1 CHEMISTRY

Matter
and Its States
Matter
As we look at our surroundings, we see a large variety of things with different shapes,
sizes and textures. Everything in this universe is made up of material which scientists
have named ‘matter’. All the things such as stones, clouds, food, stars, plants, even a small
drop of water occupy space and have mass. In other words, matter is something which
has mass, occupy volume, can have physical resistance, inertia and can be realised by the
sense organs.
Early Indian philosophers classified matter in the form of five basic elements–the
‘Pancha Tatva’ – air, earth, fire, sky and water. According to them, everything, living or
non-living was made up of these five basic elements.

Characteristics of Matter
(i) Matter is made up of very small particles that are beyond our imagination.
(ii) The particles have space in between them, called the intermolecular space.
(iii) They are continuously moving, i.e. they possess kinetic energy.
As the temperature rises, speed of the particles increases. Due to which the kinetic
energy of the particles increases.
(iv) They attract each other. The force of attraction responsible for keeping them
together is called intermolecular force.
(v) The strength of this force of attraction varies from one kind of matter to another.

Particles of Matter
Matter has mainly two particles:

Atoms
The word atom has been derived from Greek word atomos meaning indivisible. An atom is
the smallest particle of an element that may or may not exist independently and retain all
its chemical properties, i.e. takes part in chemical reactions. Atoms of different elements
have different masses and chemical properties.

Molecules
A molecule is a group of two or more atoms that are chemically bonded together. It can be
defined as the smallest particle of an element or a compound that is capable of
independent existence and shows all the properties of that substance. However, it does
not take part in a chemical reaction.
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Types of Molecules
These are of two types
(i) Homomolecules or Molecules of the Element These are the molecules of an
element constituted by the same type of atoms, e.g. O 2 , H2 , N 2 etc.
The number of atoms constituting a molecule is called its atomicity, e.g., atomicity of
phosphorus (P4 ) is four and of sulphur (S 8 ) is eight.
(ii) Heteromolecules or Molecules of the Compounds In these molecules, atoms of
different elements join together in definite proportions.
Examples of Heteromolecules
Compound Combining Elements Ratio by Mass
Water (H2O) Hydrogen, oxygen 1:8
Ammonia (NH3) Nitrogen, hydrogen 14 : 3
Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) Carbon, oxygen 3:8

States of Matter
Matter exists in three different states– solid, liquid and gas. These states of matter arise
due to the variation in the extent of intermolecular forces and intermolecular space.

1. The Solid State

In this state of matter, the substances have definite mass, volume and shape, e.g. wood,
table, pen, book, etc. The intermolecular space in between the constituent particles of
solid state is small, but the intermolecular forces are strong. Thus, the constituent
particles such as atoms, molecules or ions
can not move but can only oscillate about Everyday Science
their mean position. This is the reason why a The shape of a rubber band changes
solids are incompressible and rigid, i.e. have when some external force is applied
definite shape and size. Because of the but it regains shape when the force is
removed. Further, if excessive force is
presence of strong intermolecular forces,
applied, it breaks, i.e. it is rigid and have
these are highly densed and generally have definite shape. That’s why it is consider
high melting point. as a solid.
a A sponge is compressible but
Classification of Solids considered as a solid because of the
These can be classified into two groups: presence of air filled holes. When force
is applied, the air expels out and it gets
(i) Crystalline Solids They consist of a compressed.
large number of crystals. In a crystal,
a We can easily move our hand in air or
the arrangement of particles is regular, water (less easily than air) but for
e.g. sodium chloride, diamond, quartz doing the same in a solid block of
(crystalline), graphite, etc. wood, a karate expert is required. This
is because of higher extent of
(ii) Amorphous Solids They consist of intermolecular forces in between the
particles of irregular shape. The particles of solids.
arrangement of particles in amorphous a Although ice is a solid but it floats over
solid is disordered, e.g. glass, rubber water due to its less density than
and plastics. Amorphous solids are also water. This is because of the pressure
called pseudo solids or supercooled of air filled spaces due to weaker
liquids. H-bonding.
MATTER AND ITS STATES
3

2. The Liquid State

In this state, the substances have no fixed shape but have a fixed volume. They take up
the shape of the container in which they are kept, e.g. water, oil, milk, etc. The upper
surface of the liquids is always planar whatever be the shape of the container. Liquids
flow and change their shape, so they are not rigid and are called fluids (substance which
can flow).
In liquids, intermolecular forces are no longer strong enough to hold the particles
together, that’s why they are less densely compressed. However, the forces are still
sufficient so that particles cannot escape each other’s environment, so they have
sufficient mobility and fixed volume.

3. The Gaseous State

In this state, matter have no fixed shape and volume. They only ■ Gaseous Pressure In
occupy the shape and size of the container in which they are the gaseous state, the
kept, e.g. air, H2 , O 2 , N 2 , etc. In gaseous state, the particles move about
intermolecular forces are very weak, so the intermolecular randomly at high
spaces between the molecules are very large. This is the reason speed. Due to this
that gases are highly compressible as compared to solids and they hit each other
liquids. Gases also flow in the container in which they are kept, and also the walls of
so they are also called fluids. the container. That’s
why gases exert
Further, gases expand more as compared to liquids and solids
pressure on the walls
when heated due to the weaker intermolecular forces as of the container.
compared to liquids and solids.

Two More States of Matter

Now-a-days, there is a discussion on two more states of matter, but these states
occur only in extreme conditions of temperature and pressure. These are:
Plasma
It consists of super energetic and super excited particles. These particles are in the
form of ionised gases. The fluorescent tube (filled with helium or any other gas)
and neon sign bulbs (filled with neon) consist of plasma. The sun and the stars
glow because of the presence of plasma in them. The plasma is created in stars
because of very high temperature.
Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC)
This state is named after the name of scientists Satyendra Nath Bose (India) and
Albert Einstein. The BEC is formed by cooling a gas of extremely low density, about
one-hundred-thousandth the density of normal air, to super low temperatures.
In 2001, Eric A. Cornell, Wolfgang Ketterle and Carl E. Wieman of USA received the
Nobel Prize in Physics for achieving ‘Bose-Einstein Condensate’.

Diffusion
The process of intermixing of particles of two different types of matter on their own is
called diffusion, e.g. on adding a drop of ink into water, it spreads evenly throughout the
water. On heating, the speed of particles increases which results in more intermolecular
space or less intermolecular forces, thus diffusion becomes faster. That’s why the smell of
hot sizzling food reaches you several metres away. But to get the smell from cold food you
have to go close.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
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Solids, liquids and gases can diffuse into liquids. The rate of diffusion of liquids is higher
than that of solids. Because in liquid state, particles move freely and have greater
intermolecular space as compared to that in the solid state.
Due to high speed of particles and large space between them, gases show the property of
diffusing very fast into other gases.

