FORENSIC BALLISTICS – FSC3

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 Forensic Ballistics
• Forensic - relating to or denoting the application
of scientific methods and techniques to the
investigation of crime.
– scientific tests or techniques used in connection
with the detection of crime.
• Ballistics - is the field of mechanics concerned with
the launching, flight behavior and impact effects of
projectiles.
– The science of moving projectile

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Nature and Concept of Ballistics
• is the science that deals with the study of conditions governing
natural laws in relation to the performance of gunpowder and
projectiles in firearms (Lajom).
• Ballistics involved
– Projectile – refers to metallic or non-metallic objects propelled
from a firearm
– Science – refers to the scientific study or knowledge
– Motion- refers the movement or mobility
• From these words the modern term Ballistics was derived
to indicate the science of moving projectile.

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 Ballistics
• Refers to the study of movement and forces
involved in the propulsion of objects through the air.
• GREEK word “Ballo” or “Ballein” which means “to
throw”
• Ballista – an ancient military machine (catapult)
used for hurling large missiles or stones.

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What are the Branches of Ballistics?
1.Interior or Internal Ballistics
Interior ballistics deals
with what happen from the
time the handgun firing pin
strikes the primer metal to
the time the projectiles
leaves the handgun muzzle
and enters the air.

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 Attributes included in Interior or
Internal Ballistics
1. Firing pin hitting the primer
2. Ignition of the priming mixture
3. Combustion of the gunpowder
4. Expansion of the heated gas
5. Pressure developed
6. Energy generated
7. Recoil of the gun
8. Velocity of the bullet inside the barrel
9. Rotation of the bullet inside the bore
10. Engraving of the cylindrical surface of bullet.

https://youtu.be/EjQrhDKDWFk

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Critical elements involved in the
study of Interior Ballistics
1. Relationship of the weight of charge to the weight
of projectile;
2. The length of bore;
3. The optimum size, shape and density of the
propellant grains for different guns;
4. And the related problems of maximum and
minimum muzzle pressures;

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2.Exterior or External
Ballistics
Exterior ballistics
deals when the bullet
leaves the gun muzzle
and enters the air.

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 Attributes included in exterior
Ballistics
1. Muzzle Blast - the noise created at muzzle point of
the gun by reason of the sudden escape of the
expanding gas when it comes to instant contact
with the air.
2. Muzzle energy – this refer to energy generated at
muzzle point.
3. Trajectory – the actual curved path of the bullet
during its flight from the gun muzzle to the target.

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 BULLET’S TRAJECTORY

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4. Range – the distance between muzzle and
target. There are three basic types of range:

a. Accurate range – the distance within which

the shooter has control of his shots.
b. Effective range – distance with which the
shot is still able to cause fatal injury to the
target.
c. Maximum range – the farthest distance that
aCOLLEGE
projectile can be propelled
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5. Velocity – the rate of speed of the bullet per
unit of time
6. Air resistance – this refer to resistance
encountered by the bullet while in flight
7. Pull of gravity – downward reaction of the
bullet towards earth center due to its weight

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3.Terminal Ballistics

Terminal ballistics deals with what

happens when the projectile comes to a stop
or hit the target.

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 Attributes included in terminal
ballistics
1. Terminal Accuracy – size of the bullet grouping on
the target.
2. Terminal Energy (Striking Energy) – energy of the
projectile when it strikes the target.
3. Terminal Velocity – speed of the bullet upon
striking the target.
4. Terminal penetration – depth of gunshot.

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What is Forensic Ballistics?
It is the science that directly
involves the investigation and
identification of firearms by means of
ammunition fired through them.

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This science involves the following:
1. Field Investigations – this involves the recognition,
collection, marking, preservation, and transmittal of the
evidences.

