TRANSFORMERS

INTRODUCTION
The main advantage of alternating currents over direct currents is that, the alternating
currents can be easily transferable from low voltage to high or high voltage to low.
Alternating voltages can be raised or lowered as per requirements in the different
stages of electrical network as generation, transmission, distribution and utilization.
This is possible with a static device called transformer. The transformer works on
the principle of mutual induction. It transfers an electric energy from one circuit to
other when there is no electrical connection between the two circuits. Thus, we can
define transformer as below.
The transformer is a static piece of apparatus by means of which an electrical
power is transformed from one alternating current circuit to another with the
desired change in voltage and current, without any change in the frequency.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

A transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction and mutual

inductance between the two coils.
 A steel core consists of laminated sheets about 0.4-0.7mm thick insulated
from each other. The core is laminated to reduce eddy current loss. The vertical parts
of the core are known as limbs, while the top and bottom parts are called yokes.
There are two separate electrical windings, which are linked through a
common magnetic part. These windings are isolated from each other electrically.
The coil into which electrical energy is fed is called primary winding (P),
while the other coil from which electrical energy is drawn is called the secondary
winding (S). The primary winding has 𝑁1 number of turns while the secondary
winding has 𝑁2 number of turns.
When the primary winding is connected to an alternating voltage 𝑉1 , an
alternating current flows through the primary winding P and this current produces
an alternating flux φ in the steel core, the mean path of this flux being indicated by
the dotted lines. If the entire flux produced by P passes through S, the EMF induced
in each turn is the same for P and S.
The above mentioned alternating flux φ produces self induced EMF 𝐸1 in the primary
winding P, while due to mutual induction i.e., due to flux produced by primary
linking the secondary, it produces mutually induced EMF 𝐸2 in the secondary
winding S.

K is known as the voltage transformation ratio. The frequency of the two EMFs is
the same.
The EMF per turn is the same for P and S. hence,

When the secondary is on open circuit, its terminal voltage is the same as the induced
EMF. The primary current is then small, so that the applied voltage 𝑉1 is practically
equal and opposite to the EMF induced in P. Hence

As the full load efficiency of a transformer is almost 100%

𝑉1𝐼1* Primary power factor = 𝑉2𝐼2* secondary power factor
As both the primary and secondary power factor are almost equal on full load
CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSFORMERS
There are two basic parts of a transformer:
1) Magnetic core 2) winding
The core of the transformer is either rectangular or square in size.
The core is divided into i) Yoke ii) Limb
Core is made up of silicon steel which has high permeability and low hysteresis
co-efficient.
The vertical portion on which the winding is wound is called Limb.
The top and bottom horizontal portion is called Yoke.
The core forms the magnetic circuit
There are 2 windings i) Primary winding ii) Secondary winding which forms the
Electric circuit. made up of conducting material like copper.
The winding which is connected to the supply is called primary winding and
having 'N1' number of turns.
The winding which is connected to a load is secondary winding and having 'N2'
number of turns.
Lamination of the core minimizes eddy current loss.
These laminations are insulated from each other by a thin coating of suitable
varnish.
The thickness of the lamination ranges from 0.35mm for a frequency of 25Hz to
0.5mm for a frequency of 50Hz.
The lamination strips are assembled, where the joints are staggered to avoid
narrow gaps all through the cross section of the core
TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS
The two main types of transformers are
1) Core Type
2) Shell Type

CORE TYPE TRANSFORMER

It has a single magnetic circuit.
The core is rectangular having two limbs.
The winding encircles the core.
The coils used are of cylindrical type.
The coils are wound in helical layer with different layers insulated from each other
by paper or mica.

Both the coils are placed on both the limbs.

The low voltage coil is placed inside, near the core while the high voltage coil
surrounds the low voltage coil.
Core is made up of large number of thin laminations.
As the windings are uniformly distributed over the two limbs the natural cooling
is more effective.
The coils can be easily removed by removing the lamination of the top yoke, for
maintenance.

SHELL TYPE TRANSFORMER

It has a double magnetic circuit.
The core has three limbs.
Both the windings are placed on the central limb.
The core encircles most part of the windings.
The coils used are generally multilayer disc type or sandwich coils.
 Each high voltage coil is in between low voltage coils and low voltage coils are
nearest to top and bottom of the yokes.
The core is laminated.
While arranging the lamination of the core, the care is taken that all the joints at
alternate layers are staggered.
This is done to avoid narrow air gap at the joints, right through the cross section
of the core. Such joints are called overlapped or imbricated joints.
Generally, for very high voltage transformers, the shell type construction is
preferred.
As the winding is surrounded by the core, the natural cooling does not exist.