Interconversion of States of Matter

The states of matter are interconvertible. They can be interchanged by changing
temperature or pressure as:

Liquid

Va
Co

po
tion
io n

nd

r i s a io n
ica
Fus

en

tio
idif

sa

n
t
Sol

Sublimation
Solid Gas
Condensation
Interconversion of the Three States of Matter

Various terms related to interconversion of states of matter are:

(i) Fusion The process of melting, i.e. change of solid state into liquid state is also known
as fusion.
(ii) Melting Point The temperature at which a solid starts to melt to become a liquid at
the atmospheric pressure is called its melting point. The melting point of a solid is an
indication of strength of the force of attraction between its particles, i.e. higher the
melting point of solid, higher will be the force of attraction between the particles of
solid. Melting point of ice is 0°C.
(iii) Sublimation It is the process used for those solids which convert directly into
vapours on heating without converting into liquid phase and the vapours upon
cooling give back the solid. Such solids are called sublimates.
(iv) Vaporisation The process in which a liquid substance changes into a gas rapidly on
heating is called vaporisation. The same phenomenon is called evaporation when
heating is categorised to be done below the boiling point of the liquid.
(v) Boiling Point The temperature at which a liquid starts boiling at the atmospheric
pressure is known as its boiling point. Boiling is a bulk phenomenon and varies from
place to place. Boiling point of water at normal pressure is 100°C.
(vi) Condensation It is the process in which gas changes into the liquid state or liquid
changes to solid state, i.e. solidification.
(vii) Latent Heat The word latent means hidden. Thus, latent heat is the amount of heat
absorbed or released by a substance undergoing a change of state such as ice
changing to water or water to steam at constant temperature.
Latent heat of fusion is defined as the amount of heat energy that is required to
change 1 kg of a solid into liquid at atmospheric pressure at its melting point.
Particles in water at 0°C have more energy as compared to particles in ice at the same
temperature, because of the presence of latent heat of fusion.
Latent heat of vaporisation is the heat energy required to change 1 kg of a liquid to
gas at the atmospheric pressure at its boiling point. Temperature remains constant
during boiling due to latent heat of vaporisation.
MATTER AND ITS STATES
5
Effect of Change of Temperature
On heating the solid, kinetic energy of the particles increases. Due to which they start
vibrating with greater speed (at their fixed position). The energy supplied by the heat
overcomes the forces of attraction between the particles. Due to reduction in force of
attraction, the particles leave their fixed position and start moving freely. Due to this, a
stage is reached when solid melts and starts to convert into liquid.

Effect of Change of Pressure

By increasing pressure and reducing temperature, we can change a gas into liquid and a
liquid into solid and reverse is achieved by decreasing pressure and increasing
temperature.
■ Due to latent heat of vaporisation, particles in steam, i.e. water vapour at 373 K (100°C) have
more energy than that of water at the same temperature. That’s why steam causes severe
burns than that of water at 100° C.
■ At high altitudes, atmospheric pressure is low, therefore, the vapour pressure of a liquid
becomes equal to atmospheric pressure at low temperature, i.e. water boils at a temperature
less than 100°C and hence, food requires more time to cook.
■ Inside the pressure cooker, pressure is high and hence, water boils at a temperature higher
than 100°C. Thus, less time is required to cook the food.
■ In the presence of impurity, boiling point increases and freezing point decreases.
■ Solid carbon dioxide is stored under high pressure. It gets converted directly to gaseous state
on decreasing pressure to 1 atm without coming into liquid state. That’s why it is also called
‘dry ice’ or ‘dry kold’.

Chemical Classification of Matter

On the basis of chemical composition, matter can be classified as:

Matter

Pure Substance Mixture

§ Homogeneous

§ Heterogeneous
Elements Compounds
§ Metals § Organic

§ Non-metals § Inorganic

§ Metalloids

Element
Robert Boyle was the first scientist to use the term element in 1661. Antoine Laurent
Lavoisier (1743-94), a French chemist defined an element as a basic form of matter that
cannot be broken down into simpler substances by any physical chemical process. Infact,
an element is that fundamental matter which is composed of only one kind of atoms.
Elements can be solids like Aluminium (Al), Iron (Fe), Gold (Au), Silver (Ag) etc., liquids like
Mercury (Hg), Bromine (Br), etc., and gases like Argon (Ar), Helium (He), Oxygen (O),
Hydrogen (H), etc.
Presently, there are 118 elements out of which 98 are naturally occurring and rest are
artificially made.
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Symbols for Some Elements
Element Symbol Element Symbol Element Symbol
Aluminium Al Copper Cu Nitrogen N
Argon Ar Fluorine F Oxygen O
Barium Ba Gold Au Potassium K
Boron B Hydrogen H Silicon Si
Bromine Br Iodine I Silver Ag
Calcium Ca Iron Fe Sodium Na
Carbon C Lead Pb Sulphur S
Chlorine Cl Magnesium Mg Uranium U
Cobalt Co Neon Ne Zinc Zn

Symbols have been taken from the names of elements in Latin, German or Greek. The
first letter of a symbol is always written as a capital letter and the second letter as a small
letter.
Elements can be normally divided into metals, non-metals and metalloids. We will
describe their properties later.

Compound
A compound is a pure substance composed of two or more elements, chemically
combined with one another in a fixed proportion. The composition of a compound is
always fixed (same throughout) and it has totally different properties from its constituent
particles, e.g. water (H2 O), methane (CH4 ), sugar (C 12 H22 O 11 ), salt (NaCl), baking soda
(NaHCO 3 ), etc.
A compound can be broken down into its elements by chemical or electrochemical
reactions, but not by any physical process. It is considered as a homogeneous mixture.
The physical and chemical properties of the compound are different than those of its
constituent elements. Compounds can be broadly categorised to organic (those with C as
main constituent) and inorganic (those in which C is not the main constituent).

Mixture
Most of the matter present around us exist in the form of mixtures of two or more pure
components. Thus, mixtures are impure substances and do not have constituents in fixed
proportion, e.g. air (a mixture of various gases like O 2 , N 2 , CO 2 , etc.), sea water, minerals,
soil, etc., are all mixtures.
The mixtures can be separated into their constituents by simple physical or mechanical
processes.

