red is freestream air) - squealer tip with tip
hole cooling [56, 57]........................................................................................ 94

Figure 58: Effect of rotation on film cooling effectiveness measured for M=1.25 for
plane tip with PS hole cooling ......................................................................... 95

Figure 59: Distribution of the static pressure (CFD results) at plane tip with PS hole
cooling [56, 57] ............................................................................................... 95

Figure 60: Streamlines based on the relative velocity (CFD results) at different rpm
(blue indicates cooling air) - plane tip with PS hole cooling [56, 57] ............. 96

Figure 61: Distribution of the static pressure (CFD results) at squealer tip with PS
hole cooling [56, 57]........................................................................................ 96

Figure 62: Effect of rotation on film cooling effectiveness measured for M=1.25 for
squealer tip with PS hole cooling .................................................................... 97

Figure 63: Streamlines based on the relative velocity (CFD results) at different rpm
(blue indicates cooling air) - squealer tip with PS hole cooling [56, 57] ........ 97

Figure 64: Comparison of CFD results (top row) and experimental results (bottom
row) at 3000 rpm, M=1.25. (a, e) plane tip with tip hole cooling, (b, f)
squealer tip with tip hole cooling, (c, g) plane tip with PS hole cooling
and (d, h) squealer tip with PS hole cooling [56, 57] ..................................... 98

xvi
 Page

Figure 65: Pitch-wise average film cooling effectiveness measured for four different
configurations - different blowing ratio at 3000 rpm .................................... 100

Figure 66: Pitch-wise average film cooling effectiveness measured for four different
configurations - different rpm at M=1.25 ...................................................... 101

Figure 67. Area-averaged film cooling effectiveness versus blowing ratio at the
blade tip region .............................................................................................. 103

Figure 68. Area-averaged film cooling effectiveness versus rotational speed at the
blade tip region at M=1.25 ............................................................................ 104

Figure 69: simple blade vortex transport model by [86] .................................................. 107

Figure 70: Turbine cross section (Schobeiri et al. [53] and [54]) ..................................... 109

Figure 71: Angular position of the five-hole probes at station 3, 4, and 5 [54] ............... 110

Figure 72: Contour plots of rotor exit flow (α, β, Ptr, Pt, γ and M) at station 3 ............... 111

Figure 73: Contour plots of stator exit flow α, β, Ptr, Pt, γ and M at station 4 ................. 113

Figure 74: Contour plots of rotor exit flow α, β, Ptr, Pt, γ and M at station 5 .................. 115

Figure 75: Radial pitchwise averaged distribution of the absolute flow angle ................. 117

Figure 76: Radial pitchwise averaged distribution of meridian angle .............................. 117

Figure 77: Radial pitchwise averaged distribution of the absolute Mach number at
3000 rpm ........................................................................................................118

Figure 78: Radial pitchwise averaged distribution of the relative velocity ...................... 119

Figure 79: Radial distribution of the axial velocity at 3000 rpm ...................................... 120

Figure 80: Radial distribution of static pressure at 3000 rpm .......................................... 120
xvii
 Page

Figure 81: Radial distribution of the total pressure at 3000 rpm ...................................... 121

Figure 82: Temperature measurement at each stator ........................................................ 123

Figure 83: Total pressure loss coefficient at 3000 rpm .................................................... 124

Figure 84: Measured total-to-static efficiency as a function of u/co ................................ 126

Figure 85: Measured turbine mass flow as a function of rotational speed with the
purge mass flow ratio MFR as a parameter ................................................... 127

Figure 86: Measured turbine efficiency as a function of rotational speed with the
purge mass flow ratio MFR as a parameter ................................................... 128

Figure 87: Measured turbine pressure ratio as a function of u/co with the purge mass
flow ratio MFR as a parameter ...................................................................... 128

Figure 88: Measured turbine efficiency as a function of u/co with the purge mass
flow ratio MFR as a parameter ...................................................................... 129

xviii
 LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 1: Turbine dimensions and operating conditions ................................................... 21

xix
 1. INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW*

1.1. Turbine Aerodynamic Research

Improvements in instrumentation and measurement techniques lead to regularly

updated, more accurate findings in the field of aerodynamic measurement and analysis

of gas turbines. These findings allow design engineers to design machines that have

greater efficiencies. Secondary flow in the rotor tip and hub region is a major source of

inefficiency in turbomachines. This flow generates vortices that induce drag forces,

reducing the total pressure of the mainstream. Mainstream flow near the hub is also

negatively impacted by the low energy boundary layer flow as well as cross flow across

the blade pressure and suction surfaces on the rotor hub. Mitigation of these losses could

increase efficiency, resulting in large energy savings. However, the 3-D nature of these

secondary flow factors makes measurement difficult and complicated. Nevertheless,

researchers have made several attempts to measure and quantify characteristics of these

secondary flows in order to understand how they affect turbine performance.

*
Part of the materials are reprinted with permission from “A Combined Experimental and
Numerical Study of the Turbine Blade Tip Film Cooling Effectiveness under Rotation Condition” by
Mohsen Rezasoltani, Kun Lu, Meinhard T. Schobeiri and Je-Chin Han, J. Turbomach. 2015; 137(5),
Copyright © 2015 by ASME, and “Experimental Investigation of the Effect of Purge Flow on Film
Cooling Effectiveness on a Rotating Turbine With Non-Axisymmetric Endwall Contouring,” by M.
Rezasoltani, M. T. Schobeiri and J. C. Han, J. Turbomach. 2014; 136(9), GT2013-94807, Copyright ©
2014 by ASME.
1
 The secondary flow and its impact on efficiency and performance of turbine

components are described extensively by Lakshminarayana [1] and Schobeiri [2]. As

explained in detail by Schobeiri [2] turbomachinery losses can be divided into endwall

or secondary losses, profile losses and leakage losses. Profile loss is considered loss

effects due to boundary layer development on suction and pressure surfaces of the blade

in question. Analyses for profile loss often assume a primarily two dimensional flow,

and losses at the trailing edge are often included into the profile loss category. Endwall

losses are commonly referred to as secondary flow losses and arise due to secondary

flows generated as the annulus boundary layers in the blade passage. Tip leakage losses

arise from leakage type flows across the blade tip for a rotor or stator hub, and depend

on whether the blades utilize shrouds or do not. Leakage flows as stated by [3] interact

strongly with the secondary flow patterns in the passage, thus it is generally considered

that there is large degree interplay between the various types of losses encountered in

turbomachinery.

Denton [3] gave an overview of the effects of different flow mechanisms

including the secondary flow on turbomachinery losses. The platform surface is

characterized by a highly complex 3-D flow due to the viscous nature of the mainstream

hot gases. A detailed model of the different types of vortices generated and the nature of

the secondary flow on the platform surface has been put forth by several people in the

past (Langston et al. [4], Goldstein and Spores [5], Sieverding et al. [6], and Wang et al.

[7]). The measured flow pattern observed by Langston [4] is shown in Figure 1.

2
 Figure 1: Turbine cascade vortex flow pattern by Langston [4]

The mechanism of formation of the tip leakage in the gap over unshrouded rotor

blades and its further development in the blade-to-blade passage is illustrated in Figure

2. The driving force for this type of leakage is the pressure difference that is formed over

the blade tip between the pressure and suction surface of the blade. Due to a usually

significant pressure gradient, the leakage stream is largely accelerated in the tip gap. The

cross-flow blocked by the development of the tip leakage vortex also separates from the

endwall and rolls up into a passage vortex. The stream dividing line between the tip

leakage and cross-passage flow lies at the pressure side of the blade tip.

3
 Tip clearance
vortices

Tip-endwall
vortices

PS SS

Hub-endwall
Corner vortices
vortices

Figure 2: Tip leakage vortices at the tip and hub endwall in rotor blades [2]

1.2. Endwall Contouring Research

Focusing on the secondary flow loss mechanisms, the fluid particles within the

endwall boundary layers are exposed to a pitchwise pressure gradient in the blade

channel. The particles move from the pressure side to the suction side and generate a

system of vortices. These vortices induce drag forces that are the cause of the secondary

flow losses. In addition, their interaction with the main flow causes angle deviation

inside and outside the blade channel, resulting in additional losses due to angle deviation

[8].

4
 The secondary flow loss is almost inversely proportional to the aspect ratio [2].

Thus, in HP-turbines with small aspect ratios, the secondary flow loss of almost 40-50%

is the major loss contributor. It can be reduced by introducing the following measures:

1) Three-dimensional compound lean design [9]

2) Special design for turbines that are subjected to extreme off-design incidence

change [10]

3) Modification of the blade leading edge using fillets [11]

4) Endwall contouring [12, 13]

5) Hub cooling mass flow injection to interact with the hub secondary flow

6) Blade tip cooling ejection to reduce the tip secondary flow losses

In recent years, numerous papers have been published that deal with the effect of

endwall contouring and leading edge filleting. With a few exceptions of rotating rig

investigations that deal with the endwall contouring of LP-turbines, most of the

published studies are either numerically or experimentally performed in turbine cascades

with steady inlet flow conditions. Numerical and experimental studies by [12], [13], [14]

and [11] show a reduction of total pressure losses by as much as 50%.

Cascade Endwall: The papers discussed in this section represent a few among

many that are dealing with the impact of endwall contouring on turbine endwall

secondary flow.

Experimental and numerical cascade flow study by Ingram et al. [13] showed the

influence of end-wall profiling. Streamline curvature method was used to reduce the
5
local static pressure. The best end-wall profile tested has shown a 24% reduction in the

secondary loss. Further investigations by Ingram et al. [15] designed a new ‘aggressive’

profiling of the endwall to produce a large reduction in loss possible. However, the

experimental results, showed an increase of secondary flow loss. Saha and Acharya [16]

combined two curves, one that varies in the streamwise direction while the other varies

in the pitchwise direction. They created several contoured end-walls by varying the

streamwise variation keeping the pitchwise curve constant. The results show that the

contoured end-wall can reduce the secondary flow by decreasing radial pressure

gradient.

Praisner et al. [17] studied the application of non-axisymmetric endwall

contouring to mitigate the endwall losses of front- and aft loaded turbine blades. With

flat endwalls, the front-loaded design showed significantly higher secondary losses than

the aft-loaded and the reference conventional blades. To contour the endwall they used

two-dimensional cubic splines in both pitch- and stream-wise directions along the

endwall. The predicted loss reduction for the front loaded airfoil design was at 12%

while the measured loss reduction was twice as high at 25%. The predicted and

measured loss reductions for the reference blade were 4% and 10% respectively while a

5% row-loss reduction was predicted for the aft-loaded blade. The comparison between

the CFD and experiments reveals that, while the CFD calculations predict the trends of

flow modifications with endwall contouring, they lack a significant level of accuracy for

individual flow features such as the passage vortex. Harvey et al. [18] and Hartland, et

6
al. [19] modified the endwall for the large-scale, low-speed rotor profile in a linear

cascade. The endwall surface was created by the product of two curves in axial and

circumferential directions. The axial profile was defined by a B-spline curve through six

control points. The first three terms in the Fourier series were used to produce the

perturbations in the circumferential direction. They reported a measured net total loss

reduction by 20% and the net secondary loss by 30%. The CFD losses show little

change. The experimental data show mixed-out losses, where the reductions with the

profiled endwall were 15% in net total loss and 34% in secondary loss.

Rotating Turbine: In contrast to the tremendous multitude of the cascade endwall

papers, from which only a few have been discussed above, there are only a few

investigations of the impact on endwall contouring in rotating turbines. Brennan et al.

[20] redesigned the HP turbine of the Rolls-Royce Trent 500 engine with the application

of non-axisymmetric endwalls. The profiled end-wall shape was determined by six

control stations which were fixed at specified axial distances along the mean camber line

of the airfoil. The addition of profiling to the end-walls of the HP Turbine is predicted to

reduce secondary loss by 0.24% of the NGV and by 0.16% for the Rotor. The total

improvement in stage efficiency for the HP Turbine is therefore +0.4%.

Harvey et al. [21] redesigned the IP-turbine stage by applying non-axisymmetric

endwalls to both the vane and blade passages. They reported an improvement in the

stage efficiency of 0.9 ± 0.4% at the design point. Germain et al. [22] studied the

improvement of efficiency of a one-and-half stage high work axial flow turbine by non-

7
axisymmetric endwall contouring. The endwalls have been designed using automatic

numerical optimization by means of a Sequential Quadratic Programming (SQP)

algorithm. Both hub and tip endwalls of the first stator as well as the hub endwall of the

rotor were modified. The experimental results confirm the improvement of turbine

efficiency, showing a total-to-total stage efficiency benefit of 1%±0.4%, while the

improvement is underestimated by CFD. Snedden et al. [23, 24] utilized 5-hole probe

measurements in a 1.5 stage low speed, model turbine in conjunction with computational

fluid dynamics to gain a more detailed understanding of the influence of a generic

endwall design. Results indicated a 0.4% improvement in total-to-total rotor and stage

efficiency as a result of the application of the generic non-axisymmetric endwall

contouring. However, at higher loading the rotor efficiency was reduced by 0.5%.

1.3. Endwall Film Cooling Research

Over the past five decades, the thermal efficiency of gas turbine engines has been

continuously rising as a result of an increased turbine inlet temperature. In pursuit of

higher thermal efficiencies, gas turbines are operated at 1st stage inlet temperatures

around 1500˚C resulting in excessive thermal stresses on the turbine components.

Continuous operation under high turbine inlet temperatures enhances the possibility of

thermal failure of the hot gas path components [25]. Also, the non-uniform temperature

profile of the gas exiting the combustion chambers further exposes the rotor platform to

higher temperatures requiring effective thermal protection [26]. Figure 3 shows the

appearance of the failed blades.

8
 Figure 3: Failure of the first stage blade of GE-F5 [25]

Film cooling is an external cooling technique commonly used in conjunction

with internal cooling to protect the turbine components from the mainstream hot gas. In

film cooling, a portion of the coolant used for internal cooling is ejected through slots or

discrete holes over the surface of the components that need thermal protection. The

coolant thus ejected displaces the mainstream boundary layer creating a protective film

on the surface of the exposed component. This isolates the hot mainstream gas from the

metal surface and considerably decreases the magnitude of the temperatures the hot gas

path components encounter.

Film cooling as an external cooling technique is also used to protect the hub

platform from the mainstream hot gas. In this case, a portion of the secondary air stream

used for rotor disc cooling is ejected through a circumferential gap over the surface of

9
the hub platform that needs thermal protection. The ejected coolant creates a protective

film on the surface of the exposed platform. This isolates the hot mainstream gas from

the metal platform surface and considerably decreases the magnitude of the platform

temperatures. Due to the complex nature of experimental setup and data acquisition from

a rotating rig platform, studies of the effect of purge flow on the platform film cooling

effectiveness has been very rare. Using a three-stage research turbine with two

independent cooling loops, Suryanarayanan et al. [27, 28] investigated the rotational

effects of the purge flow on the hub platform film cooling effectiveness. Using the PSP

measurement technique, the investigation reported in [27, 28] details the effects of the

purge flow under rotating condition on the platform cooling effectiveness. Increasing the

rotational speed from 1500 rpm to 2550 rpm increased the magnitude of local film

cooling effectiveness for upstream stator-rotor gap injection. Also it was concluded that,

as the coolant to mass flow ratio (MFR) of upstream injection was increased from 0.5%

to 2.00%, the effectiveness magnitude and distribution on the platform surface increased.

The coolant, from the upstream slot affected by the inlet flow incidence and passage

vortex, tended to concentrate close to the blade suction side of the platform. The purge

flow alone, however, did not provide sufficient film protection on the downstream

region and along the pressure surface on the rotor platform for the coolant to mass flow

ratios tested. To shield the downstream region and understand the effects of rotation on

downstream hole coolant injection, the report presented in [27] focuses on measuring

film cooling effectiveness on the first stage rotor platform of the same three-stage

10
research turbine using nine discrete film cooling holes for three rotational speeds and

several blowing ratios. In addition, film cooling tests were also conducted with

simultaneous upstream stator-rotor gap. The experiments were conducted using the PSP

measurement technique.

As reported in the above studies, the experiments were performed on non-

contoured endwalls. In contrast to a variety of published papers dealing with steady

cascade purge flow effects, there are only a few papers that deal with the purge flow

effect in conjunction with endwall contouring. Schuepbach et al. [29] and Jenny et al.

[30] presented studies that contain experimental and computational data of a 1.5-stage

high work axial turbine. In [29], the authors investigate the influence of purge flow on

the performance of two different non-axisymmetric endwall and the axisymmetric

baseline case. They indicate that the experimental total-to-total efficiency assessment

reveals that the non-axisymmetric endwalls lose some of their benefit relative to the

baseline case when purge is increased. The first endwall design loses 50% of the

efficiency improvement seen with low suction, while the second endwall design exhibits

34% deterioration. The subsequent paper [30] presents an experimental and

computational study of non-axisymmetric rotor endwall profiling in a low pressure

turbine. According to the authors, the measured efficiency revealed a strong sensitivity

of the total-to-total efficiency to purge flow. The experiments showed that an efficiency

deficit of 1.3% per injected percent of purge flow for the shrouded low-pressure turbine

11
configuration with profiled endwalls investigated. The experiments revealed an 18%

reduction of sensitivity to purge flow due to the endwall profiling.

