BE1251 Basic Electrical, Electronics and Measurement Engineering

UNIT I ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS ANALYSIS

Ohms Law, Kirchhoff‗s Law-Instantaneous power - Series and parallel circuit: analysis of
resistive, capacitive and inductive network, star delta conversion, Nodal analysis and mesh
analysis. Network theorems: Thevenin‘s theorem, Norton‘s theorem, superposition theorem
and maximum power transfer theorem. Three phase ac supply –Instantaneous power,
Reactive power and apparent power.
Basics definitions
Current- flow of electrons through a conductor
Electric Potential or voltage (E or V): potential to do electrical work
It is measured between two points and its unit is volt. If the work done in moving a charge
of one coulomb between the two points is one joule, then the potential of one point with
reference to the second point is one volt.
Elements: Device or arrangement as part of electrical nature are the elements.
Elements are classified into two types i.e..active elements and passive elements.
Active elements – Elements which deliver current – example: Voltage and current sources.
Passive elements – Elements which depend on other for current- Resistor, capacitor and
inductor.
Network- Interconnection of the various electrical elements is called an electric network.
Node-A point where two (or) more elements meet is called a node or junction point.
Branch: A part of the network which connects the various points of the network with one
another is called a branch.
Circuit- network with closed path for current flow
Mesh or loop- Circuit which cannot be sub-divided

Example
V1, V2- Active elements
R1, R4, L3, C2- passive elements
AB- is branch with 1 element
EF is a branch with 2 elements
ACDBA and CEFDC – mesh
ACEFDBA- circuit
Basic circuit components:

The three basic elements used in electronic circuits are the resistor, capacitor, and inductor. They each
play an important role in how an electronic circuit behaves. They also have their own
standard symbols and units of measurement.

Resistor: A resistor represents a given amount of resistance in a circuit. Resistance is a measure

of how the flow of electric current is opposed or "resisted." It is defined by Ohm's law which says the
resistance equals the voltage divided by the current.

Resistance = voltage/current or R = V/I

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Resistance is measured in Ohms. The Ohm is often represented by the omega symbol: Ω.

The symbol for resistance is a zigzag line as shown below. The letter "R" is used in equations.

Resistor Symbol
Capacitor: A capacitor represents the amount of capacitance in a circuit. The capacitance is the
ability of a component to store an electrical charge. You can think of it as the "capacity" to store a
charge.
The capacitance is defined by the equation C = q/V; where q is the charge in coulombs and V is the
voltage.

In a DC circuit, a capacitor becomes an open circuit blocking any DC current from passing the
capacitor. Only AC current will pass through a capacitor. Capacitance is measured in Farads.

The symbol for capacitance is two parallel lines. Sometimes one of the lines is curved as
shown below. The letter "C" is used in equations.

Capacitor Symbol
Inductor: An inductor represents the amount of inductance in a circuit. The inductance is the
ability of a component to generate electromotive force due to a change in the flow of current. A
simple
inductor is made by looping a wire into a coil. Inductors are used in electronic circuits to reduce
or
oppose the change in electric current. In a DC circuit, an inductor looks like a wire. It has no effect
when the current is constant. Inductance only has an effect when the current is changing as in an AC
circuit.

Inductance is measured in Henrys. The symbol for inductance is a series of coils as shown below.
The letter "L" is used in equations.

Inductor Symbol

Facts about Resistors, Capacitors, and Inductors:

 The resistance of a material is the opposite or the inverse of the conductivity.
 The Ohm is named after German physicist George Ohm.
 The Farad is named after English physicist Michael Faraday.
 The Henry is named after American scientist Joseph Henry.
 Combinations of capacitors, inductors, and resistors are used to build passive filters that will
only allow electronic signals of certain frequencies to pass through.
Types of Electrical Networks:
Electrical network can be classified according to the network characteristics and behaviour.
Linear Network:
A circuit whose parameters are always constant of the change in time. voltage, temperature
etc., is known as linear network.
Non-Linear Network:
A circuit whose parameters change their values with change in time, voltage, temperature etc., is
known as non-linear network.
Bilateral Network:
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A circuit whose characteristics, behaviour is same irrespective of the direction of current through
various elements of it, is called bilateral network.
Unilateral Network:
A circuit whose operation, behavior is dependent on the direction of the current through various
elements is called unilateral network.
Active Network:
A circuit which contains a source of energy is called active network.
Passive Network:
A circuit which contains a no energy source is called passive network.
Lumped Network:
A network in which all the network elements are physically separable is known as lumped network.
Distributed Network:
A network in which the circuit elements like resistance, inductance, etc., cannot be physically
separable for analysis purpose is called distributed network.

Ohms Law: Ohm‟s law is the fundamental law in the field of electricity. It was discovered by
George Ohm, and named after him. Ohm‟s law provides the relationship between current,
voltage, and resistance. It states that, the voltage across any resistance is equal to current times the
resistance.

Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly proportional
to the voltage across the two points with respect to the resistance.

The mathematical expression is: I= V/R; V=I*R ; or R= V/I.

where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the voltage measured across
the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms.

Ex: The current through a resistor is measured to be 5 amperes. The resistance of the resistor is
10 ohms. What is the voltage across the resistor?

Solution: By using ohm‟s law relation: V = I*R = 5 * 10 = 50 volts

Kirchoff‘s Law:

This law states that, for any node (junction) in an electrical circuit, the sum of currents flowing
into that node is equal to the sum of currents flowing out of that node; or equivalently:

The algebraic sum of currents in a network of conductors meeting at a point is zero.

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Resistors connected in series

Each resistor has a voltage drop across it given by Ohm’s law. E1= IR1; E2 =IR2 ; E3=IR3
The total drop is E = E1+ E2 + E3 = I (R1 +R2 +R3) (1)
Source Voltage rise: V=I.Req (2)
Using KVL, V=E
from (1) & (2)
I.Req= I (R1 +R2 +R3)
Req= R1 +R2 +R3
n
Req= ∑ R i
i=1

Resistors connected in parallel

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Voltage division rule
Voltage division rule states that the voltage across a resistor in a series circuit is equal to the
value of that resistor times the total applied voltage divided by the total resistance of the
series circuit.
R1, R2, R3, ….Rn
n resistors connected in series.
Vs- total voltage across series connection,
Vn- voltage across nth resistor

Current division rule

current division rule states that the current through any branch in a parallel circuit is equal to
the total resistance of the parallel circuit divided by the resistance value of the resistor and
multiplied by the total current entering through the parallel circuit.
RT- equivalent resistance for resistance connected in parallel
Rx- resistance and Ix- current through x resistance
I- total current

Star –Delta type resistor connection

Delta to star

Star to Delta
R A R B + R B R C+ R C R A
R AB=
RC
R A R B + R B R C + RC R A
R BC =
RA
R A R B + RB RC + RC R A
RCA =
RB
Type equation here .
Example: Calculate the equivalent resistance Rab when all the resistance values are equal to 1Ω for
the circuit shown below.

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Independent and Dependent Sources:
An electrical supply or simply, “a source”, is a device that supplies electrical power to a circuit in the
form of a voltage source or a current source. Both types of electrical sources can be classed as a
direct (DC) or alternating (AC) source in which a constant voltage is called a DC voltage and one that
varies sinusoidal with time is called an AC voltage.

Sources can be either independent or dependent upon some other quantities.

An independent voltage source maintains a voltage (fixed or varying with time) which is not
affected by any other quantity. Similarly an independent current source maintains a current (fixed
or time- varying) which is unaffected by any other quantity; as in Fig. (a).

(a) Independent source (b) Dependent source

Some voltage (current) sources have their voltage (current) values varying with some other variables.

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They are called dependent voltage (current) sources or controlled voltage (current) sources, and
their usual symbols are shown in Fig. (b).