2. Technical Examination of evidence – this is the job

conducted by the examiner wherein the submitted
evidence bullets or cartridges will be compared to test
bullets or cartridge case to determine their similarity
or dissimilarity.
3. Legal Proceedings -
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 Unit One
CHAPTER TWO

Firearms
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 What is a Firearms? (Legal
Definition)
Firearms (Sec. 877, RAC) as herein used, includes
rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, pistols,
revolvers, and all other deadly weapons from
which bullets, balls, shots, shells or other missiles
maybe discharged by means of gunpowder or
other explosives. The barrel of any firearm shall
be considered a complete firearm for all purposes
hereof.

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Firearm (technical definition) is an
instrument used for the propulsion of
projectiles by means of the expansive
force of gases coming from burning
gunpowder.

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• Firearm could also mean any pistols or revolver with
a barrel less than twelve inches, any rifle with a
barrel less than fifteen inches, any shotgun with a
barrel less than twenty-four inches, or any other
weapon which is designed to expel a projectiles by
the action of an explosive.

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 Brief History of the Development of
Firearm

• China and India – Crude chemical

mixture resembling gunpowder is
already being used over 1000 years
ago.

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• Roger Bacon
• English monk
• Given the credit for the discovery of the mixture of
gunpowder around 1248-1250.
• Mixture of gunpowder (Black Powder):
– Saltpeter
– Sulfur
– Charcoal

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• Berthold Schwartz
• German monk
• Applied gunpower for the propulsion of projectiles in
the early 1300s.

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 Early Use of
Firearms
• Early forms of firearms was used
during the attack on Seville Spain in
1247.
• Records show that the earliest
firearms produced in Europe during
the 14th century were cannons and
hand cannons

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 Development of
Firearms
• During the 15th century saw the development of
SERPENTINE (match-lock) weaponry
which allowed the mechanical lowering of a
smoldering nitrated cord or fuse into a pan of
powder adjacent to the touch-hole

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 Nitrate Cord

Touch-hole

15th Century Match-Lock Gun

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• The 16th century saw the development of
WHEEL-LOCK arms which utilized a serrated
iron wheel which was caused to rotate by
clockwork against a piece of iron pyrites to
produce a shower of sparks directed towards the
flash pan.

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• The FLINT-LOCK IGNITION SYSTEM
followed this development. In this system a flash pan
was attached to the side of the breech alongside the
touch-hole leading to the main powder charge.

Flint Frinzzen

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 Flint
Frinzzen

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 Percussion
Ignition
• Reverend Alexander John Forsyth, a Scottish clergyman
took out a patent dated April 11, 1807 that described the
application of sensitive chemical mixtures to allow their
use in te exploding of gunpowder in firearms.
• During the 19th century percussion sensitive explosive
mixtures were used to develop a range of new firing
systems based upon the percussion system.

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• The first type of priming mixture is made of paper cap
rolls, inside copper tubes, or within copper caps, which
were placed upon a nipple screwed into the touchhole at
the breech end of the gun barrel.
• These percussion systems were superseded during the
second half of the 19th century by breech-loading arms
utilizing self-contained cartridges. This ended the era of
the muzzle loading firearms.

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 Four types of self
Exploding
Cartridges
• Needle fire
• Pin fire
• Rim fire
• Center fire

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 Needle fire cartridges

Adopted by the
Prussian armed forces
in 1842 and proved to
be extremely effective
in the Danish war of
1864 and further
conflict in 1866 and
1870.

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• Soldiers could reload their weapons without the need to
stand up, as was common practice with long-barreled
muzzle-loading arms.
• It utilizes a nitrate paper cartridge which could be
pierced through its base by a long needle-shaped firing
pin to fire the sensitive priming patch fixed on the other
side of the powder charge to a wad underneath the
bullet.

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 Pin-fire cartridges
The cartridge had a pin projecting from the side of
its base loading. In this system, the hammer struck
the projecting pin pushing it into the cartridge
interior to strike an internal percussion cap.