1.4. Blade Tip Film Cooling Research

Turbine blade tip and near tip regions are typically difficult to cool, and are

subjected to potential damage due to high thermal loads. For the unshrouded blade,

failure of the blade tip is caused mainly by hot tip leakage flow entrained in the tip

clearance. The leakage flow accelerates due to a pressure difference between both the

pressure and suction sides of the blade, causing thin boundary layers, high heat transfer

rates, and low turbine efficiency. It has been recognized that the blade tip geometry and

subsequent tip leakage flows have a significant effect on the aerodynamic efficiency of

turbines. Hence, state-of-the-art cooling techniques must be developed and utilized on

the blade tip to avoid blade failure due to the heavy thermal loads. Presence of film

cooling on the tip further reduces heat transfer from the mainstream gas to the blade tip.

A comprehensive compilation of the available cooling techniques used in the Gas

Turbine industry has been encapsulated by Han et al. [26] in their book.

Film cooling is an external cooling technique commonly used in conjunction

with internal cooling to protect the turbine components from the mainstream hot gas. In

film cooling, a portion of the coolant used for internal cooling is ejected through slots or

discrete holes over the surface of the components that need thermal protection. The

coolant thus ejected displaces the mainstream boundary layer creating a protective film

on the surface of the exposed component. This isolates the hot mainstream gas from the

12
metal surface and considerably decreases the magnitude of the temperatures the hot gas

path components encounter.

Understanding the complex mechanism of heat transfer on the turbine blade tips

is a prerequisite for effectively designing the blade tip cooling systems. Metzger et al.

[31] used a narrow slot-type channel with one of the bounding walls containing a

transverse rectangular cavity to model the grooved turbine blade tips. A general

reduction of overall heat transfer on the cavity floor was observed as the cavity depth

was increased.

Recently, more researchers have shown interest in the film cooling on turbine

blade tips. Kim and Metzger [32] developed an experimental approach to model and

measure the heat transfer on turbine blade tips with film cooling. Kim et al. [33]

continued the experimental work presented in [32] to study the effects of film cooling on

the turbine blade tip heat transfer. The results indicated that the blade tip geometry and

injection locations significantly affect the film cooling performance. Bunker [34]

provided a comprehensive review and summary of the blade tip heat transfer based on

the early public fundamental studies. Azad et al. [35, 36] experimentally investigated the

heat transfer coefficient and static pressure distributions on gas turbine blades with plane

and squealer tips installed in a five-bladed linear cascade. All measurements were

conducted with tip gap clearances of 1%, 1.5% and 2.5% of the blade span. The results

showed that a larger tip gap leads to a stronger heat transfer process. Bunker and Ameri

et al. [37, 38] performed comprehensive experimental and numerical studies to

13
investigate the heat transfer on the first-stage blade tip for a large power generation

turbine. The detailed distribution of heat transfer coefficients was reported for different

tip geometries at various inlet turbulence intensity levels.

Kwak and Han [39] measured the heat transfer coefficients and film effectiveness

on a gas turbine blade plane tip with film cooling holes along the camber line and near

the tip region of the pressure-side. They found that both the heat transfer coefficient and

film effectiveness increased as the tip clearance increased. Meanwhile, increasing the

blowing ratio would increase the film cooling effectiveness but decrease the heat transfer

coefficient. Kwak and Han [40] also performed similar measurements on the squealer tip

with a 4.22% recess of a gas turbine blade. Adiabatic effectiveness for turbine blades

with cooling holes placed along the pressure side tip as well as dirt purge holes placed

on the tip was measured by Christophel et al. [41]. Gao et al. [42] experimentally studied

the effect of inlet flow angle on film cooling effectiveness for a cutback squealer blade

tip under average blowing ratios of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 2.0. The coolant jet direction and

hence the cooling effectiveness was altered when the incidence angle was changed.

However, the flow angles had no significant effect on the area-averaged film cooling

effectiveness. Park et al. [43] measured the heat transfer coefficients and film cooling

effectiveness on the tip and inner rim walls of a rotor blade with a squealer rim equipped

in a three-blade linear cascade. The high heat transfer and film cooling effectiveness

regions were obtained near the film-cooling holes.

14
 Due to the difficulty of acquiring data on a rotating blade, literature studying the

effect of rotation is very scarce. Dring et al. [44] reported film cooling effectiveness in a

rotating configuration in a low speed tunnel. Takeishi et al. [45] also studied film

cooling effectiveness on a stator-rotor stage, simulating a heavy duty gas turbine.

Measured effectiveness values on the suction side for the rotating turbine blade seemed

to match the data from the stationary cascade whereas the rotating effectiveness on the

pressure side seemed to be significantly lower than the nonrotating case. Effects of

rotation are attributed to the deflection of the film cooling jet due to centrifugal forces.

Abhari and Epstein [46] reported film cooling heat transfer coefficients by the

superposition method on the short-duration MIT blowdown turbine facility using heat

flux gauges. Time resolved heat transfer coefficient data was obtained and the benefit of

using film cooling on the blade surface is evident.

Acharya et al. [47] performed a numerical study to investigate the blade tip heat

transfer and flows with both pressure side and tip coolant in the presence of relative

motion between the blade and casing. It was confirmed that the relative motion between

the tip and shroud had significant effects and thus the statement of pressure-driven

leakage flows was not appropriate. Yang et al. [48] numerically simulated the effect of

the blade rotation on the flow and heat transfer for turbine blades with plane and

squealer tips. The prediction indicated that the rotation effect on the flow behaviors and

heat transfer primarily came from the relative motion of the shroud, especially for the

squealer tip. Lu et al. [49] numerically investigated the aerodynamics and film cooling

15
effectiveness of high pressure turbine blade tips. Two different rotor blade tip

configurations have been studied: the plane tip and the squealer tip with tip hole cooling.

Molter et al. [50] measured and predicted the heat transfer for blades with a flat tip and a

squealer tip without cooling. It shows CFD is not capable of estimating unsteady heat

load component and generally over predicts the overall heat flux.

Rotating turbine experiments performed by Ahn et al. [51, 52] showed that the

turbine rotational speed is the most critical parameter in film cooling effectiveness

distributions. The measurements were done using the pressure sensitive paints (PSP).

Furthermore, their systematic experimental results show that during an off-design

operation, the incidence angle changes, causing the coolant film direction to change.

16
 2. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

Very limited experimental data is available for aerodynamic and film cooling

effectiveness under rotating condition in the literature. As a result, there is a strong need

to study in detail and discover essential features of turbine platform and blade tip film

cooling under engine representative flow and rotating conditions. The objective of the

research was to provide the gas turbine engine designer with a set of quantitative

aerodynamics and film cooling effectiveness data which are essential for understanding

the basic physics of the complex secondary flow, its influence on the efficiency and

performance of gas turbines, and the impact of film cooling ejection arrangements on

suppressing the detrimental effect of secondary flows.

With a better understanding of the flow physics and film cooling distributions on

the rotating blade tip and platform, designers may be able to reduce the amount of air

extracted from the compressor for the purpose of turbine blade and platform cooling.

This improvement would allow for increase in turbine inlet temperatures and

furthermore enhancing the system thermal performance. In order to meet the above

stated objectives, the following aerodynamics, and film cooling effectiveness

experiments were performed:

2.1. Contoured Endwall Aerodynamics Performance

The present study focused on the impact of new endwall contouring design based

on continuous diffusion on the turbine aerodynamic performance. The following cases

were studied on the contoured rotor platform:

17
  Performance measurements were performed varying the mass flow with and

without purge flow (MFR=0%, 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%).

 Performance measurements were performed varying the rotational speed at

different purge flow (MFR=0%, 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%).

 Circumferential and radial interstage aerodynamic measurements were performed

at stations 3, 4 and 5 at rotor speeds of 2400rpm, 2550 rpm and 3000 rpm.

 Temperature measurement using the thermocouples on the stator leading edge.

2.2. Endwall Film Cooling Effectiveness Measurement

The present study focused on the impact of the rotating purge flow on the film

cooling effectiveness of the first stage rotor platform with non-axisymmetric endwall

contouring. The following cases were studied on the contoured rotor platform and were

compared with non-contoured platform:

 MFR = 0.5% (blowing ratio, M=0.372), 1.0% (blowing ratio, M=0.744), and

1.50% (blowing ratio, M=1.116).

 Rotational speeds = 2400rpm, 2550rpm and 3000rpm.

2.3. Turbine Blade Tip Film Cooling Effectiveness

The present study experimentally investigated the film cooling effectiveness on

four different turbine blade configurations within a rotating HP turbine. Four different

configurations are: (1) Plane tip with radial ejection holes, (2) Blade with Ejection Holes

and Squealer, (3) plane tip with pressure-side-edge compound angle hole cooling, and

(4) squealer tip with pressure-side-edge compound angle hole cooling. Eight 45˚

18
compound angle holes are used for pressure-side-edge cooling. Detailed blade tip film

cooling effectiveness distributions on the rotating blade tip was measured using the PSP

technique. The coolant is ejected through the cooling holes under blowing ratios. The

following cases were studied for each blade tip configuration:

 Three blowing ratio of M=0.75, 1.25 and 1.75.

 Three rotational speeds of 2000 rpm, 2550 rpm and 3000 rpm.

19
 3. EXPERIMENTAL FACILITY*

The research turbine facility used for the current experiments was designed by

Schobeiri [53] to address aerodynamic performance and heat transfer issues of high

pressure (HP), intermediate pressure (IP), and low pressure (LP) turbine components.

Detailed aerodynamic, efficiency, loss and performance measurements were carried out

to verify and document the efficiency and performance of several high efficiency turbine

blades designed for major original turbine manufacturers. To compare the results of the

investigations reported in [53] with those for 2-D cylindrical blades, aerodynamic

measurements were conducted and summarized in the subsequent reports [54] and [9].

The overall layout of the test facility is shown in Figure 4. It consists of a 300HP

(223.71 kW) electric motor connected to a frequency controller which drives a three-

stage centrifugal compressor capable of supplying air with a maximum pressure

m3
difference of 55kPa and a volumetric flow rate of 4 . The compressor operates in
s

suction mode and its pressure and volume flow rate can be varied by the frequency

controller operating between 0 to 66Hz. A pipe with a smooth transition piece connects

the compressor to a Venturi mass flow meter used to measure the mass flow through the

*
Part of the materials are reprinted with permission from “A Combined Experimental and
Numerical Study of the Turbine Blade Tip Film Cooling Effectiveness under Rotation Condition” by
Mohsen Rezasoltani, Kun Lu, Meinhard T. Schobeiri and Je-Chin Han, 2015. J. Turbomach, 137(5),
Copyright © 2015 by ASME, and “Experimental Investigation of the Effect of Purge Flow on Film
Cooling Effectiveness on a Rotating Turbine With Non-Axisymmetric Endwall Contouring,” by M.
Rezasoltani, M. T. Schobeiri and J. C. Han, J. Turbomach. 2014; 136(9), GT2013-94807, Copyright ©
2014 by ASME.
20
 Table 1: Turbine dimensions and operating conditions
Stage no., N 3 Mass flow 3.58 kg/s
Tip Diameter 685.8mm Hub Diameter 558.8mm
Reference speed 3000 rpm Current speed range 1800 to 3000 rpm
2 19o 3 161o
Cx 41.6 mm Pressure ratio 1.41
Re 231400 Mach number 0.27

Figure 4: The overall layout of TPFL-research turbine facility

turbine component. The three-stage turbine has an automated data acquisition system for

detailed flow measurement at each blade row location in the radial and circumferential

direction. The turbine inlet has an integrated heater that prevents condensation of water

from humid air during experiments.

3.1. Interstage Instrumentation

Figure 5 shows three stages research turbine with their components. Detailed

operating condition with turbine dimensions is presented in Table 1. The three-stage air

21
turbine component has a casing that incorporates stator rings in order to achieve greater

versatility. Three traversing systems have five-hole probes with decoders and encoders

for accurate probe position mounted upon them. A controller with feedback connected to

each system is able to move the probes at a precision of 1/400 mm (2.5 μm). These three

systems are mounted on a base plate, connected with the three T-rings installed in the

casing. To seal the three 90° circumferential traversing slots, three T-rings are used.

These T-rings prevent leakage of mainstream mass flow through the traversing slots by

moving circumferentially. Altogether, this constitutes a traversing unit; it moves the unit

in a circumferential direction and is connected to a fourth traversing system which is

placed on top of a frame.

The traversing unit can move radially from 1 mm above the hub diameter to 1

mm from the blade tip. Each traverse (radial or circumferential) has individual stepper

motors, allowing for accurate probe alignment during data acquisition.

Combined total temperature and total pressure rakes are utilized both upstream of

the first stator row and downstream of the last rotor row for performance

instrumentation. These rakes each combine 4 total pressure probes of the Pitot tube type,

and 3 total temperature probes which are calibrated J-type thermocouples, placed

equidistantly along the radial direction. Rakes were placed radially at the inlet at 45°,

135°, 225°, and 315°.

22
 Figure 5: TPFL Turbine component and instrumentations [54]

Thermocouple calibration curves are introduced into the performance data

reduction program. The rakes have a round leading edge and a sharp trailing edge; this

aerodynamic shape reduces wake thickness originating from the trailing edge of the inlet

rakes. Exit rakes have the same spacing as inlet rakes and are placed radially, and they

are offset from the inlet rakes so that there is no interference with wakes from inlet

rakes. Wall static pressure taps are placed on the T-rings and stator rings, as well as at

the top and bottom halves of the main casing. Also, on two diametrically opposed stator

blades of the second and third stator rows, total temperature and total pressure probes are

placed on leading edge stagnation points. Total and static pressure contours, flow angles,

23
velocity components, flow angles as well as spanwise distribution of total pressure loss

coefficients, and efficiency for each row are generated from the data derived from the

transversing, using three L-shaped five-hole Pitot probes. Of these probes, the first and

third are placed at stations 3 and 5, respectively, and calibrated at the low subsonic Mach

number of M = 0.1. The second probe is installed at station 4 and takes into account any

small compressibility effects in its calibration due to a moderate subsonic Mach number

(M = 0.3). Figure 6 shows cross section view of three probes between stages.

Figure 6: Turbine cross section view of interstage instrumentation

3.2. Five Hole Probe Calibration Facility

The accurate calibration of sensors is a prerequisite for measurement of any

physical quantity. Concerning the fluid mechanics, these quantities are static and total
24
pressures and temperatures as well as the velocity vectors with their three components

with the corresponding angles. Regardless of the nature of the data, understanding the

experimental environment, eliminating parasitic effects and properly designing a

calibration facility are the first steps towards acquiring accurate data. The facility

described below is used for calibrating five-hole probes. The calibration facility is shown

in Figure 7. This facility has been used to calibrate the hot wire and five-hole probes.

Compressed air is drawn from a reservoir which passes through a pressure

regulator, filter and flow control valve before entering the calibration facility. It consists

of a settling chamber followed by a pipe with three axisymmetric sections, each having a

diameter of 152.9 mm. A nozzle with an exit diameter of 38.1 mm is attached to the end

of the pipe. The inlet and outlet of the nozzle are parallel to the axis of the facility. The

calibration nozzle is fed from a 120 psi pressure line, which creates a jet of air with

stable, uniform and known properties.

Several thermocouples are placed in the first section of the calibration facility to

measure the air temperature. Also, several pressure taps are placed in the last section of

the pipe to measure the pressure difference between static pressure inside the pipe and

the atmospheric pressure with a differential pressure transducer. Two micro lynx stepper

motors with controllers are used to automatically vary the pitch and the yaw angles. The

stepper motors are mounted on a traversing system with an arm at 90o. The system is

designed to place the probe tip in the center of the exiting jet (Figure 8).

25
 An automated calibration facility carries out independent calibration of the five-

hole probes. In an angular indexing mechanism, each probe is pitched and yawed in 20

increments through angle ranges of -20.0 to 20.0 in pitch and yaw. An extremely fine

angle resolution is achieved by the probe indexing mechanism using two computer-

controlled stepper motors. TURBOPROBE, an in-house computer algorithm used by this

facility, creates a grid of pitch and yaw angles that are specified by the user, and it

controls these stepper motors. In addition, it records pressures from the PSI-9016

pressure scanner and stores in a data file pressures from the five-hole probe with

corresponding pitch and yaw angles as well as calibration nozzle total pressure. Then,

this data file is used for the creation of the calibration surfaces for probes that determine

velocity components and vectors at turbine stations 3, 4, and 5. This is explained in the

section devoted to experimental procedure.

Figure 7: Facility for calibrating five-hole probes and hot-wire [2]

26
 Figure 8: Place the probe tip in the center of the exiting jet

3.3. New Turbine Component Design

To study the effect of new endwall contouring method and blade tip cooling

under rotating condition, new ring and 4 pairs of blade tip configuration were designed

and added to the research turbine facility.

3.3.1. New Ring with Endwall Contouring

For the current investigation, the contouring method described in [8] was applied

to the first rotor row and second rotor row. Extensive numerical simulations were

performed to obtain an optimum geometry for contouring the rotor endwall. As it is

shown in Figure 9 and Figure 10 the first rotor row is immediately exposed to the

circumferential gap, so there is no axial space to extend the contouring upstream of the

blades to achieve the same efficiency that we achieved for the second rotor row ([8],

[55]). This configuration resulted in lower turbine efficiency as discussed earlier.

27
 Figure 9: Turbine components with showing stator cavity and gap

Considering the geometry of turbine, efforts have been made to improve the

efficiency by varying the endwall contouring of the first rotor row as shown in Figure

11. This Figure shows the variation of the contour depth along the suction surface. A

strong deceleration rate characterized by a steep gradient of the contouring height,

pertaining to R1, R1-1, R1-2 and R1-3-curves, caused flow separation within the

contouring. This resulted in an efficiency that was just slightly above the reference case

without contouring. It turned out that the contouring R1-4 that was originally generated

by the continuous diffusion method yielded the best efficiency improvement [55].