Electrical sources, both as a voltage source or a current source can be classed as

being either independent (ideal) or dependent, (controlled) that is whose value depends upon a
voltage or current elsewhere within the circuit, which itself can be either constant or time-varying.

When dealing with circuit laws and analysis, electrical sources are often viewed as being “ideal”,
that is the source is ideal because it could theoretically deliver an infinite amount of energy without
loss thereby having characteristics represented by a straight line. However, in real or practical
sources there is always a resistance either connected in parallel for a current source, or series for a
voltage source associated with the source affecting its output.

A Dependent Voltage Source or controlled voltage source provides a voltage supply whose
magnitude depends on either the voltage across or current flowing through some other circuit
element. A dependent voltage source is indicated with a diamond shape and is used as
equivalent electrical sources for many electronic devices, such as transistors and operational
amplifiers.

Steady state solution of DC circuits:

In an R, L. C circuit; during the transient period, capacitors build up charge and stop the flow
of current (eventually acting like infinite resistors) Inductors build up energy in the form of magnetic
fields, and become more conductive. In other words, in the steady-state (long term
behaviour), capacitors become open circuits and inductors become short circuits. Thus, for DC
analysis, you can replace a capacitor with an empty space and an inductor with a wire. The only
circuit components that remain are voltage sources, current sources, and resistors.

DC steady-state (meaning the circuit has been in the same state for a long time), we've seen that
capacitors act like open circuits and inductors act like shorts. The above figures show the process of
replacing these circuit devices with their DC equivalents. In this case, all that remains is a voltage
source and a lone resistor.

Nodal analysis:
In electric circuits analysis, nodal analysis, node-voltage analysis, or the branch current method is
a method of determining the voltage (potential difference) between "nodes" (points where elements
or branches connect) in an electrical circuit in terms of the branch currents.

In analyzing a circuit using Kirchhoff's circuit laws, one can either do nodal analysis using
Kirchhoff's current law (KCL) or mesh analysis using Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL). Nodal
analysis writes an equation at each electrical node, requiring that the branch currents incident at a
node must sum to zero. The branch currents are written in terms of the circuit node voltages. As a
consequence, each branch constitutive relation must give current as a function of voltage; an
admittance representation.

Nodal Voltage Analysis finds the unknown voltage drops around a circuit between different
nodes that provide a common connection for two or more circuit components.

There are two basic methods that are used for solving any electrical network: Nodal
analysis and Mesh analysis. In this chapter, let us discuss about the Nodal analysis method. In
Nodal analysis, we will consider the node voltages with respect to Ground. Hence, Nodal analysis is
also called as Node-voltage method.
Procedure of Nodal Analysis: Follow these steps while solving any electrical network or circuit
using
Nodal analysis.

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Step 1 − Identify the principal nodes and choose one of them as reference node. We will treat that
reference node as the Ground.
Step 2 − Label the node voltages with respect to Ground from all the principal nodes except the
reference node.
Step 3 − Write nodal equations at all the principal nodes except the reference node. Nodal
equation is obtained by applying KCL first and then Ohm’s law.
Step 4 − Solve the nodal equations obtained in Step 3 in order to get the node voltages.

Now, we can find the current flowing through any element and the voltage across any element that is
present in the given network by using node voltages.

Example: Find the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor of the following circuit using
Nodal analysis.

Step 1 − There are three principle nodes in the above circuit. Those are labelled as 1, 2, and 3 in
the following figure.

In the above figure, consider node 3 as reference node (Ground).

Step 2 − The node voltages, V1 and V2, are labelled in the following figure.
In the above figure, V1 is the voltage from node 1 with respect to ground and V 2 is the voltage
from
node 2 with respect to ground.

Step 3 − In this case, we will get two nodal equations, since there are two principal nodes, 1 and
2, other than Ground. When we write the nodal equations at a node, assume all the currents are
leaving from the node for which the direction of current is not mentioned and that node‟s voltage
as greater than other node voltages in the circuit.
The nodal equation at node 1 is:

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 Step 4 − Finding node voltages, V1 and V2 by solving Equation 1 and Equation
2. Substitute Equation 1 in Equation 2.

