Aim

Use of Vernier Calliper to measure the diameter of a small spherical/cylindrical body.

Apparatus/ Materials Required

• A spherical body such as a pendulum bob or a glass marble
• Vernier Caliper
• Magnifying Glass

Theory
The smallest distance that can be measured along the distance is the least count. It
is the difference between one main scale division and one vernier scale division.
n(V.S.D)=(n−1)M.S.D
In Vernier Callipers, n divisions of the vernier scale coincide with (n-1) divisions of
the main scale. n V.S.D = (n-1) M.S.D

Formula Used
• Least count of Vernier Calliper
=magnitudeofthesmallestdivisiononthemainscaletotalnumberofsmalldivisionsonthevernierscale

• Corrected Diameter = Mean Observed Diameter – Zero Error

Diagram

0000000000000000000000000

Procedure
1. Keep the jaws of the vernier calliper closed. Make sure that the zero of the main scale
perfectly coincides with the zero of the vernier scale. If it doesn’t coincide account for the
zero error for all observations.
 2. Using a magnifying glass, look for the division of the main scale that coincides with the
division of the vernier scale. Note down the number of division that coincides with each
other. To avoid parallax error, position your eye directly over the division mark.
3. Release the movable jaw by gently loosening the screw. Slide it enough to hold the
sphere or the cylindrical body between the jaws AB without any undue pressure. Align it
perfectly perpendicular to the diameter of the body. Gently tighten the screw in order to
clamp the instrument in this position to the body.
4. Note down the position of the zero of the vernier scale against the zero of the main scale.
Normally, it will not perfectly coincide with any of the divisions on the main scale. Record
the main scale division to the left of the zero marks of the vernier scale.
5. Look for the exact coincidence of the vernier scale division with that of the main scale
division in the vernier window from the left end to the right. Note down the number N.
6. Multiply the obtained N by the least count of the instrument and add the product to the
main scale reading noted in step 4. Make sure to convert the product into proper units for
valid addition.
7. Repeat steps 3-6 to get the positions of the body at different positions on its curved
surface. Make sure to take three sets of reading in each case.
8. Record the observations in a tabular column with proper reading. If needed, apply zero
correction.
9. Find the arithmetic mean of the corrected readings of the diameter of the body.

Observations
• Least Count of Vernier Callipers
• Main scale division = 1 mm = 0.1 cm
• Number of Venier scale division N = 10
• Vernier scale division = 9 main scale division
• Vernier scale division = 0.9 main scale division

Vernier Constant = 1 main scale division – 1 vernier scale division

= (1 – 0.9) main scale divisions

= 0.1 main scale divisions

Vernier constant = 0.1 mm = 0.01 cm

• TrueReading=ObservedReading−(±Zeroerror)
• Table for measuring the diameter of a small/cyndrical body
S. Main Scale reading, Number of coinciding Vernier scale reading, V = N Measured diameter, M +
No. M (cm/mm) vernier division, N × VC (cm/mm) V (cm/mm)

12

34
ZeroError=±….cm

Mean Observed Diameter = ……cm

Corrected Diameter = Mean Observed Diameter – Zero Error

Result
The diameter of the given sphere/cylinder is _____ cm.

to find the value of gravitational acceleration ggg using the Simple Pendulum Experiment in
a Class 11 practical, follow these steps carefully.

Apparatus:

1. Pendulum (Bob): A small mass (usually a metal sphere or bob)

2. String/Thread: A lightweight, inextensible string
3. Stopwatch: To measure the time period
4. Meter scale: To measure the length of the pendulum

Theory:

The time period TTT of a simple pendulum is given by the formula:

T=2πLgT = 2\pi \sqrt{\frac{L}{g}}T=2πgL

Where:

 TTT is the time period (time for one complete oscillation).

 LLL is the length of the pendulum (distance from the point of suspension to the center of
the bob).
 ggg is the acceleration due to gravity.

To determine ggg, rearrange the formula:

g=4π2LT2g = \frac{4\pi^2 L}{T^2}g=T24π2L
Procedure:

1. Set up the Pendulum:

o Attach the bob to the end of the string and hang it from a fixed support (such as a
clamp stand).
o Measure the length LLL from the point of suspension to the center of the bob
using the meter scale.