28
 No space for upstream
extension of
first rotor
nd
2 rotor ring extension

Circumferential gap

Figure 10: Position of the circumferential gap for ejection of purge flow and
extension of the contouring upstream of second rotor

0
New contouring R1
-1 New contouring R1- 1
Contouring Height [mm]

New contouring R1- 2

New contouring R1- 3
New contouring R1- 4
-2
Strong
-3 Deceleration
Weak
Deceleration
-4

-5

-6

-7
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Cax
Figure 11: Variation of contour depth along the suction surface to obtain the best
endwall contouring efficiency [55]

For each of the calculated cases, the entire flow field including total pressure loss

and the turbine efficiency were obtained. Considering the spatial restrictions mentioned
29
above, particular attention was paid to accurately obtain the efficiency of the turbine

with the first and second rotor endwall contoured. Based on this variation, results

showed that Contouring R1-4 had the highest efficiency and was used for every endwall

between the blades. Figure 12 shows the construction of the new endwall contours

compared to the reference case. The reduction of the total pressure loss by 27.9% and

accordingly enhance of the second rotor efficiency by 0.51% was obtained based on the

CFD predictions.

Figure 12: Non-contoured (top), new contouring method (bottom) [8, 55]

30
3.3.2. Blade Tip Geometry

To investigate the film cooling effectiveness on rotating blade tips within the

three stage HP turbine, TPFL designed and manufactured four pairs of rotor blades with

four different film cooling arrangements: plane tip with tip hole cooling (red), plane tip

with pressure-side-edge compound angle hole cooling (green), squealer tip with tip hole

cooling (yellow), and squealer tip with pressure-side-edge compound angle hole cooling

(blue), as shown in Figure 13. Note that the blade consists of top and bottom pieces due

to the manufacturing constraints.

In order to prevent any imbalance, the four pairs of rotor blades with film cooling

holes were axis-symmetrically mounted at the first rotor row (Figure 13 top). The

detailed geometry for each blade tip with cooling configuration is shown in Figure 14.

Note that the blade height, axial chord length, and film cooling hole diameter (d) are

62.865 mm, 38.1 mm, and 1.27 mm, respectively. Seven perpendicular cylindrical holes

evenly distributed along the camber line are used for the tip hole cooling, whereas eight

45° compound angle holes for pressure-side-edge cooling are located 4.564 mm below

the blade tip edge. For the tips with tip hole cooling, the length of each cooling hole has

a typical value of 4 d, which is 5.08 mm. Moreover, the squealer tip has a rim width of

2 mm and a recess of 4 mm. Due to the squealer cavity, the blade with squealer tip has a

bit smaller plenum inside the body than that of the blade with plane tip. However, both

plena have adequately enough space to form highly uniform pressure inside resulted

31
from the sudden expansion and fully mixing of coolant flow ejecting from the tiny holes

on the bolt. In addition, each blade obtains a tip clearance as wide as 1% of blade span.

Figure 13: Four different rotor blade tip configurations: Plain tip with tip hole
cooling (red), Plain tip with pressure-side-edge compound angle hole
cooling (green), squealer tip with tip hole cooling (yellow) and squealer
tip with pressure-side-edge compound angle hole cooling (blue) [49]

32
a) b) c) d)
Figure 14: Detailed geometry of blade tips: (a) plane tip with tip hole cooling; (b)
squealer tip with tip hole cooling; (c) plane tip with pressure-side-edge
compound angle hole cooling; (d) squealer tip with pressure-side-edge
compound angle hole cooling [56]

3.3.3. Cooling Loops

To determine the film cooling effectiveness under rotating conditions for

different kinds of film cooling (Ahn et al. [51, 52] and Suryanarayanan et al. [27, 28]),

the existing turbine rotor described in [53] was modified to integrate the coolant loop

through the downstream section of the hollow turbine shaft and into the cylindrical hub

cavity. Two independently controlled, concentric coolant loops provide the necessary

mass flow for film cooling experiments. The outer loop supplies coolant for film cooling

experiments in the tip of the blade. The inner loop coolant jet ejecting from a

circumferential gap between the 1st stator and rotor provides for hub platform cooling

(Figure 15).

33
Figure 15: Section view of the modified stator-rotor turbine assembly for stator-
rotor purge flow and platform film cooling [49, 57]

Figure 16: Detailed view of the stator-rotor gap design [27]

34
 As mentioned above (Figure 16), the outer loop (marked by blue arrows) delivers

coolant mass for film cooling experiments for the discrete film cooling holes on both

blade tips in the first-stage rotor. The coolant flow is discharged through a long annular

pipe and fills inside of the rotor internal cavity. A rotary seal was adapted to prevent any

leakage. The coolant inside the rotor cavity is delivered to the blades and injected

through the discrete film cooling holes on the blade tips.

Figure 17: Schematic of the blade tip film cooling system [49]

Figure 17 shows the coolant path inside the blade. As seen, after passing through

a cylindrical hole drilled at the center of the bolt that fastens the rotor blade, the coolant

mass is ejected into a plenum through eighteen radially distributed tiny holes near the

bolt tip. This relatively large plenum is applied to ensure a uniform coolant-discharge

pressure distribution within the plenum for each film cooling holes. Eventually the coolant

35
flow is injected to the mainstream from seven discrete film cooling holes located either on

the blade tip or at the pressure-side edge near tip region. Since the current study is focused

on the rotor blade tip film cooling, only the outer loop is turned on. Based on these cooling

configurations, TPFL HP turbine is capable to perform fundamental measurements of the

blade tip film cooling under rotating condition.

3.3.3.1. Cooling Air Temperature Measurement

In order to measure the coolant temperature, eight thermocouples were placed in

the cavity inside each cooling blade (Figure 17). Since rotor is rotating those

thermocouples were connected to the slip ring (Figure 9) and then connected to the

Fluke temperature measurement devices in the control room.

36
 4. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE*

4.1. Aerodynamic Measurement Theory and Analysis

Interstage aerodynamic measurements are performed along the first stage rotor

exit, second stage stator exit and third stage rotor exit using miniature 5-hole probes. The

circumferential and radial traverse facility enables comprehensive data acquisition at

these locations. To reduce the error in measurements near the blade tip and hub where

the flow is highly complex, additional stepper motor controls are provided to allow for

accurate adjustment of the miniature 5-hole probes in line with the mainstream flow.

Five hole probes are calibrated in order to be able to correlate the measured

pressures with flow velocity and direction. The calibration is highly dependent on flow

velocity. As mentioned earlier, the probes are calibrated at Mach numbers of 0.1 and 0.3

in a calibration facility using a non-nulling technique. As shown in Figure 18, there are

two methods of using five-hole probes for measuring static and total pressures as well as

velocity components.

In nulling method the probe tip axis is adjusted to the flow angle such that the

pressures of holes left-right and top-bottom are equalized. This requires changing

*
Part of the materials are reprinted with permission from “A Combined Experimental and
Numerical Study of the Turbine Blade Tip Film Cooling Effectiveness under Rotation Condition” by
Mohsen Rezasoltani, Kun Lu, Meinhard T. Schobeiri and Je-Chin Han, 2015. J. Turbomach, 137(5),
Copyright © 2015 by ASME, and “Experimental Investigation of the Effect of Purge Flow on Film
Cooling Effectiveness on a Rotating Turbine With Non-Axisymmetric Endwall Contouring,” by M.
Rezasoltani, M. T. Schobeiri and J. C. Han, J. Turbomach. 2014; 136(9), GT2013-94807, Copyright ©
2014 by ASME.
37
angular position of the probe. As a result, this method, requires a complex probe

traversing mechanism for the rotation of the probe, which often causes difficulty to

install the measurement unit into the given flow field. Therefore, measuring the flow

field in this method is extremely time consuming and in most cases impractical.

Measuring
Methods

Non-nulling Nulling Method

Method (Balancing
(Fixed Method) Method)

Standard Improved
Calibration Calibration
Method Method

Figure 18: Measuring methods with five-hole probe

On the other hand, in a non-nulling method, the probe orientation remains fixed

as long as the flow variation occurs within the calibration range. In case that the actual

flow angle exceeds the calibration range, a partial adjustment of β-angle (also called

yaw) is possible as long as the variation of α-angle (also called pitch) occurs within the

calibration range. The non-nulling method requires the probe to be calibrated to account

for flow pressure and direction variations before being placed in the flow-field at a fixed

38
position. This allows for performing extensive multi-point flow measurements where the

probe is typically radially or axially traversed across the flow domain without the need

to continuously adjust the probe body or tip angles. In Figure 19 example of traversing

system inside a research turbine is shown.

Figure 19: Example of traversing system for non-nulling method in a research

turbine [2]

The measured data are represented as dimensionless pressure coefficients. A data

reduction technique is then employed to correlate known flow field with the pressure

coefficients. Various calibration algorithms for five-hole probes are proposed. These

algorithms differ in the manner in which the pressure coefficients are defined and the

39
data reduction technique employed. Numerous non-nulling calibration methodologies

have been developed over the last three decades. Differential pressure readings were

reduced to non-dimensional numbers that are then compared to calibration maps.

Dudzinsky and Krause [58] used graphical methods to obtain the angles and pressures

from those calibration maps. Schobeiri and his co-workers [59] explained the calibration

and data processing procedure using four non-dimensional parameters. Reichert and

Wendt [60] performed a two-dimensional Taylor series decomposition of the calibration

map. A recent paper by Town and Camci [61] discusses the calibration issues of existing

methods.

The common feature of almost all existing calibration methods is the structure of

calibration coefficients which include an algebraic average of the static pressures

measured in the outer four holes. Implementing this average in calibration coefficient is

admissible as long as the flow angle does not cause flow separation. For adverse flow

angles, one or more outer holes measure pressure in a separated flow zone resulting in an

erroneous average. To circumvent this deficiency, Rubner and Bohn [62] introduced a

new calibration procedure which is deemed to be one of the most accurate and reliable

procedures. In Figure 20 standard calibration method and improved one based on Bohn’s

technique is described. This Figure shows the process of how to find three dimensional

velocity vectors by five-hole probe. After measuring pressure of five holes Pitch angle,

yaw angle, static and total pressure are calculating by functions that calibration gives.

These coefficients are

40
 P4  P5 P  P2 P P P P P P
Q1  , Q2  3 , Q3  1 s , Q4  1 4 , Q5  1 5 (1)
P1  Ps P1  Ps Pt  Ps Pt  Ps Pt  Ps

Measuring pressure
from five different •𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃3 , 𝑃4 , 𝑃5
holes

* calculating pitch
and yaw angle •∝, 𝛽, 𝑃𝑡 , 𝑃𝑠 = 𝑓(𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃3 , 𝑃4 , 𝑃5 )
• These functions come from
* calculating Total calibration process
and static Pressure

Finding Velocity
magnitude based on 𝜌𝑉 2
total and static •𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑠 +
2
pressure

Finding 3 •𝑉𝑥 =
dimensional velocity 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽
vectors based on •𝑉𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
Pitch and yaw angle •𝑉𝑧 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽

Figure 20: Process of finding 3 components of velocity vector

Using curve fit tools, three dimensional curves are computed that correlate the

coefficients with the flow angles. These correlations are

41
   f1 (Q1 , Q2 )
  f 2 (Q1 , Q2 )
Q3  f 3 ( ,  ) (2)
Q4  f 4 ( ,  )
Q5  f 5 ( ,  )

Reading data from five holes

Initial guess for 𝑃𝑠 = 0.8 × 𝑃1

Calculating 𝑄1 and 𝑄2

Calculating Yaw and Pitch angle

Calculating 𝑄3 , 𝑄4 and 𝑄5

𝑃1 − 𝑃2 𝑃1 − 𝑃5 Calculating 𝑃𝑡
(𝑃𝑠 )𝑡+1 = 𝑃1 − 𝑄3 ( + )
2𝑄4 2𝑄5

No
(𝑃𝑠 )𝑡+1 − (𝑃𝑠 )𝑡 < 5 𝑃𝑎

Done

Figure 21: Process of calculating the flow angles and static and total pressure in
improved calibration method

42
 In Figure 21 iterative process of finding flow angles and static and total pressure

is shown. Starting with Q1 and Q2, the static pressure Ps is obtained using an iterative

process by setting Ps  0.8  P1 . This step determines Q1 and Q2 and, thus   f  Q1 , Q2 

and   f  Q1 , Q2  . With the calculated α and β, the remaining coefficients Q3, Q4, and

Q5 are calculated.

The iteration function given in [62] is:

 P1  P2 P1  P5 
 Ps t 1  P1  Q3    (3)
 2Q4 2Q5 

which in conjunction with the following convergence criterion

 Ps t 1   Ps t  5 pa (4)

After calculating the flow angles and static and total pressure, the three

components of velocity can be calculated by correlation as is shown in Figure 22.

43
 Figure 22: Three components of velocity vectors [2]

4.1.1. Five Hole Probe Calibration

Several calibrations were done to be sure about the quality of calibration curves.

Bohn’s method as described above was used to generate the calibration curves.

Correlations mentioned in equation (2) are plotted and 𝑅 2 is shown for each plot.

44
Figure 23: Calibration curves for probe installed at station 3
45
Figure 24: Calibration curves for probe installed at station 4
46
Figure 25: Calibration curves for probe installed at station 5
47
4.2. Film-Cooling Effectiveness Measurement Theory and Data Analysis

To record the effectiveness of film cooling, a temperature differential is created

between the mainstream and the coolant in a lab setting. Since measurement surfaces

such as blades, vanes, and flat plates are made of material with very low conductivity so

that wall surface temperature is almost the same as film temperature, film cooling

effectiveness can be estimated by measuring surface temperatures and having knowledge

of mainstream and coolant temperatures.

Thermocouples placed at discrete locations are used to measure surface

temperatures. IR cameras, Thermochromic Liquid Crystals, or Temperature Sensitive

paint are used to map the temperature profile. Transient thermal method such as transient

Liquid Crystal has been used for measuring film cooling effectiveness and the heat

transfer coefficient.

To generate reliable data via thermal methods, measurement surface must be

made with materials with low thermal conductivity. Dispersion of effectiveness data

might happen in regions of high cooling effectiveness or in regions next to holes.

4.2.1. Mass Transfer Analogy Methods

In order to avoid the conduction related issues mass transfer analogy has been

used in research centers. For example gas-chromatography was used by Nicoll and

Whitelawi [63] to estimate film cooling effectiveness at various discrete locations.

48
 Friedrichs et al. [64] utilized a diazo-coated polyester film to calculate film

cooling effectiveness by using ammonia and water-vapor seeded in coolant air.

Goldstein and Jin [65] saturated the coolant air with naphthalene and calculate adiabatic

film cooling effectiveness by applying naphthalene sublimation.

Zhang and Jaiswal [66] proposed using Pressure Sensitive Paint (PSP). This

method categorized as a non-contact mass transfer analogy and deliveres detailed film

cooling effectiveness contours.

Figure 26 shows the comparison between heat transfer and mass transfer analogy

for measuring film cooling effectiveness. In this figure, the y is the boundary layer

direction and x is the streamwise direction. The film temperature/concentration is a

function of x, y, while wall temperatures/concentrations are functions of x only.

Considering a coolant temperature (Tc) injected into a mainstream flow (at T∞), heat

transfer equations are governed as below [67]:

𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 2𝑇 (5)
𝐺𝑥 + 𝐺𝑦 = 𝜌(𝜖 𝑇 + 𝛼𝐷 ) 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

where, 𝜖 𝑇 is the turbulent thermal diffusivity. Boundary conditions are:

𝜕𝑇
𝑦 = 0: = 0, 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑎𝑤 (6)
𝜕𝑦

𝑦 > 𝛿𝑓 ∶ 𝑇 = 𝑇∞ (7)

𝑥 = 0 ∶ 𝑇 = 𝑇𝐶 (8)

49
 a) Thermal boundary conditions b) Mass transfer boundary conditions
Figure 26: Measurement of film cooling effectiveness using the heat/mass transfer
analogy [68]

Now Consider the case, where coolant gas injected into mainstream has a tracer

concentration of CC and mainstream flow has a tracer concentration of C∞. Mass transfer

equation based on considering C being the mass fraction either a tracer element or a

component gas are:

𝜕𝐶 𝜕𝐶 𝜕 2𝐶 (9)
𝐺𝑥 + 𝐺𝑦 = 𝜌(𝜖𝑀 + 𝐷) 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

where, 𝜖𝑀 is the turbulent mass diffusivity. Boundary conditions are:

𝜕𝐶
𝑦 = 0: = 0, 𝐶 = 𝐶𝑤 ( 10 )
𝜕𝑦

𝑦 > 𝛿𝑓 ∶ 𝐶 = 𝐶∞ ( 11 )

𝑥 = 0 ∶ 𝐶 = 𝐶𝐶 ( 12 )

Han and Rallabandi [68] explained “Equations ( 6 ) and ( 10 ) reflect the

analogous adiabatic wall and impenetrable wall conditions respectively. It can be noticed

50
that Equations ( 5 ) and ( 9 ) and their boundary conditions have a similar structure. In
𝜖 +𝛼
the event that the turbulent Lewis number, 𝐿𝑒𝑇 = 𝜖 𝑇 +𝐷 = 1, it is evident from the
𝑀

governing equations and boundary conditions that appropriately non dimensionalized

solutions (temperatures or mass concentrations) will be identical.