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 Pin

Priming
Mixture

• Frenchman Lefaucheux produces a gun and

cartridge based upon the pin-fire system in
1836.
However, gas leakage at high pressure reduced
this system mainly to relatively low intensity

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 Rim Fire Cartridges

• The basic principles of the RIM-FIRE are inherent in

much of Houiller’s work (a French gun inventor) and
in the light cartridge produced in France during the
early 1830s by Flobert for pistols of low caliber.
• Rim-fire cartridges are those in which the primer
material is contained within a “flange” formed
around the periphery of the cartridge at the head.

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The flange is narrow “bulge” around the case,
forming a hollow rim into which the primer
charge is placed.

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The first successful rim-fire cartridge was that produce
in 1857 Smith and Wesson.
The rim was considered a great advancement in the
development of metallic cartridges because the rim
that projected outward from the body of the case at
the rear served to prevent the round slipping too
deeply into the firing chamber by coming to rest
against the base of the chamber.

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 This served as an admirable
“anvil” against which the primer-
laden rim could be struck by the
hammer to ensure the reliability
of the detonation sequence.

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 Center-fire
cartridges
The center-fire cartridges are those in which the primer
charge is located in a special receptacle at the center
of the cartridge head.
The first effective center-fire round was that produced
in France during 1857 by Pottet.

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The primer mechanism is set into a circular depression
in the head of the cartridge case connected by flash
tube to the powder charge.
The center-fire type appealed to the military in
particular as it offered the possibilities of rimless
ammunition that could also be re-filled.

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 Classification According to
Internal Gun Barrel
Construction
• Rifled-Bore Firearms – firearms that have
lands and grooves (rifling) inside the gun
barrel.

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• Smooth-Bore Firearms – firearms that have no rifling
inside the gun barrel. Examples: Shotguns, and
Muskets.

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 Main Types of Firearms
• Artillery – those types of firearms that propel projectiles
more than one inch in diameter.
• Small Arms - those types of firearms that propel
projectiles less than one inch in diameter. There are five
categories of small arms (a) handgun; (b) rifles; (c)
shotguns; (d) submachine guns; and (e) machine guns

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 Categories of Small
Arm
1. Handguns – those types of
firearms designed to be fired by one
hand. There are four (4) basic types
of handgun:

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 Four Categories of
Handgun:
• Single-shot Pistols - a single-shot pistol is limited to one
shot per firing cycle and has no reloading mechanism of
its own. It must be emptied and reloaded manually.

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• Derringers - they are a variant of single-
shot pistols. Derringers are small pocket
firearms with no magazine and cylinder
and have multiple barrels and each of
which is loaded and fired separately.
• The traditional derringers are single
action and have two barrels with no
trigger guard.

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c. Revolvers - this is the most common type of
handgun. Revolvers have a revolving cylinder that
contains several chambers each of which holds one
cartridge.
Revolvers may either be single-action or double action
types.

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 Usually the cylinder holds from 5 to 7 loads, although
some .22 caliber revolvers may contain up to 8-10
cartridges.
In single-action revolvers, the cylinder revolves
manually each time the weapon is to be fired.
Cocking the hammer revolves the cylinder, aligning
the chamber with the barrel and the firing pin.

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• In double-action revolvers a continuous pressure on
the trigger revolves the cylinder, aligns the chamber
with the barrel, and cocks and then release the
hammer, firing the weapon.

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 Three Types of Revolver:
• Swing-out – on pressing the cylinder latch, normally
found on the left side of the frame and pushing the
cylinder to the left, the cylinder swing-out, exposing
the chambers.

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2. Break-top Revolvers – the frame is hinged at the rear
such that, on release of the top catch, the barrel and
cylinder swing down, exposing the back of the
cylinder for loading.
This form of revolver is the traditional form in Great
Britain

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• Solid-Frame Revolver – this is the oldest form of
revolver dating to Colt’s original weapons. In this
weapon, the cylinder is held in the frame by a certain
pin, around which it rotates.
• Each chamber in cylinder is loaded individually
through a loading gate on the right side of the
frame. The hammer of the firearm is typically
pulled back to half cock, and the cylinder is then
manually rotated so that the chamber is aligned
with the loading gate.

