Proof

WIX1001 Computing Mathematics 1

 Introduction

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Proof : An argument that establishes the
truth of a theorem.
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Logic : tool for the analysis of proofs.
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Rules of inference - formal proof
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Besides, there are many ways to proof a
theorem.

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 Direct Proofs
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Theorems to proof are often in the form:
P → Q is true, or
if P, then Q is true
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Direct proofs start with assume P is true.
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What we need to do is to directly proof that Q
is true (to keep P → Q true)
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If Q is false, P → Q is false.

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 Example

Give a direct proof of the following statement ：

“ For all integers m and n, if m is odd and n is even,
then m + n is odd.”
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Solution:
P : m is odd and n is even

Q : m+n is odd

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 Example (cont’)

Give a direct proof of the following statement ：

“ For all integers m and n, if m is odd and n is even,
then m + n is odd.”
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Solution:
P : m is odd and n is even hypothesis

Q : m+n is odd conclusion

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 Example (cont’)

Give a direct proof of the following statement ：

“ For all integers m and n, if m is odd and n is even,
then m + n is odd.”
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Solution:
P : m is odd and n is even hypothesis
with the hypothesis, we can assume:
m=2k1+1, k1∈Z and n=2k2, k2∈Z

Q : m+n is odd conclusion

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 Example (cont’)

Give a direct proof of the following statement ：

“ For all integers m and n, if m is odd and n is even,
then m + n is odd.”
●
Solution:
P : m is odd and n is even hypothesis
with the hypothesis, we can assume:
m=2k1+1, k1∈Z and n=2k2, k2∈Z
so, m+n = 2k1+1 + 2k2 = 2(k1+k2) + 1
= 2k3 + 1 where k3=k1+k2 ∈Z
Q : m+n is odd conclusion
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 Example
Proof that for all integers n, 4(n2 + n + 1) − 3n2 is a
perfect square.

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 Example
Proof that for all integers n, 4(n2 + n + 1) − 3n2 is a
perfect square.

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If n is an integer,
4(n2 + n + 1) − 3n2 = 4n2 + 4n + 4 − 3n2
= n2 + 4n + 4
= (n+2)2
since n is an integer, n+2 is also an integer,
therefore, (n+2)2 is a perfect square. Proved.

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 Example
Disproving with counterexample

Disprove: if ∀n ∈ Z+ , 2n + 1 is a prime
number.
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For n=1, 2, 4 and etc, we find:
► 21 + 1 = 3 is prime
► 22 + 1 = 5 is prime
► 24 + 1 = 17 is prime
► However, a counterexample, n=3
❒
23 + 1 = 9 is not prime
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With this counterexample, we disprove the
L I m CKtheorem.
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 Exercise

Using direct proof, show that if n is odd then

3n+2 is odd.

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 Proof by Contradiction
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We want to proof that P→Q is true.
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Idea:
► Start with P is true.
► If P→Q is true, P→~Q is false
► If we prove that P→~Q is true, we can
reject the theorem P→Q is true
► But if we prove that P→~Q is false, we
accept that P→Q is true, by contradiction.

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 Example
By Contradiction, prove that for every n ∈ Z, if n2 is
even, then n is even.

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 Example
By Contradiction, prove that for every n ∈ Z, if n2 is
even, then n is even.
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P : n2 is even Q : n is even ~Q : n is odd
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Because of P, we can write n2 = 2k , k∈ Z
Because of ~Q, we can write n=2m+1, m∈Z
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If P→~Q is true,
n2 = 2k = (2m+1)2
= 4m2 + 4m +1
= 2(2m2 + 2m) + 1 (n2 = 2k is not even!)
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The result shows that P→~Q cannot be true
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Thus, by contradiction, we proved that P→Q is true.
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 Exercise

With proof by contradiction, show that if 3n +

2 is odd then n is odd.

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 Proof by Contrapositive
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Recall that P→Q is equivalent to ~Q→~P
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Instead of showing P→Q directly, we do an
indirect way, show ~Q→~P.
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If ~Q→~P is true, P→Q is also true.

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 Example

Irrational numbers are all the real numbers which

are not rational numbers.
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Proof :
“for all x ∈ R, if x2 is irrational, then x is irrational”

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 Example

Irrational numbers are all the real numbers which

are not rational numbers.
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Proof by contrapositive,
“for all x ∈ R, if x2 is irrational, then x is irrational”
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So, instead of direct proof, we proof:
“if x is rational, then x2 is rational”

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 Example

Irrational numbers are all the real numbers which

are not rational numbers.
●
Proof by contrapositive,
“for all x ∈ R, if x2 is irrational, then x is irrational”
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So, instead of direct proof, we proof:
“if x is rational, then x2 is rational”

If x is rational, x = a/b, where a,b∈ Z

x2 = a2/b2, is rational number.
By contrapositive, we have proved the statement.
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 Exercise

With proof by contrapositive, show that if 3n +

2 is odd then n is odd.

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 Proof by cases
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When the original hypothesis naturally
divides itself into various cases.
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For example, when the hypothesis include “x
is a real number”, we can divide into cases:
► x is positive real number
► x is negative real number
► x is 0
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Sometimes the number of cases to prove is
finite and not too large, so we can check
them all one by one. We call this type of
proof exhaustive proof.
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 Example

Prove that for every real number x, x ≤ |x|.

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 Example

Prove that for every real number x, x ≤ |x|.

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For x is positive real number, x = |x|
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For x is 0, 0 = |0|
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For x is negative real number, x < |x|
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Combining all the cases, we can conclude
that for every real number x, x ≤ |x|.

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 Example

Prove that 2m2 + 3n2 = 40 has no solution in

positive integers.
(Note that 40 is not a large number and m,n
are positive integer.)

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 Example

Prove that 2m2 + 3n2 = 40 has no solution in

positive integers.
(Note that 40 is not a large number and m,n
are positive integer.)
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Assume n close to 0, 2m2 < 40, m<5
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Assume m close to 0, 3n2 < 40, n<4
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We can give exhaustive proof.

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 Proofs of Equivalence
●
Some theorems are of the form p if and only
if q. Such theorems are proved by using the
equivalence:
p ↔ q ≡ (p → q) ∧ (q → p)
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that is, to prove “p if and only if q,” prove “if
p then q” AND “if q then p.”

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 Example
By equivalence, prove that “for every integer n, n is odd if
and only if n−1 is even”.

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 Example
By equivalence, prove that “for every integer n, n is odd if
and only if n−1 is even”.
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We need to prove that:
► if n is odd then n − 1 is even (1)
► if n − 1 is even then n is odd (2)

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 Example
By equivalence, prove that “for every integer n, n is odd if
and only if n−1 is even”.
●
We need to prove that:
► if n is odd then n − 1 is even (1)
► if n − 1 is even then n is odd (2)
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First, we prove (1)
► If n is odd, then n = 2k + 1
► n-1 = (2k+1) - 1 = 2k is even

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 Example
By equivalence, prove that “for every integer n, n is odd if
and only if n−1 is even”.
●
We need to prove that:
► if n is odd then n − 1 is even (1)
► if n − 1 is even then n is odd (2)
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First, we prove (1)
► If n is odd, then n = 2k + 1
► n-1 = (2k+1) - 1 = 2k is even
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Next, we prove (2)
► If n − 1 is even, then n − 1 = 2k
► n = n-1 + 1 = 2k + 1 is odd
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We have proved P→Q and Q→P, so P↔Q is true.
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