Based on the work of Jones [69] and Kays et al. [67], the stipulation 𝐿𝑒𝑇 ≈ 1

holds for turbulent gaseous flow fields, such as those encountered in gas turbine engines.

And therefore:

𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇∞ 𝑇𝑎𝑤 − 𝑇∞ 𝐶𝑤 − 𝐶∞
𝜂= ≈ ≈ ( 13 )
𝑇𝑐 − 𝑇∞ 𝑇𝐶 − 𝑇∞ 𝐶𝐶 − 𝐶∞

The underlying assumption governing the heat/mass transfer analogy (𝐿𝑒𝑇 ≈ 1)

requires that the flow-field be highly turbulent. This assumption is usually valid over the

surface of the gas turbine vane/blade/end-wall due to the high Reynolds numbers

involved as well as various secondary mechanisms further inducing turbulence in the

flow-field (such as leakage vortices, horse-shoe vortices, film cooling jets and periodic

rotor/stator wakes).”

Next section will focus on the determination of film cooling effectiveness using

the PSP method. More detailed information is available in [68].

4.2.2. PSP Technique

PSP consists of photo-luminescent molecules held together by a binding

compound. The luminous particles in the PSP emit light when excited, with the emitted

51
light intensity being inversely proportional to the partial pressure of oxygen in the

surroundings. The emitted light intensity can be recorded using a CCD camera and

corresponding oxygen partial pressures can be obtained by calibrating emitted intensity

against the partial pressure of oxygen.

Figure 27: Principle of operation of PSP

4.2.2.1. History

Photoluminescence and oxygen quenching were first proposed as a flow

visualization tool by Peterson and Fitzgerald [70] in 1980. In their experiment they

covered a surface with fluorescent dye and excited it with a blue light. They then turned

on the flow, and using a static pressure tap on the surface they injected nitrogen or

oxygen into it. Nitrogen caused a bright luminescent streak to appear downstream due to

oxygen quenching being lessened, while the injection of oxygen resulted in a dark streak

downstream.

The dye used in this early experiment had low sensitivity to oxygen, and the

binder’s oxygen permeability was low as well. The rough and thick PSP layer wasn’t

52
able to adhere well to the surface. For these reasons, the PSP in this experiment was not

usable for accurate and practical scientific measures; however, it opened up the

possibility for oxygen quenching sensors to be used to measure surface pressure.

In the early to mid-1980s, groundbreaking research at TsAGI/Moscow in tandem

with Moscow University tested the potential for PSP to be used to take practical surface

pressure measurements. While for a few years this research was virtually unknown to the

west, in 1990 an advertisement in Aviation Week & Space Technology magazine

revealed it to a larger community.

Russia’s Central Aero-Hydrodynamic Institute (TsAGI) worked with INTECO

(Ardasheva et al. [71], Volan and Alati [72]), an Italian firm, to develop a PSP system

for aerodynamic testing that was demonstrated in the early 1990s by wind tunnel tests

conducted in the United States and Germany.

In 1989, with a coating developed at the University of Washington (Kavandi et

al. [73]), surface pressure field measurement using PSP was demonstrated at NASA’s

Ames Research Center (McLachlan et al. [74, 75]). Research continues until this day at

Ames, and Boeing and McDonnell-Douglas Aerospace (Morris et al. [76], Dowgwillo, et

al. [77]) also use PSP measurement for aircraft development. In addition, NASA’s

Langley Research Center and the United States Air Force Arnold Engineering and

Development Center (AEDC) carry out PSP research. The PSP technique’s high spatial

resolution and low cost make it an option that is being widely adopted internationally

(Engler et al. [78]).

53
4.2.2.2. Physics

The sensitivity of some luminescent dyes to oxygen makes the PSP technique

possible. A luminescent molecule is excited by absorbing a photon, and then the

molecule emits the photon at a longer wavelength to return to its ground state. Figure 28

shows the emission spectra of UniFIB PSP which was used in this study.

Oxygen quenching enables some luminescent molecules to return to the ground

state without emitting a photon. Therefore, the intensity of light emitted from

luminescent molecules inversely varies with local oxygen partial pressure for a given

excitation level. Oxygen partial pressure can be converted to air pressure because the

mole fraction of oxygen in air is fixed.

The Stern Volmer relation describes the oxygen quenching process for PSP:

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 ( 14 )
= 1 + 𝐾𝑐
𝐼

where I is luminescence intensity, Imax is maximum intensity without oxygen, K is the

Stern-Volmer quenching constant, and c is O2 concentration. Imax and K are temperature-

dependent.

Henry’s law relates binder oxygen concentration to PSP surface oxygen

concentration:

𝑐 = 𝑆𝑋𝑃 ( 15 )

54
where S is the temperature-dependent Henry’s law coefficient, X is the mole fraction of

oxygen in air, and P is air pressure. Thus, the Stern-Volmer relation is rewritten as:

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
= 1 + 𝐾𝑆𝑋𝑃 ( 16 )
𝐼

Figure 28: Emission spectra of UniFIB PSP (www.psp-tsp.com)

Now one can see the relationship between air pressure and luminescence

intensity; as air pressure increases, luminescence intensity decreases. However, due to

the impracticability of obtaining maximum luminescence intensity without oxygen, this

form of Stern-Volmer is useless for experimental setup. Finding the ratio of intensities

for two different flow conditions can enable a more useable form of this equation:

55
 𝐼0 𝑃0
= 𝐴(𝑇) + 𝐵(𝑇) ( 17 )
𝐼 𝑃

where the zero subscript denotes “no-flow” condition where pressure is constant across

the surface, and coefficients A and B are temperature-dependent coating sensitivities that

are derived from experimental calibration.

Intensity measurements for flow on and flow off conditions must be obtained in

order to utilize these equations. P0 (pressure in flow off condition) is a known value, and

I and I0 are measured, so P can be found using the equation.

Taking the ration of these intensities also effectively factors out the effects of

non-uniform illumination and PSP distribution, assuming that the geometry of the

experimental setup and illumination source remains constant between measurements of I

and I0.

In addition, one must assume that the excitation illumination intensity is

sufficiently low that most luminescent models are in ground state. If intensity is too

high, most of the molecules will be excited, causing A and B to also become functions of

illumination intensity.

4.2.3. Film Cooling Effectiveness Measurement Using PSP

The image intensity obtained from PSP by the camera during data acquisition is

normalized with a reference image intensity taken under no-flow conditions.

Background noise in the optical setup is removed by subtracting the image intensities

56
with the image intensity obtained under no-flow conditions without excitation. The

resulting intensity ratio can be converted to pressure ratio using the previously

determined calibration curve and can be expressed as

I ref  I blk
 f
 
 P
O2 air

 f P 
 
( 18 )
I  I blk  PO  ratio

 2 ref 

Where I denotes the intensity obtained for each pixel and f(Pratio) is the relation

between intensity ratio and pressure ratio obtained after calibrating the PSP. Further

details in using PSP for pressure measurements are given in McLachlan and Bell [75].

Calibration for PSP was performed using a vacuum chamber at several known

pressures varying from 0 to 2atm with corresponding emitted intensity recorded for each

pressure setting. Calibration setup and a sample calibration curve are shown in Figure 29

and Figure 30 respectively.

57
 Figure 29: PSP calibration setup

Figure 30: PSP calibration curve

PSP is sensitive to temperature with higher temperatures resulting in lower

emitted light intensities. Hence, the paint was also calibrated for temperature. It was

observed that if the emitted light intensity at a certain temperature was normalized with

58
the reference image intensity taken at the same temperature, the temperature sensitivity

can be eliminated. Hence, during data acquisition, the reference image was acquired

immediately after the experiment was completed to avoid errors related to temperature

variation. Reference images were acquired after the rotor came to a halt and the

temperature change from rotating to stationary condition was small enough to disregard

its effect on PSP measurement. Coolant flow and platform surface temperatures were

monitored using thermocouples placed along the individual coolant loops and on the

platform surface close to the suction side respectively. The thermocouples were wired

through the slip-ring and connected to a microprocessor thermometer with a digital

readout.

(a) Test with air as a coolant (b) Test with foreign gas (N2 or CO2) as a
coolant
Figure 31: calculating film cooling effectiveness by using two coolants alternatively

To obtain film cooling effectiveness, air and nitrogen were used alternately as

coolant (Figure 31). Nitrogen which has approximately the same molecular weight as the

air displaces the oxygen molecules on the surface causing a change in the emitted light

intensity from PSP. By noting the difference in emitted light intensity and subsequently
59
the partial pressures between the air and nitrogen injection cases, the film cooling

effectiveness can be determined using the following equation:


Cmix  Cair Cair  Cmix
 
   
PO2
air
 PO2
mix

 
( 19 )
CN2  Cair Cair PO2
air

Where Cair, Cmix and CN2 are the oxygen concentrations of mainstream air,

air/nitrogen mixture and nitrogen on the test surface respectively and are directly

proportional to the partial pressure of oxygen.

The accuracy of the PSP technique for measuring film-cooling effectiveness has

been compared by Wright et al. [79] on a flat plate with compound angled ejection holes

against several measurement techniques such as steady and transient liquid crystal, IR

camera and using a foil heater with thermocouples. Results were obtained for a range of

blowing ratios and show consistency with each other. Study by Wright et al. [79] for

flat-plate film cooling shows the superiority of using PSP compared to conventional IR

measurement. From their study, the accuracy analysis shows the difference of

effectiveness result of 15%. In addition, Rallabandi et al. [80] reports a good comparison

between PSP and other methods such as naphthalene mass-transfer method and

traditional thermocouples measurement technique, for basic flat-plate film cooling with

one row of compound angle holes.

60
4.2.4. Experimental Procedure for Endwall Film Cooling

This study examines a platform passage that was layered with an air brush with 7

to 9 coats of PSP. A green strobe light fitted with narrow bandpass interference filter

with a 520 nm optical wavelength was then used to excite the PSP coated surface, which

caused the surface to emit greater than 600 nm wavelength red light. To record intensity

images, a scientific grade 12-bit high speed SensiCam (with CCD temperature

maintained at -15° C using a 2-stage Peltier cooler) that used a 35 mm lense and a 600

nm longpass filter was utilized. The specific filters chosen enabled the camera to only

capture data, blocking light reflected from the surface of the target. An optical sensor

triggered by the rotor shaft simultaneously triggered the camera, strobe light and data

acquisition system (Figure 32).

Figure 32: Optical set-up for endwall film cooling using PSP [27]

61
 The camera was able to detect the angular position in able to capture the same

region of interest in every rotation, so that the image intensities could be averaged

without blurring information. 17 μs was the minimum exposure time used to capture

images. At 2550 rpm, estimated rotor movement during this exposure time was 1.1 mm.

With air and nitrogen injection, 200 images were captured for each experiment, and

pixel intensity was averaged for all of the images. Pixel intensities were converted into

pressure via a computer program using the calibration curve, and this was used to find

film cooling effectiveness. Desired blowing and mass flow ratio had been previously

calculated, and a rotameter used these values to set the coolant flow rate. To eliminate

the effects on temperature of PSP, coolant was heated to 45° (the temperature of

mainstream air) before injection through the gap.

Figure 33: Optical set-up for blade tip film cooling using PSP

62
4.2.5. Experimental Procedure for Blade Tip Film Cooling

The optical setup for blade tip film cooling experiment is shown in Figure 33.

The tip of the blades under investigation was layered with 7 to 9 coats of PSP using an

air brush. The procedure is same as endwall film cooling data acquisition, except the

camera and strobe light point at blade tip. A total of 200 images were captured for each

experiment with air and nitrogen injection and the pixel intensity for all images was

averaged. A computer program was used to convert these pixel intensities into pressure

using the calibration curve and then into film cooling effectiveness. The coolant flow

rate was set using a rotameter based on prior calculation for the desired blowing ratio.

The coolant was heated to the same temperature as mainstream air (45°C) before

injection through the gap to eliminate the temperature effects of PSP.

4.2.6. Uncertainty Calculations

Uncertainty calculations were performed based on a confidence level of 95% and

are based on the uncertainty analysis method of Coleman and Steele [81]. Detailed

uncertainties calculations are explained in Appendix B. Lower effectiveness magnitudes

have higher uncertainties. For an effectiveness magnitude of 0.8, uncertainty was around

±1% while for effectiveness magnitude of 0.07, uncertainty was as high as ±10.3%. This

uncertainty is the cumulative result of uncertainties in calibration (4%) and image

capture (1%). The absolute uncertainty for effectiveness varied from 0.01 to 0.02 units.

Thus, relative uncertainties for very low effectiveness magnitudes can be very high

(>100% at effectiveness magnitude of 0.01). However, it must be noted that very few

63
data points exist with such high relative uncertainty magnitudes. Uncertainties for the

average blowing ratio calculations are estimated to be approximately 3.5% using Kline-

McClintock analysis and are discussed in detail by Holman [82].

64
 5. ENDWALL FILM-COOLING RESULTS*

Film cooling effectiveness measurements were performed for three coolant-to-

mainstream mass flow ratios (MFR) of 0.5%, 1.0% and 1.5%. Film cooling data was

also obtained for three rotational speeds; 3000 rpm (reference condition), 2550 rpm and

2400 rpm, and they were compared with non-contoured endwall data. For 3000 rpm two

more MFRs of 0.75% and 1.25% were performed to give a better view of how film

cooling effectiveness is changing.

Total mass flow in the engine was 3.58 kg/s and was ensured to be the same for

all three rpms by adjusting the blower frequency through the frequency controller. The

three MFRs corresponded to blowing ratios (M) of approximately 0.372, 0.744 and

1.116 respectively after assuming that the coolant exits the gap axially. Blowing ratios

for each rotating speed differed slightly as the relative mainstream velocity at the rotor

inlet changes with the rotating speed.

5.1. Mass Flow Ratio Effect

The film cooling effectiveness resulting from using PSP for the reference rotating

condition of 3000 rpm are plotted in Figure 34. The figure shows the contour plots for all

five mass flow ratios tested. The contour plots also show the location of the stator-rotor

gap upstream of the passage and the path of the mainstream and coolant flow. The

*
Reprinted with permission from “Experimental Investigation of the Effect of Purge Flow on
Film Cooling Effectiveness on a Rotating Turbine with Non-Axisymmetric Endwall Contouring,” by M.
Rezasoltani, M. T. Schobeiri and J. C. Han, J. Turbomach. 2014; 136(9), GT2013-94807, Copyright ©
2014 by ASME.
65
effectiveness in the gap as the coolant escapes through it could not be recorded, as the

plexiglass window through which the rotor platform was viewed was not wide enough.

Figure 34: Film cooling effectiveness distribution on the contoured rotating

platform for 3000 rpm

Results show that Film cooling effectiveness increases with purge mass flow rate

from 0.5% to 1.5%. At lower blowing ratios, the low momentum coolant is not capable

of penetrating into the highly vortical secondary flow region on the hub platform. It

mixes with the main flow where its kinetic energy dissipates, making only a marginal

contribution to effectiveness improvement. For the lowest mass flow ratio (MFR =

0.5%), the maximum effectiveness magnitude is less than 0.2. As the mass flow ratio

increases, the coolant injection velocity increases because the coolant can penetrate the

complex secondary flows in the passage, resulting in higher effectiveness on the

platform.

5.2. Contouring Effect

Figure 35 shows Comparison of film cooling effectiveness distribution on the

contoured and non-contoured rotating platform for 3000 rpm. For both contoured and
66
non-contoured endwalls, higher mass flow ratios resulted in coolant injection with

higher momentum. As this momentum increases, it can be observed that the spread of

the coolant as well as the effectiveness magnitudes are increased. The injected coolant is

at the same density as the mainstream i.e. the coolant to mainstream density ratio is 1.

Hence, the injected coolant velocity is higher for higher mass flow ratios. This affects

the secondary flow structure in the passage.

Figure 35: Comparison of film cooling effectiveness distribution on the contoured

and non-contoured rotating platform for 3000 rpm

In non-contoured platform a strong pressure gradient exists within the passage

from the pressure to the suction side, with the static pressure near the pressure side being

much higher due to lower mainstream velocities and blade curvature. The coolant traces

67
show slightly higher effectiveness magnitudes towards the suction side near the leading

edge. More coolant gets diverted away from the higher pressure stagnation region on the

leading edge of the blade and finds its way towards the suction side. Effectiveness

magnitudes on the pressure side begin to fade away rapidly as the coolant travels along

the axial chord. As the passage vortex moves towards the suction side while gaining

strength, it entrains the mainstream on the platform surface damaging the coolant film

and resulting in a sharp drop in effectiveness magnitudes. This sudden drop gives a good

indication of the path traced by the passage vortex.

Figure 36: Film cooling effectiveness distribution on the contoured and non-
contoured rotating platform for 2550 rpm

68
 On the other hand, in the contoured platform, effectiveness magnitude spreads

uniformly from leading edge to trailing edge as shown in Figure 35, Figure 36 and

Figure 37. This is the consequence of the endwall contouring that has reduced the

pressure difference between the pressure and suction surface leading to lower secondary

flow velocities.