Substitute V1 = 20 V in Equation1.

So, we got the node voltages V1 and V2 as 20 V and 40 Vrespectively.

Step 5 − The voltage across 20 Ω resistor is nothing but the node voltage V2 and it is equal to 40
V.
Now, we can find the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor by using Ohm‟s law.

Substitute the values of V2 and R in the above equation.

Therefore, the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor of given circuit is 2 A.

Mesh analysis:
In Mesh analysis, we will consider the currents flowing through each mesh. Hence, Mesh analysis
is also called as Mesh-current method.

A branch is a path that joins two nodes and it contains a circuit element. If a branch belongs to
only one mesh, then the branch current will be equal to mesh current.
If a branch is common to two meshes, then the branch current will be equal to the sum (or
difference)
of two mesh currents, when they are in same (or opposite) direction.
Procedure of Mesh Analysis:

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Follow these steps while solving any electrical network or circuit using Mesh analysis.
Step 1 − Identify the meshes and label the mesh currents in either clockwise or anti-clockwise
direction.
Step 2 − Observe the amount of current that flows through each element in terms of mesh
currents.
Step 3 − Write mesh equations to all meshes. Mesh equation is obtained by applying KVL first
and then Ohm‟s law.
Step 4 − Solve the mesh equations obtained in Step 3 in order to get the mesh currents.
Now, we can find the current flowing through any element and the voltage across any element that is
present in the given network by using mesh currents.
Example: Find the voltage across 30 Ω resistor using Mesh analysis.

Step 1 − There are two meshes in the above circuit. The mesh currents I1 and I2 are considered in
clockwise direction. These mesh currents are shown in the following figure.

Step 2 − The mesh current I1 flows through 20 V voltage source and 5 Ω resistor. Similarly, the mesh
current I2 flows through 30 Ω resistor and -80 V voltage source. But, the difference of two mesh
currents, I1 and I2, flows through 10 Ω resistor, since it is the common branch of two meshes.
Step 3 − In this case, we will get two mesh equations since there are two meshes in the given
circuit. When we write the mesh equations, assume the mesh current of that particular mesh as
greater than all other mesh currents of the circuit.

The mesh equation of first mesh is:

Step 4 − Finding mesh currents I1 and I2 by solving Equation 1 and Equation 2.

The left-hand side terms of Equation 1 and Equation 2 are the same. Hence, equate the right-
hand side terms of Equation 1 and Equation 2 in order find the value of I1

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Thevinin‘s Theorem:
Thevenin‟s theorem states that any two terminal linear network or circuit can be represented with
an equivalent network or circuit, which consists of a voltage source in series with a resistor. It is
known as Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit. A linear circuit may contain independent sources, dependent
sources, and resistors.

If the circuit contains multiple independent sources, dependent sources, and resistors, then the
response in an element can be easily found by replacing the entire network to the left of that element
with a Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit.

The response in an element can be the voltage across that element, current flowing through
that element, or power dissipated across that element.

This concept is illustrated in following figures.

Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit resembles a practical voltage source. Hence, it has a voltage source in
series with a resistor.
The voltage source present in the Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit is called as Thevenin‟s
equivalent voltage or simply Thevenin‟s voltage, VTh.

 The resistor present in the Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit is called as Thevenin‟s equivalent
resistor or simply Thevenin‟s resistor, RTh.

Methods of Finding Thevenin‟s Equivalent Circuit

Method: Follow these steps in order to find the Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit, when only the sources
of independent type are present.

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 Step 1 − Consider the circuit diagram by opening the terminals with respect to which the
Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit is to be found.
 Step 2 − Find Thevenin‟s voltage VTh across the open terminals of the above circuit.
 Step 3 − Find Thevenin‟s resistance RTh across the open terminals of the above circuit
by eliminating the independent sources present in it.
 Step 4 − Draw the Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit by connecting a Thevenin‟s voltage VTh in
series with a Thevenin‟s resistance RTh.