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4. Auto-loading pistols - is an auto-loader in which
the trigger must be pulled for every shot fired.
They are more properly called “semi-automatic” pistol.

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• Semi-automatic pistols is defined as a handgun that
contains only a single chamber, but has an
automatic mechanism to remove an empty casing
from the chamber and insert a new cartridge from
the magazine.
• The first commercial automatic pistol was
produced in 1893 by Borchardt, this weapon was the
predecessor of the Luger.

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 Methods of
operation of pistols
• Blow-back action - the pressure of the gas
produced by combustion of the powder forces an
unlocked slide to the rear, thus starting the cycle of
extraction, ejection, and reloading.
• Examples of this type are the Para-Ordnance P14-45
pistols, and the Beretta 92F.
• https://youtu.be/lXVPUxqbgII

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• Delayed blowback operation – on firing the gun,
part of the propellant gas is directed through a
small vent in the barrel ahead of the chamber into a
cylinder beneath the barrel. A piston attached to
the slide enters the front end of this cylinder.

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• The gas entering the cylinder acts against the
piston, such that the slide begins to move rearward
by virtue of the recoil pressure, the movement of
the piston in the cylinder is resisted by the gas
pressure, delaying the movement of the slide and
delaying the opening of the breech. This system
reduces the recoil of the gun.

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• 3. Recoil-operated - the barrel and the slide are locked
together at the moment of firing. As the bullet leaves
the barrel, the rearward thrust of the propellant gas on
the cartridge case starts the slide to move to the rear.
• After a short distance, the barrel is halted, and the locking
device is withdrawn from the slide. The slide then continues
to the rear, ejecting the case and starting the reloading cycle

• https://youtu.be/qK6sNYz2aQg

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Figure 15.S&W Sigma 9mm Pistol Figure 16. Glock 17 Pistol

• Example of recoil-operated handguns

is the Sigma, Glock 17, Jericho, S&W
pistols
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4.

• Gas-operated firearm is seen in the

Desert Eagle Magnum pistols. This
piece was designed as a target/sport
pistol.

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 Modes of Operation
of Pistols
• A Single Action (SA) is a mode
wherein the pistol will fire when its
hammer is in a fully cocked position
as shown below. In other words, in
order to fire this type of pistol you
need to cock first the hammer before
you squeeze the trigger

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 Para-Ordinance P-14

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2. Double Action for the semi-automatic, means to
fire the pistol, the hammer is down or in the
decocked position and upon squeezing the trigger,
it will be the one to cock the hammer and release
it to fire the weapon.
• In other words, in order fire the pistol the hammer
is usually cocked by trigger pull for the first shot
only; the second and the rest are done in single-
action mode.
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 Beretta 92F Double Action Pistol

Taurus PT945 Double Action Pistol

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• Double Action Only - means that this type of pistol
cannot be manually cocked. Each pull of the trigger
cocks the gun and drops the hammer or releases
the striker. This is a safe pistol since even with a
live round in the chamber the pistol will not fire
until the trigger is pulled.

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• Rifles –a rifle is a firearm with a
rifled barrel, which is designed to be
fired from the shoulder.

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 Types of Rifles:
• Single-Shot Rifle – is a type rifle that has one firing
chamber integral with the barrel that has to be
manually loaded each time the weapon is fired

Single-shot Rifle
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• Lever Action Rifle – has a lever beneath
the grip that is used to open the rifle
action, to extract the cartridge case, and,
in closing the action, to insert a fresh
cartridge in the firing chamber and to
cock the gun

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• Bolt Action Rifle – in this type of firearm, a handle
projects from a bolt. Pulling back and pushing
forward on this projection causes the bolt to extract
and eject a cartridge case and then to insert a new
cartridge while cocking the gun

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• Pump Action Rifles – the type of rifles
uses manual movement of the slide under
and parallel to the barrel to open the
action, extract, and eject a cartridge, load
a fresh cartridge, and cock the weapon.