Figure 37: Film cooling effectiveness distribution on the contoured and non-
contoured rotating platform for 2400 rpm

5.3. Variation of Rotating Conditions

At rotational speeds lower than the design speed, the blade flow deflection

becomes larger leading to higher specific stage load coefficient, and the stagnation

region moves towards the pressure side as the flow incidence angle increases, as

69
sketched in Figure 38. At lower rotating speeds, the stagnation point will further move

towards the blade pressure side resulting in a higher pressure zone close to the pressure

surface. The concentration of higher pressure on the pressure side causes a significant

movement of the coolant film on the platform surface when it exits from the stator-rotor

gap. The local coolant mass flow is pushed toward the suction surface causing the film

to cover only smaller portions of the suction surface leading edge. This phenomenon can

be clearly observed from data taken for 2550 rpm and 2400 rpm as shown in Figure 36

and Figure 37. Both figures include contour plots for 3 different mass flow ratios. More

coolant appears to come out from near the suction side of the platform where the

pressure difference across the gap is larger with the lower rotational speed.

By comparing Figure 36 and Figure 37 for lower rotating speeds with Figure 34

at 3000 rpm (reference speed), it can be observed that the effectiveness magnitudes

decrease with lower rpm for the same mass flow ratio. This may be a result of stronger

horseshoe vortices close to the suction side due to the shift in the flow incidence angle at

lower rpm. For both reference and lower rotating speeds, the region downstream of the

throat remains uncooled. The secondary flow vortices in the passage erode the coolant

film before it reaches the throat.

In addition to the effect on static pressure distribution and film cooling due to the

change in incidence angle of the inlet flow along with rotational speed, rotation also

affects the coolant flow as it exits the stator-rotor gap. The gap and the disk cavity are

bounded by two walls, the stator endwall and the rotor platform. The enclosed coolant

70
mass in the disk cavity will rotate with a certain frequency due to the cavity wall shear

stress. High shear stresses, caused by relative motion in the circumferential gap,

introduce some swirl in the coolant flow as it exits. Hence, a tangential component exists

in the coolant flow as it exits the stator-rotor gap. This causes some additional spreading

of the coolant which cannot be achieved for film cooling studies in stationary cascades.

Figure 38: Velocity triangles and relative inlet and exit flow angles for design speed
and off-design rotating speeds [27]

71
 This might also explain the larger coolant spread with increasing rotational

speeds due to a larger tangential velocity component in the coolant as it exits the gap.

The determination of the swirl angle as well as the measurement of this tangential

velocity component was not the subject of the current paper. However, these are items of

high importance along with the inter-stage measurements.

5.4. Pitch-wise Average Film Cooling Effectiveness

The film cooling effectiveness results were averaged along the pitch-wise

direction and the averaged data for all coolant-to- mainstream mass flow ratios and

rotational speeds are presented in Figure 39 along the axial chord. The increase in

effectiveness magnitudes with increasing mass flow ratio can be clearly observed from

these figures. The averaged plots show a sharp decrease in effectiveness magnitude

along the axial chord as indicated earlier with the region beyond x/Cx = 0.6 remaining

mostly uncovered with average effectiveness magnitudes below 0.1. The decrease in

effectiveness with lower rotational speeds can also be discerned.

Figure 39 depicts the averaged effectiveness distribution in axial direction with

mass flow ratio as a parameter for contoured and non-contoured reference cases for

given rotational speeds of 3000 rpm, 2550 rpm and 2400 rpm. As seen, for the given

MFRs close to the leading edge, the patterns of the contoured cases differ substantially

from the non-contoured ones. While the effectiveness distributions of non-contoured

cases at the leading edge start at much lower effectiveness, the contoured cases

systematically reveal higher effectiveness distributions from the leading edge to the

72
trailing edge. These systematic distributions of the film effectiveness with higher starting

values are the consequence of the endwall contouring that made possible a continuous

reduction of the secondary flow velocity from the pressure to suction surface. This

systematic pattern is observed for all three rotational speeds even for the 2400 rpm,

which is an extreme off-design condition.

0.5

2400 rpm
MFR=0.5%_Contoured
0.4 MFR=1.0%_Contoured
MFR=1.5%_Contoured
MFR=0.5%_Non-Contoured
MFR=1.0%_Non-Comtoured
0.3 MFR=1.5%_Non-Contoured
Average 

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
X/Cx

Figure 39: Pitch-wise average film cooling effectiveness distribution along axial
chord for different rpms (Blowing ratio for MFR=0.5%, 1.0% and
1.5% are M=0.372, 0.744, and 1.116 respectively)

73
 0.5 0.5

MFR=0.5% MFR=1.0%
M=0.372 M=0.744
0.4 0.4
2400 rpm 2400 rpm
2550 rpm 2550 rpm
3000 rpm 3000 rpm
0.3
Average 

0.3

Average 
0.2 0.2

0.1 0.1

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
X/Cx X/Cx

M=1.116

Figure 40: Pitch-wise average film cooling effectiveness distribution along axial
chord for different MFRs

By comparing the contoured and non-contoured plots, it is concluded that the

pressure difference between pressure side and suction side is lower than non-contoured

which causes uniform distribution of film cooling effectiveness in the contoured

platform. Moreover, the lower pressure difference between the pressure side and suction

side reduces the strength of horseshoe vortices and therefore less mixing occurs between

74
the coolant and the mainstream flow and as a result there is higher film cooling

effectiveness in contoured platform.

Impact of the rotational speed on the film cooling effectiveness is illustrated in

three diagrams of Figure 40. It shows the pitch-wise averaged film cooling effectiveness

results plotted for the three different MFRs. The impact of turbine rotational speeds on

film cooling effectiveness can be clearly perceived from these plots. As rpm increases,

the effectiveness magnitudes increase for the same mass flow ratio.

Figure 41: Total average film cooling effectiveness for different rpms

As seen in Figure 39 and Figure 40, for the contouring endwall, the first 30% of

the endwall is sufficiently covered. In non-contoured cases, the coverage of the first 10%

75
is not satisfactory. This reduces the non-contoured coverage to 20% only. Regarding the

remaining 70%, different cooling schemes such as installing film cooling holes must be

applied as detailed in [27].

Further information regarding the impact of contouring on total averaged

effectiveness is provided by Figure 41 to evaluate the overall impact of contouring on

effectiveness. For all rotational speeds, the contoured endwall shows higher values. As

shown in this figure, by increasing the MFR to 1.5% the difference between total

average film cooling effectiveness in contoured and non-contoured cases becomes lower.

5.5. Influence of Coolant Density on Contoured Endwall Film-cooling

The Majority of the work on film-cooling has been implemented with coolant-to-

mainstream density ratios close to 1.0. This is far from the actual density ratio in real

turbines due to the temperature difference between the coolant and the hot mainstream.

According to different gas turbine designs for platform film cooling, the density ratio

changes from 1.5 to 2.0. In this investigation two PSP tests at density ratios of DR=1.0

(using N2 as coolant) and 1.5 (using CO2 as coolant) were performed on the same

platform geometry at 3000 rpm and MFR=1%.

76
 Figure 42: Film cooling effectiveness distribution at two different density ratios at
3000 rpm and MFR=1%

According to Narzary et al. [83], for coolant-to-mainstream density ratio greater

than 1.0, Equation (15) could be modified to

1
  1

 pO2 ,m  MWc 
 ( 20 )
  1  1
p 

 O2 ,c  MWm  

As shown in Figure 42 and Figure 43, film-cooling effectiveness improved with

increasing density ratio. In DR=1.5 the passage platform is almost covered with film

cooling. Due to conservation of mass, since the density is increasing, the velocity must

decrease which causes the momentum to decrease, and provides higher effectiveness

downstream along the endwall passage (compared to lower density coolant like N2).

77
Figure 43: Pitch-wise average film cooling effectiveness distribution for two
different coolant at 3000 rpm, MFR=1%

78
 6. BLADE TIP COOLING MEASUREMENTS*

In this section blowing ratio effect and rotation effect will be discussed for each

configuration. Film cooling effectiveness measurements were performed for three

blowing ratios (M) of 0.75, 1.25 and 1.75. Film cooling data was also obtained for three

rotational speeds; 3000 rpm (reference condition), 2550 rpm and 2000 rpm.

Experimental measurement have been done for four different tip configurations: plane

tip with tip hole cooling, squealer tip with tip hole cooling, plane tip with pressure-side-

edge compound angle hole cooling and squealer tip with pressure-side-edge compound

angle hole cooling. In order to show the flow behavior at the tip of the blade some CFD

results are used. The CFD part was performed by Kun Lu [56].

6.1. Blowing Ratio Effect

For all cases higher blowing ratios resulted in coolant injection with higher

momentum. The injected coolant is at the same density as the mainstream i.e. the coolant

to mainstream density ratio is 1. Hence, the injected coolant velocity is higher for higher

blowing ratios. This affects the secondary flow structure in the passage for each

configuration.

*
Reprinted with permission from “A Combined Experimental and Numerical Study of the
Turbine Blade Tip Film Cooling Effectiveness under Rotation Condition” by Mohsen Rezasoltani, Kun
Lu, Meinhard T. Schobeiri and Je-Chin Han, 2015. J. Turbomach, 137(5), Copyright © 2015 by ASME.
79
6.1.1. Plane Tip with Tip Hole Cooling

The film cooling effectiveness resulting from using PSP for the reference rotating

condition of 3000 rpm are plotted in Figure 44. The figure shows the contour plots for all

three blowing ratios tested on the plane tip. The contour plots also show the location of

the seven tip cooling holes.

M=0.75 M=1.25 M=1.75

Figure 44: Film cooling effectiveness measured for plane tip with tip hole cooling at
3000 rpm

At M=0.75 the trajectory of each hole appears as a narrow streak and can be

approximately differentiated from each other due to the relatively small blowing ratio.

The cooling effectiveness is around 0.2 within the coolant trajectories. The highest value

of nearly 0.3 is obtained right at the downstream of the cooling-hole exits. The

downstream cooling effectiveness is gradually decreased due to the diffusion of cooling

jets and the mixing between the coolants and the leakage flow. As the blowing ratio

increases to M=1.25 each coolant trajectory tends to diffuse more and thus covers more

80
area. The trajectories of the cooling jets exiting from the first, the sixth and the seventh

holes are easily identified, whereas a large area with high effectiveness appears in the

vicinity of the rest of the cooling holes due to the coolant accumulation. It is noticeable

that the highest film cooling effectiveness (above 0.35) is observed in the vicinity of the

last four cooling holes. In the case of M=1.75, the trajectory tends to be thicker and thus

the film cooling performance is even better as expected. Higher film cooling

effectiveness is achieved especially when it comes to the last four cooling holes due to

the coolant accumulation. Around 50% of the blade tip surface is covered by the film

coolant.

Looking at the shape of the high effectiveness area, the shape has high

coincidence with the trajectories of cooling jets. Hence the adiabatic film cooling

effectiveness largely reflects the consequence of the flow behaviors. Figure 45 depicts

the corresponding streamline patterns at the blade tip region. Since the object of the

current study is a rotor blade rotating at 3000 rpm with the tip speed of 215.34 m/s, the

streamlines are plotted based on the relative velocity in the rotating coordinates.

81
Without film cooling M=0.75 M=1.25 M=1.75
Figure 45: Streamlines based on the relative velocity (CFD results) at 3000 rpm
(blue indicates cooling air, red is freestream air) for plane tip with tip
hole cooling [56, 57]

Many factors can affect the film cooling effectiveness. One of the critical

parameters is the blowing ratio. Another one is the blade tip geometry. Due to the blunt

and round leading edge of the blade, the pressure difference at the leading edge is not as

high as that between the pressure side and suction side. Consequently, the mainstream

particles entering the tip gap are not deflected immediately. Nevertheless, they keep

traveling a distance along the initial direction until the pressure difference becomes high

enough to push them to the suction side at about 30% of Cax. As a result, a small amount

of flow leaks from the pressure side of the leading edge, whereas the majority moves

towards the suction side forming a system of tip vortices.

Figure 46 depicts the static pressure distribution at the blade tip region for

blowing ratios of M=1.25 at 3000 rpm. For the plane tip without film cooling holes, the

82
typical pressure distribution is obtained. The pressure side (PS) has the highest pressure

and the pressure is gradually decreased towards the suction side (SS). The resulted

pressure difference pointing from PS to SS is the primary driving force of the tip-gap

leakage flow.

3000 rpm 2550 rpm 2000 rpm

Figure 46: Distribution of the static pressure (CFD results) at plane tip with tip
hole cooling [56, 57]

Based on the Figure 44 and Figure 45 all the coolant particles exiting from the

first and second cooling holes travels across the pressure side and form a passage flow

by mixing with the mainstream. Meanwhile, the rest of the majority appears to

accumulate in the vicinity of cooling-hole exits. The coolant spreads more widely and

covers more of the tip, which is virtually the result of the impact of both the pressure

difference and the relative motion between the tip and shroud.

It is shown that the coolant particles tend to travel in the opposite direction of

rotation, especially for the cooling jets exiting from the first two cooling holes. This
83
phenomenon is due to the rotation and does not exist in a stationary cascade. While in

this specific hole configuration, the jets tend to exit radially, and the circumferential

motion of the rotor causes the blade tip to move away from the jets. As a result the

particle moving along a relative streamline with a relative velocity tangent to the

streamline.

6.1.2. Squealer Tip with Tip Hole Cooling

Different effectiveness contours were obtained when it comes to the squealer tip.

As shown in Figure 47, more area of the squealer tip is protected by the film cooling

when compared with the plane tip. However, the local cooling effectiveness on the

squealer tip tends to be lower. The impact of the blowing ratio on the cooling

effectiveness might be less important for the squealer tip.

M=0.75 M=1.25 M=1.75

Figure 47: Film cooling effectiveness measured for plane tip with tip hole cooling at
3000 rpm

84
 At all blowing ratios, nearly the entire cavity floor is to some extent protected by

the cooling film. Apparently the area of the cavity close to the pressure side is not

cooled, whereas cooling effectiveness on the rest of the cavity floor is almost above 0.1.

Maximum effectiveness is found in the vicinity of the cavity trailing end due to the

accumulation of coolant coming from the upstream. More coolant leaking from the

suction side causes higher cooling effectiveness.

Without film cooling M=0.75 M=1.25 M=1.75

Figure 48: Streamlines based on the relative velocity (CFD results) at 3000 rpm
(blue indicates cooling air, red is freestream air) for squealer tip with
tip hole cooling [56, 57]

As seen in Figure 48, after crossing over the narrow gap between the casing and

the squealer rim, the freestream flow is squeezed in the squealer cavity. Sudden

expansion induces flow circulations within the cavity which entraps the freestream

particles. Meanwhile, strong interactions between the leakage flow and the cooling jets

85
intensify the mixing which forms three-dimensional complex vortex systems. Major

portion of the mixture of the leakage flow and the coolant continues to roll and travels

downstream along the cavity. Eventually, the flow particles accumulate at the trailing

end of the cavity and afterward escape from the cavity by crossing over the suction side

rim, which generates the suction-side tip vortex. Unlike the case for plane tips, some

coolant particles are transported to the leading edge portion by complicated vortices

circulating at the surrounding area. Such transportation is able to partially relieve the

heat loads and thus provide certain cooling protection to the cavity walls near the leading

edge. However, the leading edge of the plane tip is directly exposed to the hot freestream

and at risk of overheating. This is an advantage of the squealer tip.

3000 rpm 2550 rpm 2000 rpm

Figure 49: Distribution of the static pressure (CFD results) at squealer tip with tip
hole cooling [56, 57]

The pressure on the squealer tip shows dramatically different distributions

compared with that on the plane tip. As shown in Figure 49, the most noticeable
86
characteristic is that the pressure distribution on the cavity floor tends to be uniform and

thus the pressure gradient on the cavity floor is significantly decreased. This is resulted

from the presence of the large cavity on the tip.

6.1.3. Plane Tip with Pressure-side-edge Compound Angle Hole Cooling

The film cooling effectiveness contour plots for three blowing ratios at the

reference rotating condition of 3000 rpm are plotted in Figure 50. The maximum film

cooling effectiveness among three cases is about 0.25 with maximum value occurring at

pressure side near trailing edge. As blowing ratio increases from M=0.75 to M=1.75,

overall film cooling effectiveness increases. This is due to higher mass flow rate of the

coolant injected through the holes resulting in a larger film covered area. The film-

covered area extends further downstream with a higher maximum value for film-cooling

effectiveness as blowing ratio increases.

M=0.75 M=1.75 M=0.75

Figure 50: Film cooling effectiveness measured for plane tip with pressure side hole
cooling at 3000 rpm

87
 Figure 51 shows streamlines based on the relative velocities near the blade tip.

As it is shown, due to high mainstream velocities on pressure side, coolant injected

through these pressure side holes can get diverted towards the trailing edge. Thus,

effectiveness for the first three holes is almost negligible. Due to the blade geometry and

round leading edge, the pressure gradient at the leading edge is not as big as pressure

gradient between the pressure side and suction side near trailing edge. Therefore, almost

the first 50% of chord length is not covered. As it is shown in Figure 45 (Tip streamlines

without cooling) leakage flow almost starts at 50% of chord length. So cooling flow

follows the leakage flow in that region and covers that area.

M=0.75, 3000 rpm M=1.25, 3000 rpm M=1.75, 3000 rpm

Figure 51: Streamlines based on the relative velocity (CFD results) at 3000 rpm
(blue indicates cooling air) for plane tip with pressure side hole cooling
[56, 57]

The relative flow velocity through the gap is dictated by the blade tip rotational

speed. Since the dynamic pressure of the relative velocity is much larger than the static

pressure difference along the first 50% on the blade tip, the fluid particle within the gap

are pushed in the opposite direction of the rotation, thus the major portion of the surface

close to the suction side is not covered.