EMF EQUATION
Let us consider a transformer having:
N1 = primary turns
N2 = Secondary turns
Φm =maximum value of the flux in the core linking both the windings= Bm A
where Bm = maximum flux density in the core (Wb/m2)
A = area of cross section of the core (m2)
𝑓 = frequency of AC input in hertz (Hz)
The flux in the core will wary sinusoidally, so that it increases from zero to
maximum value ϕm in one quarter of the cycle i.e, in (1/4f) seconds.
Therefore, average rate of change of flux is given by

We know that rate of change of flux per turn means induced EMF in volts
Therefore, average EMF/ turn = 4 f 𝜑𝑚
Since the flux is varying sinusoidally, the RMS value of the induced EMF is obtained
by multiplying the average value by the form factor.
Therefore RMS value of the EMF induced/ turn = 1.11 * 4 f 𝜑𝑚 = 4.44 f 𝜑𝑚 volts
Therefore, RMS value of induced EMF in the entire primary winding =
(induced EMF/turn) * no. of primary turns
𝐸1=4.44 f 𝜑𝑚𝑁1 = 4.44 f 𝐵𝑚 𝐴 𝑁1------------------(1)
In the similar manner, the RMS value of induced EMF in the entire secondary
winding is
𝐸2=4.44 f 𝜑𝑚𝑁2 = 4.44 f 𝐵𝑚 𝐴 𝑁2-----------------(2)

RATIOS OF A TRANSFORMER

1) Current Ratio
For an ideal transformer there are no losses. Hence the product of primary voltage
𝑉1 and primary current 𝐼1 is same as the product of secondary voltage 𝑉2 and the
secondary current 𝐼2 .
V1I1 = input KVA and V2I2 = output KVA
For an ideal transformer
V1I1 = V2I2

2) Volt ampere rating

When electrical power is transferred from primary winding to secondary, there are
few power losses in between. These power losses appear in the form of heat which
increases the temperature of the device. Now this temperature must be maintained
below certain limiting value as it is always harmful from insulation point of view.
As current is the main cause in producing heat, the output maximum rating is
generally specified as the product of output voltage and output current i.e., V2I2. This
always indicates that when transformer is operated under this specified rating, its
temperature rise will not be excessive. The copper losses depend on current and iron
losses depend on voltage. These losses are independent of the load power factor
cos𝜑2. Hence though the output power depends on cos 𝜑2 , the transformer losses are
functions of V and I and the rating of the transformer is specified as the product of
voltage and current called VA rating. This rating is generally expressed in kVA
(kilovolt amperes rating).

V1I1 = V2I2

If V1 and V2 are the terminal voltages of primary and secondary then from specified
kVA rating we can decide full load currents of primary and secondary, I 1 and I2. This
is the safe maximum current limit which may carry, keeping temperature rise below
its limiting value.
𝑘𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑋 1000
𝐼1 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = (1000 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡 𝑘𝑉𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝑉𝐴)
𝑉1
𝑘𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑋 1000
𝐼2 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 =
𝑉2