Now, we can find the response in an element that lies to the right side of Thevenin‟s equivalent
circuit.

Example: Find the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor by first finding a Thevenin‟s equivalent
circuit to the left of terminals A and B.

Step 1 − In order to find the Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit to the left side of terminals A & B, we
should remove the 20 Ω resistor from the network by opening the terminals A & B. The
modified circuit diagram is shown in the following figure.

Step 2 − Calculation of Thevenin‟s voltage VTh.

There is only one principal node except Ground in the above circuit. So, we can use nodal
analysis method. The node voltage V1 and Thevenin‟s voltage VTh are labelled in the above figure.
Here, V1 is the voltage from node 1 with respect to Ground and V Th is the voltage across 4 A current
source.

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Step 3 − Calculation of Thevenin‟s resistance RTh.

Short circuit the voltage source and open circuit the current source of the above circuit in order to
calculate the Thevenin‟s resistance RTh across the terminals A & B. The modified circuit diagram is
shown in the following figure.

Step 4 − The Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit is placed to the left of terminals A & B in the given
circuit. This circuit diagram is shown in the following figure.

Norton‘s Theorem:

Norton‟s theorem is similar to Thevenin‟s theorem. It states that any two terminal linear network or
circuit can be represented with an equivalent network or circuit, which consists of a current source in
parallel with a resistor. It is known as Norton‟s equivalent circuit. A linear circuit may contain
independent sources, dependent sources and resistors.
If a circuit has multiple independent sources, dependent sources, and resistors, then the response in
an element can be easily found by replacing the entire network to the left of that element with
a Norton‟s equivalent circuit.
The response in an element can be the voltage across that element, current flowing through that
element or power dissipated across that element.
This concept is illustrated in following figures.

Norton‟s equivalent circuit resembles a practical current source. Hence, it is having a current source
in parallel with a resistor.

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The current source present in the Norton‟s equivalent circuit is called as Norton‟s equivalent current
or simply Norton‟s current IN.

The resistor present in the Norton‟s equivalent circuit is called as Norton‟s equivalent resistor or
simply Norton‟s resistor RN. Method:
 Step 1 − Find a Thevenin‟s equivalent circuitbetween the desired two terminals. We know
that it consists of a Thevenin‟s voltage source, VTh and Thevenin‟s resistor, RTh.
Step 2 − Apply source transformation technique to the above Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit.
We will get the Norton‟s equivalent circuit. Here,

Example: Find the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor by first finding a Norton’s equivalent
circuit to the left of terminals A and B.

Step 1 − In previous chapter, we calculated the Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit to the left side of
terminals A & B. We can use this circuit now. It is shown in the following figure.

Step 2 − Apply source transformation technique to the above Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit.
Substitute the values of VTh and RTh in the following formula of Norton‟s current.

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Maximum Power transfer theorem:

The amount of power received by a load is an important parameter in electrical and electronic
applications. In DC circuits, we can represent the load with a resistor having resistance of R Lohms.
Similarly, in AC circuits, we can represent it with a complex load having an impedance of ZL ohms.
Maximum power transfer theorem states that the DC voltage source will deliver maximum power to
the variable load resistor only when the load resistance is equal to the source resistance.
Similarly, Maximum power transfer theorem states that the AC voltage source will deliver maximum
power to the variable complex load only when the load impedance is equal to the complex conjugate
of source impedance.

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Linearity and Superposition Theorem:
Superposition theorem is based on the concept of linearity between the response and excitation of an
electrical circuit. It states that the response in a particular branch of a linear circuit when multiple
independent sources are acting at the same time is equivalent to the sum of the responses due to each
independent source acting at a time.
In this method, we will consider only one independent sourceat a time. So, we have to eliminate the
remaining independent sources from the circuit. We can eliminate the voltage sources by shorting
their two terminals and similarly, the current sources by opening their two terminals.
Therefore, we need to find the response in a particular branch „n‟ times if there are „n‟ independent
sources. The response in a particular branch could be either current flowing through that branch or
voltage across that branch.