88
6.1.4. Squealer Tip with Pressure-side-edge Compound Angle Hole Cooling

Figure 52 shows film cooling effectiveness distribution for squealer blade tip

with pressure side-edge compound angle hole cooling. The film-covered area for

squealer tip is smaller as compared to plane tip. The highest film cooling value among

three cases is around 0.25 that occurs at pressure side near trailing edge. Film-cooling

effectiveness increases with increasing blowing ratio. Similar to the plane tip with PS

cooling, by increasing the coolant mass flow rate, more cooling flow covered the area.

For the region from the mid-chord of the blade to the trailing edge on the pressure side

rim, the effectiveness is higher. A noticeable trace can be detected on the trailing edge,

which is probably due to some carrying over of the coolant over the rim from the

pressure side.

M=0.75 M=1.25 M=1.75

Figure 52: Film cooling effectiveness measured for squealer tip with pressure side
hole cooling at 3000 rpm

89
 As it is shown in Figure 53, the presence of a squealer tip reduces the leakage

flow from pressure to suction side of the blade. The squealer cavity acts like labyrinth

seal and does not allow the leakage flow goes from pressure side to suction side.

M=0.75, 3000 rpm M=1.25, 3000 rpm M=1.75, 3000 rpm

Figure 53: Streamlines based on the relative velocity (CFD results) at 3000 rpm
(blue indicates cooling air) for squealer tip with pressure side hole
cooling [56, 57]

6.2. Effect of Rotation Speed Change

In this section effect of rotation for all four configurations is investigated. Film

cooling effectiveness data is taken for blowing ration M=1.25 for three different rpm:

3000 rpm, 2550 rpm and 2000 rpm.

At rotational speeds lower than the design speed, the blade flow deflection

becomes larger leading to higher specific stage load coefficient, and the stagnation

region moves towards the pressure side as the flow incidence angle increases, as

sketched in Figure 38. At lower rotating speeds, the stagnation point will further move

towards the blade pressure side resulting in a higher pressure zone close to the pressure

surface.

90
6.2.1. Plane Tip with Tip Hole Cooling

Figure 54 shows film cooling effectiveness contour for plane tip with tip hole

cooling. As it is shown, more coolant appears to go to the suction side of the blade where

the pressure difference across the blade is larger with the lower rotational speed. This

phenomenon can be clearly observed from static pressure distribution shown in Figure

46. By decreasing the rpm from 3000 rpm to 2000 rpm, pressure increases at pressure

side and decreases at suction side.

3000 rpm 2550 rpm 2000 rpm

Figure 54: Effect of rotation on film cooling effectiveness measured for M=1.25 for
plane tip with tip hole cooling

According to Figure 55, almost all of the cooling jet’s streamlines at 2000 rpm

follow the leakage flow and go to the suction side. For 2550 rpm, almost all of the

cooling jets are deflected towards the suction side, except that a small amount of coolant

ejecting from the first cooling hole moves to the pressure side and then leaves the tip gap

together with the leakage flow on the pressure side. For 2000 rpm, all of the cooling jets

91
are deflected towards the suction side. This result is very similar to cascade result shown

in [84].

3000 rpm 2550 rpm 2000 rpm

Figure 55: Streamlines based on the relative velocity (CFD results) at different rpm
(blue indicates cooling air, red is freestream air)- plane tip with tip hole
cooling [56, 57].

6.2.2. Squealer Tip with Tip Hole Cooling

In squealer tip, by decreasing the speed, the effectiveness and film cooling

coverage increase. As shown in Figure 56, in 2000 rpm the film cooling effectiveness is

almost above 0.15. As shown in Figure 49, by decreasing the rpm flow incidence angle

increases and the stagnation region moves towards the pressure side resulting in a higher

pressure zone close to the pressure surface. This affects the flow behavior inside the

cavity. In 3000 rpm, it is observed that the region between the pressure side and the

holes is not covered by the coolant. The coolant flow goes to the suction side after flow

92
reattachment, so the coolant jets are directed toward the suction side. When the

incidence angle changes the flow reattachment location also changes. In the positive

incidence angle, the leakage flow is stronger and the flow circulation inside the cavity is

enhanced. The coolant is more dispersed in the tip cavity and as a result film cooling

effectiveness increases over the cavity floor. In 2000 rpm, coolant gets accumulated

inside the squealer cavity in the region between the mid-chord and the trailing edge due

to flow recirculation in the contracting squealer passage. Figure 57 shows Streamlines

based on the relative velocity (CFD results) at different rpm for squealer tip with tip hole

cooling.

3000 rpm 2550 rpm 2000 rpm

Figure 56: Effect of rotation on film cooling effectiveness measured for M=1.25 for
squealer tip with tip hole cooling

93
 3000 rpm 2550 rpm 2000 rpm
Figure 57: Streamlines based on the relative velocity (CFD results) at different rpm
(blue indicates cooling air, red is freestream air) - squealer tip with tip
hole cooling [56, 57]

6.2.3. Plane Tip with Pressure-Side-Edge Compound Angle Hole Cooling

Similar trend like squealer tip is obtained when it comes to plane tip with

pressure side-edge cooling. As shown in Figure 58, more area of the tip surface is

protected by coolant flow by decreasing rotational speed. Figure 59 shows the pressure

distribution on pressure side and tip surface. As it is shown, stagnation point moves

toward pressure side and it is close to first hole. Higher pressure on pressure side

increases the leakage flow to suction side. Figure 60 depicts the streamline at plane tip

with pressure side cooling. In 2000 rpm, compared to 3000 rpm, less flow is diverted

towards leakage flow and followed main-stream velocity inside the passage between

94
blades. The highest value of nearly 0.4 is obtained at 2000 rpm near trailing edge due to

accumulation of coolant.

3000 rpm 2550 rpm 2000 rpm

Figure 58: Effect of rotation on film cooling effectiveness measured for M=1.25 for
plane tip with PS hole cooling

M=1.25, 3000 rpm M=1.25, 2550 rpm M=1.25, 2000 rpm

Figure 59: Distribution of the static pressure (CFD results) at plane tip with PS
hole cooling [56, 57]

95
 M=1.25, 3000 rpm M=1.25, 2550 rpm M=1.25, 2000 rpm
Figure 60: Streamlines based on the relative velocity (CFD results) at different rpm
(blue indicates cooling air) - plane tip with PS hole cooling [56, 57]

6.2.4. Squealer Tip with Pressure-side-edge Compound Angle Hole Cooling

In squealer tip with pressure side cooling less leakage flow goes from pressure

side to suction side due to existence of cavity. By decreasing the rpm, incidence angle

increases, and also pressure increases on pressure side (Figure 61). This increase

enhances the film cooling effectiveness on pressure side rim. The highest film cooling

value among three rpms is around 0.35 that occurs at pressure side near trailing edge at

2000 rpm (Figure 62). At 2000 rpm and 2550 rpm some coolant streamlines cover some

area on suction side rim. As it is shown in Figure 63 some coolant streamlines reattach

the cavity floor at 2000 rpm and covered small area there.

M=1.25, 3000 rpm M=1.25, 2550 rpm M=1.25, 2000 rpm

Figure 61: Distribution of the static pressure (CFD results) at squealer tip with PS
hole cooling [56, 57]

96
 3000 rpm 2550 rpm 2000 rpm

Figure 62: Effect of rotation on film cooling effectiveness measured for M=1.25 for
squealer tip with PS hole cooling

M=1.25, 3000 rpm M=1.25, 2550 rpm M=1.25, 2000 rpm

Figure 63: Streamlines based on the relative velocity (CFD results) at different rpm
(blue indicates cooling air) - squealer tip with PS hole cooling [56, 57]

6.3. Comparison of Computational and Experimental Results

Figure 64 shows the comparison of computational and experimental results for

different configurations. Steady-state CFD was able to predict the coolant trace. The area

covered by film cooling is almost identical with experimental results. It shows that

Steady-state CFD can predict the flow behavior at tip of the blade well.

97
 CFD

(a) (b) (c) (d)

EXP

(e) (f) (g) (h)

Figure 64: Comparison of CFD results (top row) and experimental results (bottom
row) at 3000 rpm, M=1.25. (a, e) plane tip with tip hole cooling, (b, f)
squealer tip with tip hole cooling, (c, g) plane tip with PS hole cooling
and (d, h) squealer tip with PS hole cooling [56, 57]

The only problem is that Steady-state CFD over predicts the film cooling

effectiveness by almost 90%. The reason is primarily attributed to a gap between the

Steady-state CFD models and physical facts. For instance, the stator wakes, upstream

turbulence intensity, rotor-stator interactions and so on can probably reduce the film

cooling effectiveness. However these substantial characteristics have been eliminated by

the mixing plane interface between stator and rotor. Importantly, inherent deficiency of

the turbulence models in predicting very close-to-wall heat transfer and lacking of

98
proper boundary layer transition models essentially create the difficulty for CFD

software in quantitative prediction. Therefore researchers often use CFD tool as a helpful

assistant to attain some details which are difficult to measure in order to draw more

complete pictures of the research objects. Using transient CFD to predict the film

cooling effectiveness at blade tip is the subject of an ongoing research at TPFL.

6.4. Pitch-wise Average Film Cooling Effectiveness

The film cooling effectiveness results were averaged along the pitch-wise

direction and the averaged data for all blowing ratios and rotational speeds are presented

in Figure 65 along the axial chord.

In plane tip, it is shown that the coverage of the film cooling starts from nearly

15% Cax and ends at 90% Cax. For M=0.75, the averaged value seems to gradually

increase along the Cax within the covered area. Several peaks are observed and each of

them represents the location of every film cooling hole. At M=1.25, the averaged film

cooling effectiveness is slightly lower than 0.1 from 20% Cax to 60% Cax. However, the

averaged value dramatically increases when it reaches 65% Cax. Between 65% Cax and

80% Cax, the averaged film cooling effectiveness is as high as 0.18. Even higher film

cooling effectiveness is obtained when the blowing ratio reaches M=1.75.

99
 (a) Plane Tip- Tip cooling (b) Squealer Tip- Tip cooling

(c) Plane Tip- PS cooling (d) Squealer Tip- PS cooling

Figure 65: Pitch-wise average film cooling effectiveness measured for four different
configurations - different blowing ratio at 3000 rpm

The squealer tip shows quite different trends in Figure 65(b). The film cooling is

effective up to 90% Cax for all the blowing ratios. For M=0.75, the pitchwise-averaged

film cooling effectiveness is stabilized around 0.06 until it bumps up a bit at 80% C ax.

However, the averaged cooling effectiveness gradually grows 0.12 when the blowing

ratio becomes 1.25. A similar trend is obtained for the blowing ratio M=1.75, but the

average slope is slightly larger compared with M=1.25. The highest value of 0.15

appears at about 80% Cax where it is believed to be close to the cavity trailing end. In

100
fact, the peak value is found in the same area for all three blowing ratios. As discussed

earlier the impact of the blowing ratio on the cooling effectiveness might be less

important for the squealer tip. Within 40% Cax and 80% Cax, the plane tip offers higher

averaged cooling effectiveness than the squealer tip does.

(a) Plane Tip- Tip cooling (b) Squealer Tip- Tip cooling

(c)Plane Tip- PS cooling (d) Squealer Tip- PS cooling

Figure 66: Pitch-wise average film cooling effectiveness measured for four different
configurations - different rpm at M=1.25

The impact of the rotational speed on the film cooling effectiveness is also

illustrated in Figure 66. It shows the pitch-wise averaged film cooling effectiveness

101
results plotted for M=1.25. The impact of turbine rotational speeds on film cooling

effectiveness can be clearly perceived from these plots.

In plane tip, as rpm increases, the effectiveness magnitudes increase for the same

mass flow ratio. On the other hand, the squealer tip shows completely different trends.

As shown in Figure 66 in 2000 rpm from Cax 10% to 90% the average film cooling

effectiveness is almost higher than 0.1 while average film cooling in 2550 rpm and 3000

rpm are less than 0.1 almost along axial chord.

In plane tip with pressure side cooling, the coverage of film cooling starts from

50% Cax at 3000 rpm (Figure 65(c)). The averaged film cooling increases gradually along

the Cax within the covered area. By increasing the blowing ratio to 1.75, higher film

cooling effectiveness is obtained.

As rpm decreases to 2000 rpm, film cooling effectiveness coverage starts earlier.

For example, at 2550 rpm it starts at 30% Cax and at 3000 rpm it starts at 20% Cax. The

highest averaged film cooling effectiveness among all the cases in Figure 66(c) appears

at 2000 rpm at 85%.

Squealer tip with pressure side cooling has the same trends as plane tip with

pressure side cooling. For all blowing ratios, from 50% Cax to 80% Cax averaged film

cooling effectiveness increases slightly due to pressure side rim effectiveness. The

highest value of 0.15 appears at about 90% Cax where it is close to the cavity trailing

end. The peak value is found in the same area for all three blowing ratios.

102
 0.10
0.09
Squealer Tip Plane Tip Plane-PS cooling Squealer-PS cooling
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
M=0.75 M=1.25 M=1.75

Figure 67. Area-averaged film cooling effectiveness versus blowing ratio at the
blade tip region

The area-averaged film cooling effectiveness versus the blowing ratio at the

blade tip region is shown in Figure 67. It is shown that the overall film cooling

effectiveness for plane tip increases monotonically as the blowing ratio is increased. This

is consistent with the contour plots in Figure 47. Note that the overall effectiveness on

the plane tip is slightly lower than that on the squealer tip for M=0.75. With increasing

blowing ratios, the situation is altered. Higher overall effectiveness is obtained on the

plane tip for both M=1.25 and 1.75.

103
 0.1
Squealer Tip Plane Tip
0.09
Plane-PS cooling Squealer-PS cooling
0.08

0.07

0.06

0.05

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01

0
2000 rpm 2550 rpm 3000 rpm

Figure 68. Area-averaged film cooling effectiveness versus rotational speed at the
blade tip region at M=1.25

The area-averaged film cooling effectiveness versus rotational speed at the blade

tip region is shown in Figure 68. Squealer tip at 2000 rpm has the highest value among

all the cases. For all the configurations except the plane tip by increasing the rpm, the

area averaged film cooling effectiveness decreases. According to Figure 47 and Figure

48, for the plane tip at 3000 rpm all the coolant particles exiting from the first and

second cooling holes travel across the pressure side and form a passage flow by mixing

with the mainstream. Therefore, coolant covers more of the tip, which is virtually the

result of the impact of both the pressure difference and the relative motion between the

tip and shroud.

104
 As it is mentioned earlier, the objective of the dissertation is to experimentally

investigate the film cooling effectiveness for different turbine blade tip configurations.

Of course in real design heat transfer coefficients, cooling flow penalties and stage

losses should be considered.

105
 7. AERODYNAMIC FLOW MEASUREMENT

Endwall Secondary flow losses and vortices play a significant role in reduction

of stage efficiency in high pressure (HP) turbines. As explained in section 1, endwall

contouring is one of the ways to reduce endwall secondary flows. Recent studies [85-87]

depicted how flow modified at the stage exit by upstream secondary vortices. Hodson et

al. [85] investigated the interactions of incoming wakes and secondary flow vortices in a

single stage axial turbine. Results showed that stator secondary flows have small effect

on rotor secondary flows. Three dimensional flowfield inside the rotor passage forced

these effects to be appeared toward the midspan. Chaluvadi et al. continued the work for

understanding the blade row interaction by using smoke flow visualization and five hole

probes in a single stage high pressure turbine. Figure 69 shows a simple model of vortex

transport from the stator passage through the rotor passage. Downstream blade row cuts

the stator hub passage vortex in a pretty similar way to the wake. As a result, the bowed

vortex seems to have two counter rotating legs: suction side leg (vortex 3) and pressure

side leg (vortex 4) as shown in Figure 69. Chaluvadi et al. [86] explained “At the hub the

kinematic interaction between the stator and the rotor passage vortices has two effects.

First, the suction side leg of the stator passage vortex is displaced radially upward over

the developing rotor hub passage vortex. Additionally, the pressure side leg of the stator

passage vortex is entrained into the rotor passage vortex. Similar phenomena were

observed at the tip of the rotor blade row.”

106
 Figure 69: simple blade vortex transport model by [86]

Pullan [87] studied the secondary flows and blade row interaction in a low speed

research turbine facility. Some vortical structures were seen in the rotor passage caused

by stator exit flow field. Unsteady numerical simulation was also performed to

understand the formation of these vortices.

Porreca et al. [88] used PIV and fast response aerodynamic probes to measure

steady and unsteady pressure and velocity fields. They found that vortex stretching and

wake bending due to the flow interaction with stator are primary source of losses and

unsteadiness in the rotor. Porreca et al. [89] in another paper investigated the fluid

107
dynamics and performance of shrouded blades in axial turbines. Behr et al. [90] studied

the effect of stator and rotor clocking in HP turbines.

Gaetani et al. [91] experimentally investigated the effect of stator secondary

flows on rotor flow field. Two different axial gaps between stator and rotor were studied

and compared. The rotor flowfield and interaction with stator vortices and wakes were

explained. Persico et al. [92, 93] continued the work and performed parametric study of

the blade row interaction. Results showed increase in the magnitude of the rotor inlet

vortices change the structure of flow field in the rotor significantly. ANSYS-CFX were

also used to evaluate the three dimensional unsteady aerodynamics of a low aspect ratio

turbines.

In this section results of comprehensive performance measurements and

interstage traversing at different rotational speeds and mass flow rates are presented.