LOSSES IN A TRANSFORMER
There are two types of power losses occur in a transformer
1) Iron loss 2) Copper loss
1) Iron Loss (Pi)
This is the power loss that occurs in the iron part. This loss is due to the alternating
frequency of the emf. Iron loss in further classified into two other losses.
a) Eddy current loss b) Hysteresis loss
a) Eddy Current Loss (We)
This power loss is due to the alternating flux linking the core, which will induced an
emf, due to which a current called the eddy current is being circulated in the core.
As there is some resistance in the core with this eddy current circulation converts
into heat called the eddy current power loss.
Eddy Current Loss = KeBm2f2t2 watts/unit volume
where, Ke = eddy current constant and t=thickness of the core
Eddy current loss is proportional to the square of the supply frequency. Eddy current
loss can be minimized by using the core made of thin sheets of silicon steel material,
and each lamination is coated with varnish insulation to suppress the path of the eddy
currents.
b) Hysteresis Loss (Wh)
This is the loss in the iron core, due to the magnetic reversal of the flux in the core,
which results in the form of heat in the core. This loss is directly proportional to the
supply frequency.
Hysteresis Loss = KhBm1.67fv watts
where, Kh = Hysteresis constant depends on material
Bm = maximum flux density
f= frequency
v= volume of the core
Hysteresis loss can be minimized by using the core material having high
permeability.
Total Iron loss Pi = We + Wh
The flux in the core is almost constant as supply voltage 𝑉1 at rated frequency f is
always constant. Hence the flux density 𝐵𝑚 in the core and hence both hysteresis and
eddy current losses are constants at all the loads. Hence the core or iron losses are
also called constant losses. The iron losses are denoted as 𝑊𝑖.
The iron losses are minimized by using high grade core material like silicon steel
having very low hysteresis loop and by manufacturing the core in the form of
laminations.
2) Copper Loss or I2R losses (PCu)
The copper losses are due to the power wasted in the form of I 2R loss due to the
resistances of the primary and secondary windings. The copper loss depends on the
magnitude of the currents flowing through the windings.
Total Cu Loss = I12R1 + I22R2
= I12(R1+R2|) = I22(R2+R1|)
= I12R1e = I22R2e
The copper losses are denoted by 𝑊𝑐𝑢. If the current through the winding is full load
current, we get copper losses at full load. If the load on the transformer is half then
we get copper losses at half loads which are less than full load copper losses. Thus
copper losses are called variable losses. For transformer VA rating is V 1I1 or V2I2 .
As V1 is constant we can say that copper losses are proportional to the square of the
kVA rating and square of the current.
So, 𝑊𝑐𝑢 𝛼 I2 𝛼 (k𝑉𝐴)2
Thus, for a transformer
Total loss = iron losses + copper losses = 𝑊𝑖 + 𝑊𝑐𝑢
Thus if current is full load then copper losses are full load losses denoted by 𝑊𝑐𝑢
(𝐹.𝐿). If current is fraction of full load where n is the fraction then new copper losses
are 𝑛2𝑊𝑐𝑢 (𝐹.𝐿).

EFFICIENCY OF A TRANSFORMER
Due to the losses in a transformer, the output power of a transformer is less than
the input power supplied
Therefore, Power output = Power input – total losses
Therefore, Power input = Power output + total losses
= Power output + 𝑊𝑖 + 𝑊𝑐𝑢
The efficiency of any device is defined as the ratio of power output to power input.
So, for a transformer the efficiency can be expressed as

Now power output = 𝑉2𝐼2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑

where, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 = load power factor
The transformer supplies full load of current 𝐼2 and with terminal voltage 𝑉2
Wcu = copper loss on full load = I22 𝑅2𝑒

but V2I2 = VA rating of a transformer

But if the transformer is subjected to fractional load then using the appropriate
values of the quantities, the efficiency can be obtained.
When load changes, the load current changes by same proportion
Therefore, new I2 = n I2 (F.L)
Similarly, as copper losses are proportional to the square of the current then,
New (Wcu) = n2 Wcu(F.L)
In general, for fractional load the efficiency is given by

CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY

When a transformer works on a constant Input voltage and frequency then
efficiency varies with the load. As load increases, the efficiency increases. At a
certain load current, it achieves a maximum value. If the transformer is loaded
further the efficiency starts decreasing.
Let us determine,
1. Condition for maximum efficiency.
2. Load current at which 𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 occurs.
The efficiency is functions of loads i.e., load current I2 assuming cos𝜑2 constant. The
secondary terminal voltage V2 is also assumed constant So for maximum efficiency,
𝑑𝜂
=0
𝑑𝐼2
𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑2
𝜂= =0
𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑2 + 𝑊𝑖 + 𝐼22 𝑅2𝑒
𝑑𝜂 𝑑 𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑2
= [ ]=0
𝑑𝐼2 𝑑𝐼2 𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑2 + 𝑊𝑖 + 𝐼22 𝑅2𝑒
(V2I2cosφ2+ Wi+ I22 R2e)(V2 cosφ2)−(V2 I2 cosφ2)( V2 cosφ2+ 2I2 R2e)=0
Cancelling V2cosφ2 from both the terms we get
V2I2 cosφ2+ Wi+ I22 R2e− V2I2 cosφ2− 2I22 R2e = 0
Wi− I22 R2e = 0
𝐖𝐢= 𝐈𝟐2 𝐑𝟐𝐞 = 𝐖𝐜𝐮
So, condition to achieve maximum efficiency is that
Copper loss = Iron Loss i.e., 𝐖𝐢= 𝐖𝐜𝐮

LOAD CORRESPONDING TO MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY

If X is the load under maximum condition, Wi becomes cu loss for X kVA. We
know that Cu loss is directly proportional to (kVA)2, so
𝑊𝑐𝑢 α (full load kVA)2
Or 𝑊𝑖 α (X)2