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• Auto-loading or semi-automatic Rifles – this type
of rifles fires, extracts, ejects, reloads, and cocks
with each pull of the trigger using the force of gas
pressure or recoil to operate the action. After each
shot the trigger must be released and then pulled
again to repeat the cycle

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 Assault Rifle
• An automatic rifle or Assault Rifle is one that, on
pulling the trigger and firing the weapon, utilizes
the force of gas pressure or recoil to eject the fired
case, load the next round, fire it and then eject it.
This cycle is repeated until all the ammunition is
used or the trigger is released.

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• Assault rifles are primary offensive weapons of
modern troops. Today's AR (Assault Rifles) usually
have calibers ranging from 5.45mm to 7.62mm,
magazine capacity of 20-30 or more rounds,
selective full auto and single shot modes of fire,
plus, in some models, 2 or 3 round burst mode.

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• Effective range of fire is some 600 meters or so;
effective rate of fire - up to 400-500 rounds per
minute in full auto mode
• Characteristics of Assault Rifles:
• Auto-loading
• Has a large capacity (20 rounds or more) detachable
magazine
• Is capable of full-automatic fire
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• Assault rifle started in the early 1910's, when
the famous Russian armorer, Col. Fedorov
designed a small-bore selective-fire rifle with
detachable box magazine. Col. Fedorov
designed a brand new small-caliber 6.5mm
cartridge for his rifle, but, due to WW1, switched
to the Japanese 6.5mm Arisaka load, which was
less powerful than the Russian 7.62x54R and
available in quantity.

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• Most of the worlds' recent assault rifles are designed
in bull-pup configuration. This means that buttplate
is attached directly to the receiver and handle with
the trigger placed ahead of the magazine veil.

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 Assault Rifle (Steyr AUG 5.56mm bull-pup design)

M-16/5.56 mm Rifle

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3. Shotgun - is a weapon intended to be fired from the
shoulder; it has a smoothbore and is designed to fire
multiple pellets from the barrel.
The main advantage of the shotguns is high firepower in
close combat situations (up to 50-70 meters).
Shotgun’s effectiveness is roughly equivalent, in terms of
power, to 4-8 rounds burst from the 9mm submachine gun.

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• Second advantage is the flexibility. Shotshells may be
loaded with buckshots, heavy slugs, armor-piercing
saboted bullets, non-lethal "rubber" shots, and many
others.

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 Types of Shotgun
1. Single shot
2. Double barrel over and under

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3. Double barrel side-by-side

4. Bolt Action

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5. Lever Action

6. Pump action

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7. Auto loading

Jackhummer Autoloading Shotgun

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• Submachine Gun - or machine pistol is a
weapon that is design to be fired from
either the shoulder and or hip, is capable of
full automatic fire; has rifled barrel and fires
pistol ammunition.
• The first appearance of submachine guns
dates back to 1915, but the first mass use of
them was seen during WWII
• SMG’s usually uses standard or improved
auto-pistol ammo, and have the size and
weight comparable to the largest of
handguns.
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 • SMG’s are good offensive and
defensive weapons while range is
generally lesser than 200 meters.

Figure 44. H&K 5A3 Figure 45. FAMAS SAF

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• 5. Machine Gun - is a weapon that is capable of full-
automatic firing and that fires rifle ammunition (Fig.
48). Hiram Maxim invented the first machine gun in
USA in 1883.
• Today the main role of all MG’s is to provide
sustained firepower for troops against enemy troops
and unarmored targets. Heavy (.50/12.7mm) MG’s
can deal with lightly armored targets such as APC’s,
recon vehicles, and helicopters

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Light Machine FN M249 (Dual fed by belt or box magazine)

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Heavy Machine Gun (FN-M2HB)

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