7.1. Interstage Results

Interstage traversing was performed at rotational speeds of 2000 rpm, 2400 rpm

and 3000 rpm. Turbine cross sections showing all stations and placed of T-rings are

presented in Figure 70. As discussed in section 3, three five-hole probes are mounted on

three traversing systems with a decoder and encoder for accurate probe positioning.

Figure 71 shows the Angular position of the five-hole probes at stations 3, 4, and 5.

108
 Figure 70: Turbine cross section (Schobeiri et al. [53] and [54])

Results for 3000 rpm are presented in this section. Results for 2000 rpm and

2400 rpm are presented in appendix A.

109
 Figure 71: Angular position of the five-hole probes at station 3, 4, and 5 [54]

7.1.1. Contour plots

Figure 72 presents a general overview of the main flow features in terms of

contour lines on the station 3 after rotor blades as measured by five-hole probe in the

rotor. Absolute flow angle, relative flow angle, relative total pressure, total pressure,

meridian flow angle and Mach number are shown in this figure.

110
Figure 72: Contour plots of rotor exit flow (𝜶, 𝜷, 𝑷𝒕𝒓 , 𝑷𝒕 , 𝜸 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑴) at station 3
111
 According to meridian flow angle contour in Figure 72(e) almost 40% of the

span (from 25–65%) is filled by essentially 2D flow. Close to the hub area, high

meridian angle represents high vortical flow due to secondary flows. Similar behavior is

depicted in relative total pressure contour in which relative total pressure has some

sudden changes in magnitude in those regions.

Also a pretty large hub passage vortex centered at 20% of span can be seen

covering up to 15% of the span. As shown in Figure 69, the interaction between the

stator and the rotor passage vortices caused the suction side leg of the stator passage

vortex moved radially upwards over the rotor hub passage vortex. Moreover, the rotor

passage vortex swept over the pressure side leg of the stator passage vortex.

At the tip there is a region with vortical flows that covers almost 10% of the span

and it centered at 95% span. It can be concluded that secondary flows and high vortical

flows are caused by tip leakage flow. Another vortical structure region is placed at 80%

span. This structure could be originated by either the rotor secondary flow or the

interaction between stator and rotor casing secondary flow. This structure seems to be

slightly weaker than tip leakage flow.

Similar to the hub stator passage vortex, this vortical structure is caused by the

interaction between the tip leakage and stator casing vortex. This interaction moved the

stator casing vortex toward the midspan on the suction surface.

112
Figure 73: Contour plots of stator exit flow 𝜶, 𝜷, 𝑷𝒕𝒓 , 𝑷𝒕 , 𝜸 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑴 at station 4
113
 Figure 73 shows a general overview of the main flow features in terms of contour

lines on the station 4 after stator blades. Absolute flow angle, relative flow angle,

relative total pressure, total pressure, meridian flow angle and Mach number are

presented in this figure.

The region in the middle of the plot in the total pressure contour plot Figure

73(d) is the stator wake. This region can be identified in meridian angle plot (Figure

73(e)) and relative flow angle plot (Figure 73(b)). Based on meridian angle plot, 75% of

the span is almost two-dimensional flow. The Blade wake is the main reason for the loss

in this region.

Stronger losses happen close to the hub and tip. Meridian angle has sudden

change near the hub and tip due to endwall secondary flows. It seems secondary flows

near casing (blade tip) is more diffused compare to the hub endwall. According to [85]

this difference is due to the effects of the spanwise pressure gradients within the stator

passage.

Figure 74 depicts a general overview of the main flow features in terms of

contour lines on the station 5 after rotor blades. Absolute flow angle, relative flow angle,

relative total pressure, total pressure, meridian flow angle and Mach number are shown

in this figure. In general flow behavior is almost identical to station 3.

Similar to the contour plots at station 3, stator hub and casing passage vortex can

be seen in this figure. Stator hub passage vortex is centered at 35% and stator casing

vortex is located at 75% of span.

114
Figure 74: Contour plots of rotor exit flow 𝜶, 𝜷, 𝑷𝒕𝒓 , 𝑷𝒕 , 𝜸 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑴 at station 5
115
 The only difference between station 3 and station 5 is that hub secondary flows

in station 5 are very limited and weaker compared to station 3. Second rotor has a

contoured endwall and station 5 is right after the contouring. This is the consequence of

the endwall contouring that has reduced the pressure difference between the pressure and

suction surface leading to lower secondary flow vortices.

7.1.2. Radial Pitchwise Averaged Distribution

In this section radial distribution of pitchwise averaged of flow parameters as a

𝑟−𝑟ℎ𝑢𝑏
function of the immersion ratio 𝑅 = 𝑟 are presented at 3000 rpm.
𝑡𝑖𝑝 −𝑟ℎ𝑢𝑏

Figure 75 depicts the radial distribution of pitchwise average absolute flow angle.

Some irregularities can be seen for all stations close to the tip start at 85% span. These

regions are affected by tip leakage vortices and casing secondary flows which explained

in previous section.

At station 3 and 4, areas near hub undergo strong changes in flow angles due to

hub secondary flow vortices. These areas can be seen up to 20% of span. On the other

hand, station 5 shows smooth flow angle distribution near hub which is due to endwall

contouring that reduced the hub secondary flows in that region. The immersion ratio

range between R = 0.3 to 0.7 shows a moderate change in the range of 5°.

116
 65
60 3000 rpm
55
50
45
 [deg] 40
35
30
Station 3
25 Station 4
20 Station 5

15
10
5
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Immersion Ratio r  (r  rhub)  (rtip  rhub)
*

Figure 75: Radial pitchwise averaged distribution of the absolute flow angle

15
3000 rpm
10

0
 [deg]

-5

-10

-15

Station 3
-20
Station 4
Station 5
-25

-30
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Immersion Ratio r  (r  rhub)  (rtip  rhub)
*

Figure 76: Radial pitchwise averaged distribution of meridian angle

117
 Figure 76 shows radial pitchwise averaged distribution of meridian angle. Station

4 has moderate change in immersion ratio between 0.15 and 0.85. It can be concluded

that flow is two dimensional in this region. Station 3 shows more changes near hub and

tip. Almost 40% of span in the area between R=0.25 to R=0.65 is two dimensional and

the rest is affected by hub secondary flow vortices and tip leakage vortices. Interestingly

station 5 doesn’t show any strong changes near hub compare to other stations. This is the

result of the contoured endwall which reduced the secondary flow vortices. Station 5

similar to station 3 shows a strong changes near tip from R= 0.8 to R=1.

0.35

0.3

0.25
Mach Number

Station 3
0.2 Station 4
Station 5

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Immersion Ratio r  (r  rhub)  (rtip  rhub)
*

Figure 77: Radial pitchwise averaged distribution of the absolute Mach number at
3000 rpm

118
 Absolute Mach numbers as function of immersion ratios are shown in Figure 77.

Uniform low sub subsonic absolute Mach numbers around 0.1 are encountered

downstream of the first and second rotor, stations 3 and 5, whereas the second stator exit

Mach number, at station 4, is around 0.3. That’s why five hole probes were calibrated

based on Mach number 0.1 and 0.3.

Figure 78 shows radial pitchwise averaged distribution of relative velocity at

3000 rpm. Major changes near hub and tip can be seen due to secondary flows and tip

leakage vortices. Considering the flow angles, Figure 79 exhibits the distribution of the

axial velocity component, which is responsible for mass flow distribution in the

spanwise direction.

100
3000 rpm
90

80
Relative Velocity [m/sec]

70

60 Station 3
Station 4
50 Station 5

40

30

20

10

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Immersion Ratio r  (r  rhub)  (rtip  rhub)
*

Figure 78: Radial pitchwise averaged distribution of the relative velocity

119
 3000 rpm
40

Axial Velocity [m/sec]

32

24

16 Station 3
Station 4
Station 5

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Immersion Ratio r  (r  rhub)  (rtip  rhub)
*

Figure 79: Radial distribution of the axial velocity at 3000 rpm

95
3000 rpm
Static Pressure [kPa]

90

85

Station 3
Station 4
Station 5
80
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Immersion Ratio r  (r  rhub)  (rtip  rhub)
*

Figure 80: Radial distribution of static pressure at 3000 rpm

120
 94

93

92

Total Pressure [kPa] 91

Station 3
90 Station 4
Station 5 3000 rpm
89

88

87

86

85

84
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Immersion Ratio r  (r  rhub)  (rtip  rhub)
*

Figure 81: Radial distribution of the total pressure at 3000 rpm

Figure 80 and Figure 81 show the radial distribution of static pressure and total

pressure at station 3, 4 and 5 respectively. In all stations static pressure slightly increased

from hub to tip. Total pressure in station 4 shows how some irregularities at the hub and

tip. In general total pressure at station 4 is slightly less than station 3 due to different

losses involved. Similar to static pressure, total pressure at station 5 increased radially

from hub to tip. Figure 72 shows the contour plot of the total pressure distribution

downstream of the first rotor, at station 3. Three different flow regions are presented in

this figure [9]. Near the hub due to the combined effect of secondary flow and mixing, a

slightly lower total pressure region is visible. In the center, another region of slightly

lower total pressure indicates the presence of relatively thick wakes. As stated
121
previously, pneumatic (five-hole) probes were used for this investigation. These probes

inherently have low frequency response; however, the flow within the axial gaps is

highly unsteady. To capture the flow details, high frequency response probes such as hot

wire probes are required. Figure 73 reveals a relatively thick wake region immediately

downstream of the stator blade trailing edge. The total pressure contour at station 5,

(Figure 74), which is downstream of the second rotor, is similar to station 3 except at the

hub secondary flows has been reduced by endwall contouring.

The interstage traversing provides the entire flow quantities, from which the

absolute and relative total pressures and thus the total pressure loss coefficients for the

stator and the rotor can be determined. By using circumferentially consistently averaged

quantities, the total pressure loss coefficients for stator and rotor were defined as:

Pt 3  Pt 4
 stator 
1 ( 21 )
V4 2
2

𝑃𝑡𝑟4 − 𝑃𝑡𝑟5 ( 22 )
𝜁𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
1 2
2 𝜌𝑊5

In order to calculate the density and Mach number correctly, temperature

measurements were done at four different locations at each stator. Figure 82 shows the

temperature readings at each stator and presents how temperature drops at each stage.

122
 60
Temp @ 3:00 Temp @ 12:00
53.2 53.6 55.0
50.0 Temp @ 9:00 Temp @ 6:00
50 47.5
46.1 45.2 45.4

40 38.6 39.9 38.1 38.6

30

20

10

0
Stator 1 Stator 2 Stator 3

Figure 82: Temperature measurement at each stator

Total pressure loss coefficient is presented in Figure 83. In the stator, hub

secondary flows play an important role to increase losses at about immersion ratio 0.15.

Near the tip starts at about 90% immersion ratio, effect of casing secondary flows on

total pressure loss is visible.

In the rotor, as discussed in previous section, 4 regions of high vortical flows

affect the flow field. Near the hub at about immersion ratio 0.1 is affected by hub

secondary flows. In this case since the endwall was contoured, significant reduction in

total pressure loss coefficient can be seen.

123
 1

0.9

0.8

0.7 STATOR
ROTOR
0.6
Tip leakage flows

0.5
Hub secondary flows
0.4
Casing secondary
0.3 flows
Stator passage vortex
0.2

0.1

0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
Immersion Ratio r  (r  rhub)  (rtip  rhub)
*

Figure 83: Total pressure loss coefficient at 3000 rpm

Second high loss area is around 35% of span. Due to the interaction between

stator and rotor, stator hub passage vortex displaced radially upwards and increased the

loss in this region.

Third high loss area is at immersion ration 0.8. Similar case happens at the rotor

tip, where the stator tip passage vortex and tip leakage interaction causes the vortical

structure move toward the midspan.

And finally the highest loss in the rotor happened at immersion ratio 0.95 where

the tip leakages dominate the flow field. Pitchwise averaged total pressure loss

coefficient is as high as 0.38.

124
7.2. Performance Results

This section focuses on the impact of the rotating purge flow on the performance

of TPFL research turbine with non- axisymmetric endwall contouring. The purge flow

investigation involves the reference case without endwall contouring followed by the

investigation with endwall contouring. Before taking the final data, several preliminary

experiments were conducted to ensure the reproducibility of the data.

After cutting the endwall contouring into the rotor hub, installing the blades,

balancing, the rotor was inserted into the casing, instrumented and prepared for

performance measurements. Final efficiency measurements presented in Figure 84

shows for the contoured rotor a maximum efficiency of 89.9% compared to the reference

non-contoured case of ηt-s = 88.86%. This is an efficiency increase of Δη = 1.04%, which

is almost double the value obtained from the numerical simulation of Δη = 0.51%

presented in [8]. In addition to contoured endwall, second rotor blade number was also

increased from 40 to 46.

This new method is particularly significant for applications to power generation

steam turbines. The high, intermediate and low pressure units (HP, IP, LP) consist of

many stages, with HP- and IP-units having moderate Zweifel coefficient. This

coefficient makes them particularly suitable for application of this contouring method

without changing the blade geometry. Contouring all rotor endwalls of these units will

substantially increase the unit efficiency.

125
 Figure 84 shows measured total-to-static efficiency as a function of 𝑢/𝑐𝑜 . The

dimensionless parameter 𝑢/𝑐𝑜 is calculated from:

𝑢 = 𝜔. 𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
( 23 )
𝑐𝑜 = √Δ𝐻𝑖

Where 𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 is average turbine radius and Δ𝐻𝑖 is change in total enthalpy from

rotor inlet to exit.

0.90

0.88

0.86 contoured= 89.9%

0.84 noncontored =88.86
T-S

 =1.04%
0.82

0.80

0.78

0.76
0.6 0.8 1
u/c0
Figure 84: Measured total-to-static efficiency as a function of u/co

Injecting the purge mass flow causes the turbine mass flow to increase and the

turbine efficiency to decrease. Figure 85 shows the mass flow distribution as a function

126
of turbine rotational speed with the mass flow ratio MFR as a parameter. As seen the

lowest mass flow corresponds to the reference case of MFR=0. Increasing the MFR

increases the turbine mass flow. The increased mass flow, however, causes a reduction

of the turbine total-to-static efficiency as shown in Figure 86 and Figure 88. Moreover,

Pressure ratio increased by increasing purge flow (Figure 87).

3.9

MFR=0.0
3.89 MFR=0.5
MFR=1.0
3.88 MFR=1.5
MFR=2.0
Mass Flow (Kg/s)

3.87

3.86

3.85

3.84

3.83

3.82

3.81
2000 2500 3000
RPM

Figure 85: Measured turbine mass flow as a function of rotational speed with the
purge mass flow ratio MFR as a parameter

127
 0.88

0.87

0.86

0.85

0.84

0.83
Efficiency

0.82

0.81 MFR=0.0
MFR=0.5
0.8
MFR=1.0
0.79 MFR=1.5
MFR=2.0
0.78

0.77

0.76
2000 2500 3000
RPM
Figure 86: Measured turbine efficiency as a function of rotational speed with the
purge mass flow ratio MFR as a parameter

1.45

1.44
Pressure Ratio

MFR=0.0
1.43 MFR=0.5
MFR=1.0
MFR=1.5
MFR=2.0

1.42

0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7

U/Co
Figure 87: Measured turbine pressure ratio as a function of u/co with the purge
mass flow ratio MFR as a parameter
128
 0.92

0.90

0.88

0.86
Efficiency

0.84

0.82

MFR=0%
0.80 MFR=0.5%
MFR=1%
0.78 MFR=1.5%
MFR=2%
0.76

0.74
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
u/c0
Figure 88: Measured turbine efficiency as a function of u/co with the purge mass
flow ratio MFR as a parameter

129
 8. CONCLUSION

This dissertation deals with the specific heat transfer and aerodynamics

problematic inherent to high pressure (HP) turbine sections. Issues of primary relevance

to a turbine stage operating are: (1) decreasing the strength of the secondary flow

vortices at the hub and tip regions to reduce (a), the secondary flow losses and (b), the

potential for endwall deposition, erosion and corrosion due to secondary flow driven

migration of gas flow particles to the hub and tip regions, (2) providing a robust film

cooling technology at the hub and that sustains high cooling effectiveness less sensitive

to deposition, (3) investigating the impact of blade tip geometry on film cooling

effectiveness.

The experimental investigations were performed in the three-stage multi-purpose

turbine research facility at the Turbomachinery Performance and Flow Research

Laboratory (TPFL), Texas A&M University.

8.1. Aerodynamic Flow Measurement

Major efficiency improvement has been achieved by introducing a completely

new endwall contouring technology which decreases the strength of the secondary flow

vortices. The contouring was cut into the rotor hub of the three-stage TPFL-research

turbine using CNC-machining. Efficiency measurements show for the contoured rotor a

maximum efficiency of 89.9% compared to the reference non-contoured case of ηt-s =

88.86%. This is an efficiency increase of η = 1.04%. This new method is particularly

significant for applications to power generation steam turbines. The high-, intermediate

130
and low pressure units (HP, IP, LP) consist of many stages, with HP- and IP-units.

Contouring all rotor endwalls of these units will substantially increase the unit

efficiency. Interstage results also showed that how endwall contouring affected the flow

field after the rotor passage and reduced the secondary flow vortices at the hub.