Types of Mixtures
Depending upon the nature of the components that form a mixture, we have two different
types of mixtures:
(i) Homogeneous Mixtures These mixtures have a uniform composition throughout.
Examples of such mixtures are salt in water, sugar in water, methanol and water,
vinegar, toothpaste, soap (toilet), soft drinks, etc.
These are also known as true solutions. In these solutions, diameter of solute
particles is less than 1 nm.
(ii) Heterogeneous Mixtures These mixtures contain physically distinct parts and
have non-uniform compositions. Mixtures of sodium chloride and iron fillings; dust
particles in air; salt and sulphur; oil and water; colloids (milk); and suspensions are the
examples of heterogeneous mixtures.
MATTER AND ITS STATES
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Separating the Components of a Mixture
Heterogeneous mixtures can be separated into their respective constituents by simple
physical methods like hand picking, sieving, filtration that we use in our day-to-day life.
Sometimes special techniques have to be used for the separation of the components of a
homogeneous mixture.
(i) Evaporation We can separate the
volatile components (solvent) from
Everyday Science
its non-volatile components a Water kept in earthern pot (pitcher)
becomes cool during summer. This is
(solute) by the method of because tiny pores are present at the
evaporation, e.g. recovery of salt surface of the earthern pot, from which
from sea water. The rate of water is evaporated. The energy required for
evaporation is provided by the remaining
evaporation increases with rise in water. Hence, its temperature goes down,
temperature, surface area, wind i.e. it becomes cool.
speed and decrease in humidity. a We should wear cotton clothes in summer.
(ii) Centrifugation It is a process This is because cotton being a good
absorber provides more surface area for the
that involves use of centrifugal evaporation of water. Since, the energy
force for sedimentation of required for evaporation is taken up from
heterogeneous mixture. The our body. That’s why we feel relief and
comfort in such clothes.
principle is that the denser
particles are forced to the bottom a We see water droplets on the outer surface
of a glass containing ice cold water. This is
and the lighter particles stay at because the water vapours present in air,
the top when spun rapidly. when comes in contact of glass of ice cold
water, lose their energy and get converted
It is also used into liquid water which appears in the form
■ in diagnostic laboratories for of water droplets.
blood and urine tests, a We feel cool, when some nail polish
impurities particles are remover or spirit is kept on our palm. It is
separated by the process of due to the evaporation of remover or spirit
which takes heat from our hand.
centrifugation,
a After a hot sunny day, people sprinkle water
■ in diaries and home to separate
on the roof because the high latent heat of
butter from cream, water helps to cool the hot surface.
■ in washing machines to
squeeze out water from wet clothes.
(iii) By the Use of Separating Funnel We can separate a mixture of two immiscible
liquids by the use of separating funnel. The principle is that immiscible liquids
separate out in layers depending upon their densities.
It is used
■ to separate mixture of oil and water.
■ in the extraction of iron, the lighter slag is removed from the top by this method
to leave the molten iron at the bottom in the furnace.
(iv) Sublimation By the process of sublimation, the mixture of those two solids is
separated in which one solid is sublimate. In this process, the mixture is heated due
to which the sublimate substance is vaporised and the vapours are collected and
cooled down to get the pure solid.
Sublimates like naphthalene, anthracene, camphor, benzoic acid, NH4 Cl, HgCl 2 , dry
ice, salicylic acid, iodine etc., can be separated (from non-sublimates) or purified by
this technique.
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(v) Chromatography This name is based on Greek word ‘Kroma’ meaning colour. It is
the modern technique for separation and purification of organic compounds and is
applicable for those mixtures, components of which have different adsorption
capacities. This method was invented by Tswett. It is used for those solutes that
dissolve in the same solvent. It is used to separate colours in dye; pigments from
natural colours, drugs from the blood and coloured components of black ink.
(vi) Distillation It is based on the difference in the boiling points of the liquids in the
given mixture. On boiling, liquid having lower boiling point vaporises first and
collected separately. Chloroform and aniline; acetone and water are separated by
this process. The two opposite process, i.e. vaporisation and condensation are
involved in this process. Because first the liquid vaporises and then the vapours are
cooled down to condense again into liquid form.
Fractional Distillation To separate a mixture of two or more miscible liquids for
which the difference in boiling points is less than 25 K, i.e. for the liquids which have
nearly same boiling point, fractional distillation is used, e.g. separation of different
gases from air, different fractions from petroleum products etc. The apparatus is
similar to that of simple distillation except that a fractionating column is fitted in
between distillation flask and condensor.
It is used to separate a mixture of methanol and acetone; components of composite
oil like petrol, diesel, etc and components of aqueous air.
Distillation Under Reduced Pressure It can be used for those liquids which have
very high boiling points and those, which decompose at or below their boiling
points. Glycerol decomposes much before its boiling point, so it is separated from
spent-lye in soap industry or purified by distillation under reduced pressure.
Steam Distillation This technique is applied to separate substances which are steam
volatile and are immiscible with water. In this process, steam is passed through the
mixture. The pure organic compound (which is steam volatile) comes out with
steam and condensed and collected separately.
Separating funnel is used to separate these organic compounds from water. It is used
to separate the mixture of ortho and para nitrophenols (non-volatile). Aniline, sandal
wood oil, terpentine oil, eucalyptus oil etc., are extracted or purified by this process.
(vii) Crystallisation This method is used to purify solids. It is a process that separates a
pure solid in the form of its crystals from a solution. In it, the substance to be
purified is dissolved in a suitable solvent and the solution is concentrated (by
heating) upto the saturation point. Now, the solution is cooled slowly. Crystals of
pure solid separate out, impurities remain in the solution, called the mother liqour.
The crystals are filtered, dried and separated.
This technique is used in the purification of salt that we get from sea water and in
separation of crystals of alum from impure samples.

Mass Terms Related to Matter

Atomic Mass
Atomic mass of an element is the relative mass as compared with an atom of carbon-12
and is expressed in amu (atomic mass unit). Atomic mass unit (amu) is defined as a mass
exactly equal to one twelth the mass of one carbon-12 atom. According to the latest
IUPAC recommendations, amu is written as ‘u’ (unified mass).
1 amu = 1.66056 ´ 10 - 24 g
MATTER AND ITS STATES
9

Average Atomic Mass

Many naturally occurring elements exist as more than one isotope. Usually, the atomic
mass used for an element is the average atomic mass obtained by taking into account the
natural abundance of different isotopes of that element.