Procedure of Superposition Theorem: Follow these steps in order to find the response in a particular
branch using superposition theorem.
Step 1 − Find the response in a particular branch by considering one independent source and
eliminating the remaining independent sources present in the network. Step 2 − Repeat Step 1 for all
independent sources present in the network.
Step 3 − Add all the responses in order to get the overall response in a particular branch when all
independent sources are present in the network.

Example: Find the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor of the following circuit
using superposition theorem.

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Step 1 − Let us find the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor by considering only 20 V
voltage source. In this case, we can eliminate the 4 A current source by making open circuit of
it. The modified circuit diagram is shown in the following figure.

There is only one principal node except Ground in the above circuit. So, we can use nodal
analysis method. The node voltage V1 is labelled in the following figure. Here, V1 is the voltage
from node 1 with respect to ground.

Step 2 − Let us find the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor by considering only 4 A current
source. In this case, we can eliminate the 20 V voltage source by making short-circuit of it. The
modified circuit diagram is shown in the following figure.

In the above circuit, there are three resistors to the left of terminals A & B. We can replace these
resistors with a single equivalent resistor. Here, 5 Ω & 10 Ω resistors are connected in parallel and
the entire combination is in series with 10 Ω resistor.

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The equivalent resistance to the left of terminals A & B will be:

Step 3 − We will get the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor of the given circuit by doing
the addition of two currents that we got in step 1 and step 2. Mathematically, it can be written as; I=
I1+I2
Substitute, the values of I1 and I2 in the above equation.

I=0.4+1.6=2A

Therefore, the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor of given circuit is 2 A.

AC Power
Real power can be defined as the actual power consumed by resistive element in an AC
circuit and is given by P=EI cos ϕ;
Reactive power can be defined as the power consumed by the reactance (X L or XC) in an AC
circuit and given by Q=EI sin ϕ
Where P- Real Power (Watts), Q-reactive power (VAR), E- Voltage(V), I- Current(A), ϕ-
phase angle between E and I.

Instantaneous Power:
Instantaneous power is the power measured at a given instant in time and given by p=vi
where v and i are the instantaneous voltage and current.
Electric power, like mechanical power, is the rate of doing work, measured in watts, and
represented by the letter P. The term wattage is used colloquially to mean "electric power in watts."
The electric power in watts produced by an electric current I consisting of a charge of Q coulombs
every t seconds passing through an electric potential difference of V is; P= VQ/t = VI; watts

where Q is electric charge in coulombs, t is time in seconds, I is electric current in amperes, V

is electric potential or voltage in volts.

The Apparent power (in VA) is the product of the rms values of voltage and current.

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S = Vrms Irms
In alternating current circuits, energy storage elements such as inductance and capacitance may
result in periodic reversals of the direction of energy flow. The portion of power flow that, averaged
over a complete cycle of the AC waveform, results in net transfer of energy in one direction is known
as real power (also referred to as active power). That portion of power flow due to stored energy,
which returns to the source in each cycle, is known as reactive power. The real power P in watts
consumed by a device is given by:

where

Vp is the peak voltage in volts

Ip is the peak current in amperes
Vrms is the root-mean-square voltage in volts
Irms is the root-mean-square current in amperes
θ is the phase angle between the current and voltage sine waves

The relationship between real power, reactive power and apparent power can be expressed
by representing the quantities as vectors:

2 2 2
(VA) = (VAR) + (W)

3 phase supply
3 voltages with phase difference
Phase voltage: voltage between phase and neutral
Line voltage: Voltage between 2 phases

Advantages of of three phase circuits over single phase circuits are

 3 phase system produces power at a constant rate in the load.
 3 phase system can transmit more power as compared to a single phase system.
 Generation, transmission and distribution of 3 phase power is cheaper.

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