2. Displace the Pendulum:

o Displace the bob slightly (by about 10° or less) from its equilibrium position and
release it. Make sure not to displace it too far as this could lead to a non-simple
harmonic motion.

3. Measure the Time Period:

 o Use the stopwatch to time the oscillations. For accuracy, measure the time for a
number of complete oscillations (say 20 or 50) and then calculate the average
time for one oscillation.
o For example, if you time 20 oscillations and it takes 40 seconds, then the time
period TTT for one oscillation is:
T=Total time for 20 oscillationsNumber of oscillations=4020=2 secondsT = \frac{\
text{Total time for 20 oscillations}}{\text{Number of oscillations}} = \frac{40}{20} =
2 \, \text{seconds}T=Number of oscillationsTotal time for 20 oscillations=2040
=2seconds

4. Repeat the Measurements:

o Repeat the experiment for different lengths LLL (e.g., 0.5 m, 1 m, 1.5 m) to reduce
error and increase the accuracy of the measurement of ggg.

5. Calculate ggg:
o Substitute the measured values of LLL and TTT into the formula: g=4π2LT2g = \
frac{4\pi^2 L}{T^2}g=T24π2L

Example Calculation:

 Let's assume the following:

o Length of pendulum L=1.0 mL = 1.0 \, \text{m}L=1.0m
o Time period for one oscillation T=2.0 sT = 2.0 \, \text{s}T=2.0s

 Now, substitute these values into the formula:

g=4π2(1.0)(2.0)2g = \frac{4\pi^2 (1.0)}{(2.0)^2}g=(2.0)24π2(1.0) g=4×3.141624≈9.87

m/s2g = \frac{4 \times 3.1416^2}{4} \approx 9.87 \, \text{m/s}^2g=44×3.14162≈9.87m/s2

Thus, the value of ggg is approximately 9.87 m/s29.87 \, \text{m/s}^29.87m/s2.

Conclusion:

By following these steps and performing multiple trials with different lengths, you can
calculate the value of ggg in a simple pendulum experiment. The experimentally determined
value may vary slightly from the standard value of g=9.8 m/s2g = 9.8 \,
\text{m/s}^2g=9.8m/s2, but it should be quite close.

Aim

To verify the parallelogram law of vector addition using a force table.

Apparatus Required

 Force table
 Three pulleys
 Three sets of weights
  Strings
 Protractor
 Graph paper
 Drawing board

Theory

According to the Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition, if two vectors A and B are
represented as adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then the resultant R is given by:

R=A2+B2+2ABcos⁡θR = \sqrt{A^2 + B^2 + 2AB \cos\theta}R=A2+B2+2ABcosθ

where θ is the angle between the two vectors.

Procedure

1. Setting up the Force Table

o Place the force table on a flat surface and ensure it is level.
o Fix three pulleys at appropriate angles on the edge of the force table.

2. Applying Forces
o Attach three strings to a central ring and pass them over the pulleys.
o Attach known weights (W₁ and W₂) at the ends of two strings to create the two
vectors A and B.
o Adjust the angle θ between the two vectors and note the values.

3. Balancing the System

o Attach a third weight W₃ along the diagonal (expected resultant direction) and
adjust it until equilibrium is reached (i.e., the central ring stays at rest).
o The third weight represents the experimental resultant R' of the two vectors.

4. Graphical Method
o Draw vectors A and B to scale on graph paper.
o Complete the parallelogram and draw the diagonal.
o Measure the diagonal length and compare it with the experimental resultant R'.

Observations and Calculations

Vector Magnitude (N) Angle (°)
A W₁ θ₁
B W₂ θ₂
R' (Experimental) W₃ -

 Calculate the theoretical resultant R using the formula:

R=A2+B2+2ABcos⁡θR = \sqrt{A^2 + B^2 + 2AB \cos\theta}R=A2+B2+2ABcosθ

 Compare R (theoretical) with R' (experimental).

 Result

The experimental and theoretical values of the resultant vector should be approximately equal,
verifying the parallelogram law of vector addition.

Precautions

 Ensure that the pulleys move freely and without friction.

 The force table should be perfectly horizontal.
 Use accurate weights and measure angles carefully.
 The strings should be of equal length and not stretchable.