Molecular Mass
It is the sum of atomic masses of all the elements present in a molecule. It is therefore the
relative mass of a molecule expressed in atomic mass unit (u). It is obtained by multiplying
the atomic mass of each element by the number of its atoms and adding them together.
e.g. Molecular mass of methane,
CH4 = 1 ´ 12.011 + 4 ´ 1.008 = 16.043 u

Formula Unit Mass

The formula unit mass of a substance is the sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms in a
formula unit of a compound. Formula unit mass of NaCl can be calculated as:
NaCl = 1 ´ 23 + 1 ´ 35.5 = 58.5 u

Equivalent Mass or Equivalent Weight

The equivalent mass of a substance is obtained by dividing its molecular mass (or formula
unit mass) by its valency.
Molecular mass
Equivalent weight =
Valency

Physical and Chemical Changes

In a physical change, a substance undergoes a change in its physical properties such as
shape, size, colour and state. It is generally reversible, i.e. the original substance is further
obtained by reversing the reaction conditions. In such a change no new substance is
formed. Conversion of matter from one state to another like evaporation of water,
melting of ice, freezing of water, boiling of water, formation of clouds, stretching of
spring, etc., are the examples of physical change.
A change in which one or more new substances are formed, i.e. the internal molecular
composition of original substance is deformed, is called a chemical change. Burning of
magnesium ribbon, coal, wood or leaves is a chemical change. A chemical change is also
called a chemical reaction. Ripening of fruits, process of photosynthesis occurring in
plants (CO 2 and H2 O converted to glucose), light of sun, rusting of iron, curdling of milk,
etc., are some other examples of chemical change.
During burning of a candle, both physical and chemical changes take place.
■ Firefly have a specific organ for emitting light. This process of generation of light is called
bioluminescence.

Laws of Chemical Combinations

The combination of elements to form compounds is governed by the following basic laws:

Law of Conservation of Mass

This law was put forth by Antoine Lavoisier in 1789. It states that matter can neither be
created nor destroyed.
In a chemical reaction, Total mass of reactants = Total mass of products
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
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Law of Definite Proportions
This law was given by a French chemist, Joseph Proust. He stated that a given compound
always contains exactly the same proportion of elements by weight. e.g. CO 2 always
contains carbon and oxygen elements combined in the ratio of 3 : 8 by weight irrespective
of the source. That’s why it is also called law of constant proportions.

Law of Multiple Proportions

This law was proposed by Dalton in 1803. According to this law, if two elements combine
to form more than one compound, the masses of one element that combine with a fixed
mass of the other element, are in the ratio of small whole numbers, e.g. hydrogen
combines with oxygen to form two compounds, namely, water and hydrogen peroxide.
Hydrogen + Oxygen ¾® Water
2g 16 g 18 g
Hydrogen + Oxygen ¾® Hydrogen peroxide
2g 32 g 34 g
Here, the masses of oxygen (16 g and 32 g) which combine with a fixed mass of hydrogen
(2 g) bear a simple ratio, i.e. 16 : 32 or 1 : 2.

Gay-Lussac’s Law of Combining Volumes

This law was given by Gay Lussac in 1808. He observed that when gases combine or
produced in a chemical reaction, they do so in a simple ratio by volume provided all the
gases are at same temperature and pressure. e.g.
Hydrogen + Oxygen ¾® Water
100 mL 50 mL 100 mL

Thus, the volumes of hydrogen and oxygen (100 mL and 50 mL) which combine together
bear a simple ratio of 2 : 1.