8.2. Contoured Endwall Film Cooling Effectiveness

The new method of endwall contouring not only has improved the turbine

aerodynamic efficiency but it also has substantially improved the film cooling

effectiveness of the contoured endwall. The endwall portion of the first turbine stage is

generally subjected to higher temperatures requiring a thorough cooling. To accomplish

this, purge air is extracted from the rotor internal cavity and is ejected through a

circumferential slot onto the endwall of the first rotor row. To determine the impact of

the endwall contouring on film cooling effectiveness, the new contouring technology

was applied to the first rotor row. The film cooling experiments were carried out using

pressure sensitive paint (PSP) measurement technique. Measurements were conducted

for three coolant-to-mainstream mass flow ratios (MFR) of 0.5%, 1.0% and 1.5%. Film

cooling data is also obtained for three rotational speeds, 3000 rpm (reference condition),

2550 rpm and 2400 rpm and they are compared with non-contoured endwall data. For

3000 rpm two more coolant to mainstream mass flow ratio of 0.75% and 1.25% are

performed to have a better view of how film cooling effectiveness is changing.

Comparing experimental results of the film cooling effectiveness investigations of the

131
contoured case with the reference non-contoured case, clearly shows the improving

effect of contouring on film cooling effectiveness for all cases investigated in this report.

The results of the above research are summarized below:

1. The comparisons of film effectiveness results that pertain to the

contoured cases with those of non-contoured ones show a noticeable

quantitative improvement.

2. While the non-contoured reference case has lower effectiveness values at

the leading edge, the contoured cases have much higher values.

3. Film cooling effectiveness increases with purge mass flow rate from 0.5%

to 1.5%.

4. Film cooling effectiveness increases with RPM from 2400 to 3000rpm.

5. Contoured endwalls can provide better aerodynamics performance than

non-contoured endwalls due to reduction in secondary flow losses.

6. Increasing the coolant to mainstream density ratio provides better passage

platform coverage and increases the film cooling effectiveness.

8.3. Blade Tip Cooling

Detailed experimental investigations of film cooling effectiveness were

conducted on the blade tips of the first rotor row pertaining to a three-stage research

turbine. Four different blade tip ejection configurations were utilized to determine the

impact of the hole arrangements on the film cooling effectiveness. The final

configurations were manufactured and installed diametrically on the rotor hub to avoid

132
rotor imbalance. The first configuration includes a pair of blades with radially arranged

ejection holes positioned along the camber of the blade flat tip. The second configuration

consists of a pair of blades with radially arranged holes embedded in the blade tip

squealer. The third configuration has a flat tip but the ejection holes are arranged on the

pressure side under given ejection angles. The fourth configuration has the same

pressure side hole arrangements as the third configuration but the tip has squealer shape.

Measurements were performed using pressure sensitive paint (PSP) technique. Three

blowing ratios M = 0.75, 1.25 and 1.75 at three different rotational speeds of 3000 rpm

(reference condition), 2550 rpm and 2000 rpm were utilized.

The results of the above research are summarized below:

1) The film cooling ejections on both the plane tip and squealer tip

dramatically affect the flow behaviors at the tip region. Strong

interactions between the cooling jets and the leakage flow have been

observed on both blade tips. However the flow characteristics on the

plane tip differ from those on the squealer tip.

2) The overall film cooling effectiveness monotonically increases by

increasing blowing ratios for all four configurations.

3) In plane tip, it is shown that the coolant particles tend to travel in the

opposite direction of rotation, especially for the cooling jets exiting from

the first two cooling holes. This phenomenon is due to the rotation and

does not exist in a stationary cascade.

133
4) Film effectiveness decreases with RPM for all configurations, but

increases with RPM for the Plane tip.

5) Film effectiveness for the plane tip follows net velocity vector of incident

velocity and leakage velocity for three different RPM cases.

134
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 APPENDIX A

INTERSTAGE RESULTS

In this appendix the results of the interstage traversing measurements tests

performed are plotted. Results for 2000 rpm were taken at compressor frequency=55Hz,

Pressure ratio= 1.3 and mass flow rate around 3.46 kg/s. Results for 2000 rpm were

taken at compressor frequency=65Hz, Pressure ratio= 1.435 and mass flow rate around

3.84 kg/s.

150
140 2000 rpm
130
120
110
100
90
 [deg]

80
70 Station 3
60 Station 4
Station 5
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Immersion Ratio r  (r  rhub)  (rtip  rhub)
*

FigureA-1: Radial distribution of the absolute flow angle at 2000 rpm

152
 170
160
150
140
130
120 Station 3
Station 4
 [deg]
110 Station 5
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Immersion Ratio r  (r  rhub)  (rtip  rhub)
*

FigureA-2: Radial distribution of relative flow angle at 2000 rpm

25

20 Station 3
2000 rpm Station 4
15 Station 5

10

5
 [deg]

-5

-10

-15

-20

-25
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Immersion Ratio r  (r  rhub)  (rtip  rhub)
*

FigureA-3: Radial distribution of meridian flow angle at 2000 rpm

153
 120

110

100

Absolute Velocity [m/sec]

90

80

70
Station 3
60 Station 4 2000 rpm
Station 5
50

40

30

20

10

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Immersion Ratio r  (r  rhub)  (rtip  rhub)
*

FigureA-4: Radial distribution of absolute velocity at 2000 rpm

110
3000 rpm
100

90
Relative Velocity [m/sec]

80

70

60

50

40

30
Station 3
20
Station 4
Station 5
10

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Immersion Ratio r  (r  rhub)  (rtip  rhub)
*

FigureA-5: Radial distribution of relative velocity at 2000 rpm

154
 0.35
2000 rpm
0.3

0.25
Mach Number
Station 3
0.2 Station 4
Station 5

0.15

0.1

0.05

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Immersion Ratio r  (r  rhub)  (rtip  rhub)
*

FigureA-6: Radial distribution of Mach number at 2000 rpm

0.3
2000 rpm
Relative Mach Number

0.2

0.1

Station 3
Station 4
Station 5
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Immersion Ratio r  (r  rhub)  (rtip  rhub)
*

FigureA-7: Radial distribution of relative Mach number at 2000 rpm

155
 Absolute Circumferential Velocity [m/sec]
105

70

Station 3
35 Station 4
2000 rpm Station 5

-35

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Immersion Ratio r  (r  rhub)  (rtip  rhub)
*

FigureA-8: Radial distribution of absolute circumferential velocity at 2000 rpm

40 2000 rpm
Axial Velocity [m/sec]

32

24

16 Station 3
Station 4
Station 5

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Immersion Ratio r  (r  rhub)  (rtip  rhub)
*

FigureA-9: Radial distribution of axial velocity at 2000 rpm

156
 93

92

91

Total Pressure [kPa]

90 Station 3
Station 4
89 Station 5 2000 rpm
88

87

86

85

84
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Immersion Ratio r  (r  rhub)  (rtip  rhub)
*

FigureA-10: Radial distribution of total pressure at 2000 rpm

95

90
Static Pressure [kPa]

85

80
2000 rpm

Station 3
Station 4
Station 5
75
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Immersion Ratio r  (r  rhub)  (rtip  rhub)
*

FigureA-11: Radial distribution of static pressure at 2000 rpm

157
 97

96

Relative Total Pressure [kPa]

95

94

93
Station 3
92 Station 4
Station 5
91

90

89

88

87

86
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Immersion Ratio r  (r  rhub)  (rtip  rhub)
*

FigureA-12: Radial distribution of relative total pressure at 2000 rpm

0.9

0.8

0.7 STATOR
ROTOR
0.6


0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
Immersion Ratio r  (r  rhub)  (rtip  rhub)
*

FigureA-13: Radial distribution of loss coefficient at 2000 rpm

158
 150
140 2400 rpm
130
Station 3
120 Station 4
110 Station 5
100
 [deg] 90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Immersion Ratio r  (r  rhub)  (rtip  rhub)
*

FigureA-14: Radial distribution of absolute flow angle at 2400 rpm

170
160
150
140
130
120 Station 3
Station 4
 [deg]

110 Station 5
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Immersion Ratio r  (r  rhub)  (rtip  rhub)
*

FigureA-15: Radial distribution of relative flow angle at 2400 rpm

159
 130
120
110

Absolute Velocity [m/sec]

100
90
80
70 Station 3
Station 4 2400 rpm
60 Station 5
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Immersion Ratio r  (r  rhub)  (rtip  rhub)
*

FigureA-16: Radial distribution of absolute velocity at 2400 rpm

110
2400 rpm
100

90
Relative Velocity [m/sec]

80

70
Station 3
60 Station 4
Station 5
50

40

30

20

10

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Immersion Ratio r  (r  rhub)  (rtip  rhub)
*

FigureA-17: Radial distribution of relative velocity at 2400 rpm

160
 0.4

0.35

0.3 Station 3
Station 4
Station 5
Mach Number 0.25

0.2

0.15 2400 rpm

0.1

0.05

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Immersion Ratio r  (r  rhub)  (rtip  rhub)
*

FigureA-18: Radial distribution of absolute Much number at 2400 rpm

0.5
Station 3
Station 4
Station 5 2400 rpm
0.4
Relative Mach Number

0.3

0.2

0.1

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Immersion Ratio r  (r  rhub)  (rtip  rhub)
*

FigureA-19: Radial distribution of relative Mach number at 2400 rpm

161
 Absolute Circumferential Velocity [m/sec]
105

70

Station 3
35 Station 4
2400 rpm Station 5

-35

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Immersion Ratio r  (r  rhub)  (rtip  rhub)
*

FigureA-20: Radial distribution of absolute circumferential velocity at 2400 rpm

40 2400 rpm
Axial Velocity [m/sec]

32

24

16 Station 3
Station 4
Station 5

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Immersion Ratio r  (r  rhub)  (rtip  rhub)
*

FigureA-21: Radial distribution of axial velocity at 2400 rpm

162
 91

90

89

Total Pressure [kPa]

88

87 Station 3
Station 4
86 Station 5 2400 rpm
85

84

83

82

81

80
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Immersion Ratio r  (r  rhub)  (rtip  rhub)
*

FigureA-22: Radial distribution of total pressure at 2400 rpm

95

2400 rpm

90
Static Pressure [kPa]

85

80

Station 3
Station 4
Station 5
75
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Immersion Ratio r  (r  rhub)  (rtip  rhub)
*

FigureA-23: Radial distribution of static pressure at 2400 rpm

163
 96

94

Relative Total Pressure [kPa]

92
Station 3
Station 4
90
Station 5

88

86

84

82
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Immersion Ratio r  (r  rhub)  (rtip  rhub)
*

FigureA-24: Radial distribution of relative total pressure at 2400 rpm

0.9

0.8

0.7 STATOR
ROTOR
0.6


0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Immersion Ratio r  (r  rhub)  (rtip  rhub)
*

FigureA-25: Radial distribution of loss coefficient at 2400 rpm

164
 APPENDIX B

PSP UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS

From PSP calibration curve, we have polynomial equation:

𝑦 = 𝐴𝑥 3 + 𝐵𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷

From equation ( 19 ) we have:


P  P 
O2 air O2 mix

P  O2 air

Film cooling effectiveness uncertainty calculated from:

2 2
𝜕𝜂 𝑛1𝑝 𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑃
=( √
) [( ) ] + [( ) ] ( 24 )
𝜂 𝑎1𝑝 − 𝑛1𝑝 𝑃 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑃 𝑁2

Where for air:

𝜕𝑃 1 𝜕𝐼 𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑓

( ) =( ) ( ) [3 ∗ 𝐴 ( )+2∗𝐵( )+𝐶( )] ( 25 )
𝑃 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑎1𝑝 𝐼 𝐼𝑎1 𝐼𝑎1 𝐼𝑎1

For nitrogen:

𝜕𝑃 1 𝜕𝐼 𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑓

( ) =( ) ( ) [3 ∗ 𝐴 ( )+2∗𝐵( )+𝐶( )] ( 26 )
𝑃 𝑁2 𝑛1𝑝 𝐼 𝐼𝑛1 𝐼𝑛1 𝐼𝑛1

𝜕𝐼
For example if we assume = 0.5%, 𝜂 = 0.12, a1p=1.0542, n1p=0.927,
𝐼

𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 181, 𝐼𝑎1 = 172.406 and 𝐼𝑛1 = 186.411 then:

165
 𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑃
( ) = 0.005981, ( ) = 0.006355
𝑃 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑃 𝑁2

𝜕𝜂
And therefore = 6.36%
𝜂

166
 APPENDIX C

PSP MEASUREMENTS PROBLEMS

Camera program and calculate film cooling effectiveness based on PSP intensity

are thoroughly explained in Arun’s dissertation. In this section problems involved during

endwall and blade tip cooling will be discussed.

Contoured endwall cooling: when the contoured ring was installed on the rotor,

PSP was painted on the endwall and blades with tip cooling as shown in Figure C-1.

Figure C-1: blades and endwalls painted with PSP

167
 Since the body of the blades next to the contoured endwall were painted as well,

it was difficult to recognize the contouring effect alone and blade body was capture in

the images. In order to solve this problem body of the blades next to the endwall, we

wanted to take the measurement, were covered by tape and then PSP was painted on the

endwall passage (Figure C-2)

Figure C-2: Covering the blades body by tape

168
 Blade Tip cooling: main problem in blade tip cooling was calculating the true

exit velocity at tip of the blades. The following procedure was done to calculate the true

velocity and corresponding blowing ratio.

The schematic of the blade cooling system is shown in Figure below.

Figure C-3: Schematic of the blade cooling system

In this case that we have lots of pressure drop due to the complexity of the blade

cooling system, it is needed to define the total pressure loss coefficient:

169
 𝑷𝟎𝟏 − 𝑷𝟎𝟐
𝜻=
𝟏 𝟐
𝟐 𝝆𝑽𝟐

Since the total pressure at 2 cannot be measured during experiment we can find

total pressure loss at reference condition (no rotation) and then correct the loss

coefficient for real case.

𝑷𝟎𝟏 − 𝑷𝟎𝟐
𝜻𝒓𝒆𝒇 =
𝟏 𝟐
𝟐 𝝆𝑽𝟐

From literature if the Reynolds number of the blading under consideration is

different from the reference Reynolds number at which the experimental measurements

have been carried out, the loss coefficient must be corrected by the following relation:

𝜻 𝑹𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇 𝒎 𝝆𝑽𝟏 𝑫 𝟏
=( ) , 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝑹𝒆 = 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒎 = − = −𝟎. 𝟐
𝜻𝒓𝒆𝒇 𝑹𝒆 𝝁 𝟓

So in order to calculate the true exit velocity we should find 𝜁𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 :

𝑹𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇 −𝟎.𝟐
𝜻𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍 = 𝜻𝒓𝒆𝒇 ( )
𝑹𝒆

where

𝑷𝟎𝟏 − 𝑷𝟎𝟐
𝜻𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍 =
𝟏 𝟐
𝟐 𝝆𝑽𝟏 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍

Then

𝟏
𝑷𝟎𝟐 = 𝑷𝟎𝟏 − 𝝆𝑽𝟐𝟏 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝜻𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍
𝟐

170
 Finally Velocity can be calculated based on total pressure 𝑃02 and Static pressure

𝑃𝑠2 :

𝟐(𝑷𝟎𝟐 − 𝑷𝒔𝟐 )
𝑽𝟐 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍 = √
𝝆

Results for different cooling flow are shown in Tables 1 and 2. (Static pressure at

exit of holes= -5940 Pa)

Table C-1: Results for Reference condition (without rotation)

Assuming no pressure Actual data
SCFM 𝑽𝟏 loss
𝑽𝟐 BL 𝑽𝟐 𝑹𝒆𝒇 BL 𝜻𝒓𝒆𝒇
10 8.12 61.19 1.03 37.70 0.63 0.88
15 12.09 91.10 1.53 53.43 0.89 0.86
20 15.94 120.09 2.02 71.97 1.20 0.83
25 19.72 148.52 2.49 86.37 1.44 0.82
30 23.32 175.64 2.95 103.27 1.72 0.80
35 26.78 201.75 3.39 119.36 1.99 0.78
40 29.96 225.68 3.79 139.60 2.33 0.75
45 32.92 247.96 4.16 158.68 2.64 0.74

171
 Table C-2: Results for Real Condition for 3000 rpm
Assuming no pressure loss Real Data
SCFM 𝑽𝟏
𝑽𝟐 BL 𝜻𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝑷𝟎𝟐 𝑷𝑫𝒚𝒏𝒂𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝑽𝟐 New BL
10 9.12 68.67 1.12 0.85 -14326.57 -8386.57 0 0
15 13.51 101.76 1.66 0.83 -12165.01 -6225.01 0 0
20 17.76 133.81 2.18 0.81 -9621.43 -3681.43 0 0
25 21.96 165.43 2.70 0.80 -7347.83 -1407.83 0 0
30 26.01 195.90 3.20 0.77 -4743.30 1196.70 48.25 0.80
35 30.02 226.13 3.69 0.75 -2701.71 3238.29 79.38 1.32
40 33.72 254.04 4.14 0.72 497.82 6437.82 111.92 1.87
45 37.30 280.95 4.58 0.71 4502.46 10442.46 142.54 2.38

SCFM=10 SCFM=15 SCFM=20 SCFM=25

SCFM=30 SCFM=35 SCFM=40 SCFM=45

Figure C-4: Tip cooling preliminary results

172
 Results from this calculation are completely adopted with film cooling

experiment results. As shown in Figure 2, no flow is coming out from the holes when

flow is less than 25 SCFM.

Figure C-5 shows blades painted with PSP and installed on the rotor. Figure C-6

depicts the optical setup used for film cooling effectiveness measurement.

Figure C-5: Four different blade configurations used in this study

173
CCD Camera Strobe Light

Figure C-6: PSP optical setup

174