Mole Concept
The mole is the SI base unit for an amount of a chemical species. The word mole was
introduced around 1896 by Wilhelm Ostwald who derived it from Latin word ‘moles’
means ‘a heap’ or ‘a pile’. In 1967, this word was accepted as a unit of chemical substances
under SI system. It is represented by the symbol ‘mol’.
1 mole of any substance is defined as
■ the amount which weighs exactly same as its formula weight in gram.
■ the amount which has same number of entities as there are atoms in exactly 12 g
of C-12 isotope, i.e. 6.022 ´ 10 23 entities. The number 6.022 ´ 10 23 is called
Avogadro’s number and represented by N 0 or N A . Thus,
1 g atom = 6.022 ´ 1023 atoms
1 mole = 6.022 ´ 1023 atoms
A mole is the chemist’s counting unit.
■ the mass of 1 mole of a substance is equal to its relative atomic or molecular mass
in gram.
■ the amount which occupies 22.4 L at STP (if it is taken for a gas).
Amount of substance in gram
Number of moles =
Molecular weight /Atomic weight in gram
Number of particles at STP Volume of gas at STP (in litre)
= =
Avogadro’ s number 22.4
 Assessment
1. Who is known as the father of modern 7. ………are homogeneous mixtures of two
chemistry? [RRB NTPC 2016] or more components. [SSC CGL 2019]
(a) Ernest Rutherford (a) Amalgams (b) Solutions
(b) Otto Hohn (c) Enzymes (d) Emulsions
(c) Mendeleev’s
8. Which one of the following gemstones
(d) Antoine Levoisier
contains beryllium metal ?
2. The maximum number of states to be [Asst. Comm. 2018]
found in matter are [CDS 2017] (a) Topaz (b) Emerald
(a) three (b) four (c) Ruby (d) Blue sapphire
(c) five (d) variable 9. Which one of the following is called dry
3. Bose-Einstein condensate is a [CDS 2019] ice ? [NDA/NA 2018]
(a) solid state of matter (a) Solid carbon dioxide
(b) fifth state of matter (b) Liquid carbon dioxide
(c) plasma (c) Liquid nitrogen
(d) state of condensed matter (d) Liquid ammonia
4. Which one of the following statements 10. Quartz is extensively used as a
is incorrect? [SSC CGL 2019] piezo-electric material. It contains
(a) The measurable unit of pressure is [Asst. Comm. 2019]
denoted in metre. (a) Hg (b) Si
(b) Matter is made up of small particles. (c) Ti (d) Sn
(c) Evaporation causes cooling.
11. A molecule of a substance is similar to
(d) Brass is a mixture of 30% zinc and
its atom for [SSC Multitasking 2013]
70% copper.
(a) diatomic molecule
5. Consider the following statements about (b) polyatomic molecule
mixture? [CDS 2019] (c) monoatomic molecule
I. A substance can be separated into (d) triatomic molecule
other kinds of matter by any physical 12. Which one among the following
process. statements about an atom is not correct?
II. Dissolved sodium chloride can be [CDS 2012]
separated from water by the physical (a) Atoms are always combine to form
process of evaporation. molecule.
Which of the statements given above (b) Atoms are the basic units from which
is/are correct ? molecules and ions are formed.
(a) Only I (c) Atoms are always neutral in nature.
(b) Only II (d) Atoms aggregate in large numbers to
(c) Both I and II form the matter that we can see, feel
(d) Neither I nor II and touch.
6. Which of the following is not the 13. Glass is [SSC Multitasking 2013]
property of mixture in the context of (a) supercooled liquid
science? [RRB NTPC 2017] (b) crystalline solid
(a) It structure is constant. (c) liquid crystal
(b) It is formed by two or more elements (d) None of the above
or compounds. 14. Which of the following is used to remove
(c) It can be separated by the physical the green colour from glass?
processes. [SSC CGL 2019]
(d) The components of a mixture (a) Silicon dioxide (b) Titanium dioxide
maintain their properties. (c) Sulphur dioxide (d) Manganese dioxide
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
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15. Statement I Glass is not considered as 22. Lowering the atmospheric pressure on a
a true compound. liquid [Asst. Comm. 2018]
Statement II Glass does not have a (a) increases the boiling point of the liquid.
definite melting point. [NDA/NA 2013] (b) lowers the boiling point of the liquid.
(a) Both the Statements are individually (c) does not affect the boiling point of the
true and Statement II is the correct liquid.
explanation of Statement I. (d) increases the time required for it to boil.
(b) Both the Statements are individually 23. For an ideal gas, which one of the
true but Statement II is not the correct following statements is not true?
explanation of Statement I. [CDS 2019]
(c) Statement I is true, but Statement II is (a) The speed of all gas molecules is same.
false. (b) The kinetic energies of all gas
(d) Statement I is false, but Statement II is molecules are not same.
true. (c) The potential energy of the gas
16. The temperature of a place on one molecules is zero.
sunny day is 113 in Fahrenheit scale. (d) There is no interactive force between
The Kelvin scale reading of this the molecules.
temperature will be [NDA/NA 2019] 24. What are the elements which are liquids
(a) 318 K (b) 45 K at room temperature and standard
(c) 62.8 K (d) 335.8 K pressure?
17. Which one of the following is the I. Helium II. Mercury
correct relation between the Kelvin III. Chlorine IV. Bromine
temperature ( T ) and the Celsius Select the correct answer using the
temperature (t c ) ? [CDS 2018] codes given below. [CDS 2013]
(a) There are two independent (a) II and III (b) II, III and IV
temperature scales (c) II and IV (d) I and III
(b) T = t c
25. The purity of milk is determined by
(c) T = t c − 273. 15
[SSC Multitasking 2014]
(d) T = t c + 273. 15
(a) hydrometer
18. Water boils at a lower temperature at (b) lactometer
high altitudes, because [NDA/NA 2017] (c) stalagmometer
(a) the air pressure is less (d) thermometer
(b) outside temperature is less
26. When the milk is churned vigorously the
(c) latent heat is less
cream from it is separated out due to
(d) None of the above
[SSC CHSL (10+2) 2013]
19. Which of the following has the lowest (a) gravitational force
melting point ? [SSC CGL 2019] (b) frictional force
(a) Lead (b) Zinc (c) centrifugal force
(c) Silver (d) Tin (d) centripetal force
20. Which one of the following could be the 27. Iodine can be separated from a mixture
melting point of iron ? [NDA/NA 2019] of iodine and potassium chloride by
(a) 25°C (b) 37°C [SSC (10+2) DEO & LDC 2013]
(c) 500°C (d) 1500°C (a) sedimentation
21. Name the law in Physics which states (b) filtration
that equal volume of all gases under the (c) sublimation
same conditions of temperature and (d) distillation
pressure contain equal number of 28. Which one among the following is not a
molecules. [SSC CGL 2019] chemical change? [NDA/NA 2013]
(a) Avogadro’s Law (a) Curdling of milk
(b) Boyles’s Law (b) Ripening of fruit
(c) Ohm’s Law (c) Evaporation of water
(d) Charles’ Law (d) Burning of coal
ASSESSMENT
13
29. Statement I Conversion of blue copper 31. Which of the following is/are the
sulphate to black cupric oxide on example / examples of chemical change?
heating is a physical change. I. Crystallisation of sodium chloride
Statement II A change in which II. Melting of ice
chemical composition does not III. Souring of milk
change, is called physical change. Select the correct answer using the code
[NDA/NA 2012]
given below. [IAS (Pre) 2014]
(a) Both the Statements are individually
(a) I and II only
true and Statement II is the correct
explanation of Statement I. (b) III only
(b) Both the Statements are individually (c) I, II and III
true but Statement II is not the correct (d) None of the above
explanation of Statement I. 32. The product of equivalent weight and
(c) Statement I is true, but Statement II is valency of an element is equal to
false. [SSC CHSL (10+2) 2013]
(d) Statement I is false, but Statement II is (a) vapour density
true. (b) specific heat
30. A liquid is kept in a glass beaker. (c) atomic weight
Which one of the following statement is (d) molecular weight
correct regarding the pressure exerted 33. The molecular mass of a gas is [SSC 2016]
by the liquid column at the base of the (a) twice of its vapour pressure
beaker ? [NDA 2020] (b) equal to its vapour pressure
(a) The pressure depends on the area of (c) half of its vapour pressure
the base of the beaker. (d) not associated with its vapour
(b) The pressure depends on the height of pressure
liquid column. 34. How many atoms are present in 46 g of
(c) The pressure does not depend on the Na-23? (N-Avogadro’s number) [CDS 2017]
height of liquid column. N
(d) The pressure neither depends on the (a) (b) N
2
area of the base of the beaker nor on
the height of liquid column. (c) 2N (d) 23N

1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (b)
11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (a) 14. (d) 15. (a) 16. (a) 17. (d) 18. (a) 19. (d) 20. (d)
21. (a) 22. (b) 23. (a) 24. (c) 25. (b) 26. (c) 27. (c) 28. (c) 29. (d) 30. (b)
31. (b) 32. (d) 33. (a) 34. (c)
2 Atomic
Structure
Atom was considered as the smallest particle upto the 19th century. A series of
experiments were performed to reveal the structure of the atom as well as to explain its
important properties. These experiments indicated the divisibility of atom into
sub-atomic particles and showed that atoms possess a definite internal configuration and
composition.

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

In 1808, John Dalton published ‘A new system of chemical philosophy’ in which he
proposed the following theory:
(i) Matter consists of minute, indivisible, indestructible particles called atoms.
(ii) All the atoms of a given element have identical properties including identical mass.
Atoms of different elements differ in properties and have different masses and sizes.
(iii) Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine in a fixed ratio.
(iv) Chemical reactions only involve reorganisation of atoms. The atoms are neither
created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
(v) Dalton's atomic theory could explain the law of chemical combination.

Drawbacks
(i) It failed to explain why atoms of same or different elements combine to form
molecules.
(ii) It does not explain why atoms of different elements have different masses, sizes,
valencies, etc.
(iii) It does not explain the nature of binding force between the atoms of molecules
responsible for the existence of matter in soilds, liquids and gases.
(iv) It failed to explain law of gaseous volumes.

Sub-atomic Particles and their Properties

The theory of Dalton did not hold long and it was proved through the experiments of
research workers like JJ Thomson (1897), Rutherford (1911), Neils Bohr (1912), Vector,
Chadwick, Moseley etc., that atom is made up of smaller particles, called the sub-atomic
particles like electron, proton, neutron, positron, neutrino, meson etc. However, former
three are considered as the fundamental particles and later are appeared only for a short
instance during the microparticles exchange mechanism. Thus, these are not the
fundamental particles.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
15

Fundamental Particles
Electrons, protons and neutrons are the fundamental particles of atom, discovery and
properties of which are as follows:
(a) Discovery of Electrons ( -1 e 0 ) Electron was discovered in cathode rays experiment
by JJ Thomson in 1897. In this experiment, when the pressure of a discharge tube
maintained at high potential is reduced to 10 -6 atm, a stream of negatively charged
particles, called the electrons, is originated from cathode. These rays were called
cathode rays.
Characteristics of these rays and their particles are:
(i) These rays themselves are not visible but their behaviour can be observed with the
help of fluorescent or phosphorescent materials.
(Note that television picture tubes are cathode ray tubes).
(ii) In the presence of electrical or magnetic field, the behaviour of cathode rays are
similar to that expected from negatively charged particles, called electrons.
(iii) The charge on an electron, i.e. -1 . 602 ´ 10 -19 C was determined by Mullikan through
oil drop experiment.
(iv) Actual mass of an electron, i.e. 9.11 ´ 10 -31 kg was calculated by J J Thomson. Of the
three fundamental particles of an atom, electron is the lightest.
(v) e/m ratio (specific charge) of electrons was determined by Thomson as 1 .76 ´ 10 8 C/g.
(vi) e/m ratio of electron was found to be independent of the nature of gas and electrode
used. Therefore, electrons are fundamental particles of all kinds of matter.
(b) Discovery of Protons ( 11H ) Even before the ■ The mass of electron is considered

electron was identified, E Goldstein in 1886 to be negligible and its charge is

discovered the presence of new radiations in a -1.
gas discharge and called them canal rays. These ■ The mass of proton is taken as

rays were positively charged radiations which one unit and its charge as +1.
ultimately led to the discovery of another ■ Hydrogen or protium is the only
sub-atomic particle. This sub-atomic particle had atom that does not possess
a charge, equal in magnitude but opposite in sign neutrons.
to that of the electron. It was given the name ■ John Dalton is considered as the

proton by Rutherford in 1919. Mass of proton is originator of modern atomic

1 . 67 ´ 10 -27 kg while its charge is + 1 . 6 ´ 10 -19 C. theory.
(c) Discovery of Neutrons ( 10 n ) The positive ■ Atoms can only be observed using

charge of a nucleus is due to the positively scanning tunneling microscope.

charged particles called protons. But mass of the ■ All atoms are reactive except

nucleus is not due to protons alone. There is atoms of noble gases.

another sub-atomic particle called neutron, ■ Helium is the smallest atom and

identified by Chadwick (1932) by bombarding a has radius of 32 ´ 10 -12 m, while

thin sheet of beryllium by a-particles. Neutrons cesium (Cs) is the largest atom
are electrically neutral particles (i.e. have no with a radius of 225 ´ 10 -12 m.
charge) having a mass slightly greater than that ■ The existence of atoms had been

of the protons. Mass of neutron is 1 . 67 ´ 10 -27 kg proposed by Indian and Greek

(i.e. nearly equal to that of proton). Philosophers (400 BC).

Non-Fundamental Particles
Particles other than electrons, protons and neutrons are called non-fundamental
particles.
(a) Positron It was discovered by Anderson in 1932. It is the antiparticle of electron (i.e. its
charge is positive and its mass is equal to that of the mass of electron). Its symbol is e + .
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
16
(b) Antiproton It is the antiparticle of proton. It was discovered in 1955. Its charge is
negative and its mass is equal to that of the mass of proton. Its symbol is p.
■ For every fundamental particle, there exists an identical fundamental particle just opposite in

some property. It is called antiparticle of that fundamental particle.

e.g. Electron and positron are identical in all respects, except that charges on them are
opposite. So, positron is an antiparticle of electron.
(c) Neutrino and Antineutrino The existence of these particles was predicted in
1930 by Pauli while explaining the emission of b-particles from radioactive nuclei,
but these particles were actually observed experimentally in 1956. Their rest mass
and charge both are zero, but they have energy and momentum. These are mutually
antiparticles of each other. Both these have the symbol n and n.
(d) Pi-mesons The existence of p-mesons was predicted by Yukawa in 1935, but they
were actually discovered in 1947 in cosmic rays. Nuclear forces are explained by the
exchange of p-mesons between the nucleons. p-mesons are of three types: positive
p-meson (p + ), negative p-meson (p - ) and neutral p-meson ( p 0 ). The mass of p + is
274 times the mass of electron and p 0 has mass nearly 264 times the electronic mass.
(e) Quarks and Bosons The elementary particles from which other heavy sub-atomic
particles like proton, neutron, etc., are formed, are called quarks. These particles have
fractional charge. Bosons are the particles for which number of rotations are whole
number.
Boson ¾ ¾® Meson + Photon
■ p-mesons, bosons and quarks are not the antiparticles of any fundamental particle.
■ Their categorisation in an atom is done on the basis of their masses.
■ In particular, both protons and neutrons are made up of 3 quarks each.

Earlier Atomic Models

Different atomic models were proposed to explain the distributions of charged particles,
i.e. electron, proton, neutron in an atom.

Thomson Model of an Atom

Thomson proposed the model of an atom to be similar to that of a Christmus pudding.
Thomson proposed that
(i) an atom consists of a positively charged sphere and the electrons are embedded
into it.
(ii) the negative and positive charges are equal in magnitude. So, the atom as a whole is
electrically neutral.
Drawback Although Thomson model explained that atoms are electrically neutral but
the results of experiment carried out by other scientists like a-particle scattering
experiment could not be explained by this model.

Rutherford Model of an Atom

Rutherford and his students (Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden) in 1911 performed
a -particle scattering experiment in which they bombarded very thin gold foil with
a-particles. On the basis of the observations and conclusions, Rutherford proposed the
nuclear model of atom. According to this model,
(i) There is a positively charged spherical centre in an atom, called the nucleus. Nearly
all the mass of an atom resides in the nucleus, i.e. protons and neutrons are packed
together, which is called nucleons.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
17
(ii) The electrons revolve around the nucleus in well defined orbits. Thus, most of the
part of an atom is empty.
(iii) The size of the nucleus is very small as compared to the size of the atom.
Drawbacks According to classical theory of electrodynamics, any charged particle in a
circular orbit would undergo acceleration. During centripetal acceleration, the charged
particles would radiate energy. Thus, the revolving electron would lose energy and come
closer and closer to the nucleus and finally fall into the nucleus. If this were so, the atom
should be highly unstable. But we know that atoms are quite stable, so this model was
discarded.

Bohr’s Model of an Atom

According to Bohr, the old classical laws can not hold good in case of sub-atomic particles.
In order to overcome the objections raised against Rutherford’s model of an atom, Neils
Bohr (1913) utilized the concept of quantisation (Max Planck) and put forward the
following postulates on the basis of Planck’s quantum theory about the model of an atom.
(i) The electrons continue revolving in their respective orbits without losing energy.
Thus, each orbit (shell) is associated with a definite energy hence, it is also called
energy level.
Energy levels in an atom are shown in the given figure:
N shell (n = 4)
M shell (n = 3)
L shell (n = 2)
K shell (n = 1)

Nucleus

A Few Energy Levels in an Atom

These orbits or shells are represented by the letters K, L, M, N, .... or the numbers,
n = 1, 2, 3, 4....
(ii) The electrostatical coulombic force of attraction between the nucleus and the
electron counter balanced the centripetal force required for revolving the electron.
(iii) The electrons can move in only those circular orbits where, the angular momentum
h
( mvr ) is a whole number multiple of , i.e. it is quantised.
2p
nh
mvr = ; n = 1, 2, 3, K
2p
(iv) Energy is emitted or absorbed by an atom only when an electron moves from one
level to another.
hc
D E = E2 - E1 =
l
where, E 2 is energy of n = 2 level and E 1 is energy of n = 1 level.
Higher the radius of an orbital, higher is its energy.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
18
Drawbacks
(i) This model is unable to explain the spectrum of atoms other than hydrogen,
e.g. helium atom which possesses only two electrons.
(ii) This theory was also unable to explain the splitting of spectral lines in the presence of
magnetic field (Zeeman effect) or an electric field (Stark effect).
(iii) It could not explain the ability of atoms to form molecules by chemical bonds.

Characteristics of an Atom
An atom is characterised by its atomic number and mass number which are described below.
Atomic Number (Z)
It is the basic characteristic of an element and is defined as the number of protons present
in the nucleus of an atom. It is denoted by Z. The number of electrons is equal to the
number of protons in an atom, to maintain electrical neutrality of the atom.
e.g. Oxygen has 8 electrons and 8 protons thus its atomic number is 8.
It is concluded that
Atomic number (Z) = Number of protons in the nucleus = Number of electrons in an atom

Moseley’s Law
Moseley showed that properties of elements show more dependency on their
atomic numbers as compared to their atomic mass. He compared elemental
properties with atomic mass and atomic number separately through simple graphs
and concluded more precise and accurate result in favour of atomic number.

Mass Number (A)

The total number of protons and neutrons or total number of nucleons present in the
nucleus of an atom is termed as mass number. It is denoted by A.
e.g. Oxygen has 8 protons and 8 neutrons. Therefore, its mass number ( A ) is 16.
Mass number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons
= Atomic number + Number of neutrons
\ Number of neutrons = A - Z
where, A = msss number, Z = atomic number
An atom (X) can be represented as A
Z X.
■ Protons and neutrons are collectively called nucleons.
■ When number of electrons are greater than number of protons, the atom carries negative
charge and is called the anion. Similarly, if number of protons are greater than number of
electrons, the atom carries positive charge and is called the cation.

Different Atomic Species

Atoms can exist in several forms which are shown below:
■ Hydrogen is the only
Isotopes element, isotopes of
The word isotopes comes from Greek words ‘isos’ (means ‘equal’) which have different
and ‘topos’ (means ‘place’), meaning equal or same place. Isotopes names.
of an element is defined as the atoms of an element having same ■ Polonium has the
number of protons or electrons (i.e. atomic number) but differ in maximum number of
number of neutrons (mass number). isotopes.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
19
1 2 3
e.g. 1H (protium), 1 H (deuterium), 1 H (tritium, radioactive) are isotopes of hydrogen and
12 13 14
6 C, 6 C ,6C are isotopes of carbon. Isotopes of an element have same number of
electrons and occupy the same position in the periodic table. Isotopes of an element have
same chemical properties but different physical properties.

Isobars
It is derived from the Greek words ‘isos’ (means ‘equal’) and ‘baros’ ■ Artificial
(means ‘weight’) meaning equal or same weight. Atoms of different isobars are
elements having same mass number ( A ) but different atomic number obtained by the
emission of
(Z), are termed as isobars.
b-particles from
40 40 40 40 40 radioactive
e.g. 14 S , 17
Cl , 18 Ar, 19 K, 20 Ca have same nucleons or mass number but
elements.
differ in atomic number. The physical properties depend on mass
number which is similar in isobars.
Since, the long form of periodic table is based on atomic number, so isobars are placed
separately in this table.

Isotones
These are the atoms of chemically different elements having same number of neutrons
23 24
but different mass number as well as atomic number. e.g. 11 Na and 12 Mg because they
31 30
have ( 24 - 12 = 12 ) and ( 23 - 11 = 12 ) neutrons; 15 P and 14 Si as each have 16 neutrons.

Isodiaphers
These refer to the atoms of chemically different elements which have similar difference
between their number of protons and neutrons, e.g. 239 235
94 Pu and 92 U.

Structural Features of an Atom

In the present perspective, the structural features of an atom are as follows:

Shell and Subshell

The orbitals or paths of different and definite energies in which the electrons revolve, are
called shells. The energy of innermost shell is lowest and of outermost shell is largest.
Symbols K, L, M, N are used to represent various shells from lower to upper energy.
Each orbit or shell consists of one or more subshells depending upon the three
dimensional graphic plot of electronic wave function and the internal atomic compostion.
Each subshell is associated with one or more orbitals that are represented by the small
letters s, p, d and f respectively.
Total Number of
Shell Subshell Orbital
Electrons
K-shell ( n = 1) 1 (only s) 1 2
L-shell ( n = 2) 2 (s and p) 1+3 = 4 8
M-shell ( n = 3) 3 (s,p and d) 1+3+5 = 9 18
N-shell ( n = 4) 4 (s,p,d and f) 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 16 32
O-shell ( n = 5) 5 (s,p,d,f and g) 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 = 25 50
P-shell ( n = 6) 6 (s,p,d,f,g and h) 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 = 36 72
Q-shell ( n = 7) 7 (s,p,d,f,g,h and i) 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 + 13 = 49 98
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
20

Orbitals
The three-dimensional space, present around the nucleus of an atom, where probability
of finding an electron is maximum, is called orbital. Each orbital is associated with a fixed
number of electrons, e.g. the maximum number of electrons present in s, p, d and f
subshells are 2, 6, 10 and 14 respectively.

Shapes of Orbitals
The s-orbitals are spherical in shape and have symmetrical orientation. For all
s-orbitals, there are ( n - 1) number of spherical nodes where probability of finding
an electron is zero.
The p-orbitals are three in number and dumb-bell shaped with two lobes of same
size on each side of nucleus. The two lobes are separated by a plane in which the
probability of finding an electron is zero.
The d-orbitals are five in number. Four of these have a double dumb-bell shape
whereas fifth is dumb-bell in shape with collar of high electron density.

Electronic Configuration :
Distribution of Electrons in Different Orbits (Shells)
It is an arrangement of electrons in various shells, subshells and orbitals of an atom.

Bohr Burry Scheme

The distribution of electrons into different orbits of an atom was suggested by Bohr and
Burry in 1921. According to them, the electrons enter in the orbit in accordance with the
following rules:
(i) Maximum number of electrons in a shell is given by the formula 2 n 2 .
(n = 1, 2, 3, K for K, L, M,K shells)
(ii) The outermost shell can have a maximum of 8 electrons.
(iii) The penultimate orbit can not have more than 8 electrons until there are 2 electrons
in the outermost orbit.
(iv) To have more than 2 electrons in the outermost orbit, there must be 18 electrons in
the penultimate orbit and 2 electrons in the outermost orbit.
(v) To have 18 electrons in an orbit, the inner orbital must be complete and the outermost
and the penultimate orbit must have 2 and 8 electrons respectively.
(vi) Electrons are filled in shells in stepwise manner, i.e. from inner to outer.

Electrons Distribution in Various Shells for Some Elements

Name of Atomic Number of Distribution of Electrons
Symbol
Element Number Electrons K L M N
Hydrogen H 1 1 1 - - -
Helium He 2 2 2 - - -
Beryllium Be 4 4 2 2 - -
Neon Ne 10 10 2 8 - -
Sodium Na 11 11 2 8 1 -
Argon Ar 18 18 2 8 8 -
Potassium K 19 19 2 8 8 1
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
21

nl x Type Scheme
It is written as 2, 8, 8, 18, 32, or as nl x (where, n indicates the principal quantum number, l
indicates the azimuthal quantum number, or subshell and x is the number of electrons).
e.g. 2s 2 means that two electrons are present in the s-subshell of second energy level.

Rules for Filling Electrons in the Orbitals

Filling of electrons in different orbitals is governed by the following three rules:

Aufbau Principle
‘Aufbau’, a German word, means ‘building up’ or ‘construction’. The building up of orbitals
means the filling up of orbitals with electrons.
The principle states that in the ground state of the atoms,
the orbitals are filled in the order of their increasing 1s
energies, i.e. orbitals of lower energy are filled first and 2s 2p
when it is filled up completely, the remaining electrons
enter in the orbital of next higher energy. 3s 3p 3d

The electrons are filled in the following order 4s 4p 4d 4f

1s < 2s < 2 p < 3s < 3 p < 4s < 3 d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5 p < 6s
5s 5p 5d 5f
< 4f < 5 d < 6 p < 7s < 5 f < 6 d < K
Thus, the orbital of highest energy is filled up in last. 6s 6p 6d
The order can also be learned in the form of the given flow 7s 7p
diagram.
8s
Although 5g, 6g, 6h, 6f, 7g, 7h, 7d, 7f orbitals are also
possible but electrons do not enter in these orbitals under
normal conditions.
e.g. 11 Na = 1s 2 , 2s 2 , 2 p 6 , 3s 1; 7N = 1s 2 , 2s 2 , 2 p 3 ; 8O = 1s 2 , 2s 2 , 2 p 4

Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity

According to this law, “Pairing of electrons in the orbitals belonging to the same subshell
(p, d or f) does not take place until each orbital belonging to that subshell has got one
electron each, i.e. it is singly occupied.” This is because in such a condition, spin
multiplicity or stability is maximum but energy is minimum.

Valence and Core Electrons

Electron present in the outermost orbit of the atom is called valence electron and the
electron present in the innermost orbit of the atom is called core electron.
e.g. Mg (12) - (2, 8) (2)
Core electron Valence electron

The chemical properties of elements depend upon valency of element, which is calculated
from the number of valence electrons.
If number of valence electrons = 1, 2 or 3
Valency = Number of valence electrons
If number of valence electrons ³ 4
Valency = 8 - Number of valence electrons
The energy of valence electrons is higher than that of the core electrons.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
22

Quantum Numbers
The quantum numbers are the set of four numbers that give complete information about
(i) the position or energy (i.e. orbit number or shell),
(ii) subshell,
(iii) orientation (i.e. orbitals of the subshell) and
(iv) spinning (i.e. direction of rotation in the orbital) of an electron.

Principal Quantum Number (n)

It is a positive integer with value of n = 1, 2, 3, K. It identifies the shell or orbit number of
an electron. It also determines the size and energy of the orbital. As the value of ‘n’
increases, energy of orbital increases. n = 1 shows that electron is present in normal state.

Azimuthal Quantum Number or Angular Momentum Quantum

Number (l)
It is used to describe subshell or angular momentum of the revolving electron. In other
words, it defines the three dimensional shape of the orbital.
If l = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …
Subshell = s, p, d, f, g, …
For principal quantum number n, l has the values from 0 to ( n - 1 ).
e.g. if n = 1, then l = 0 and if n = 3 then l = 0, 1, 2

Magnetic Quantum Number (m)

It determines the orientation of orbitals in space or direction of an orbital in the space of
magnetic field. Its value depends upon the value of l. Its values vary from - l, K, 0, K, + l.
Total values of m = ( 2 l + 1 ) = number of orbitals in a subshell ( l )
If l = 0, then m = 0 (i.e. there is only 1 s-orbital)
If l = 1, then m = - 1, 0, + 1 (i.e. there are three p-orbitals)
If l = 2, then m = - 2, - 1, 0, + 1, + 2 (i.e. there are five d-orbitals)

Spin Quantum Number (s )

It represents the spin of an electron in an orbital. Quantum mechanically, two types of
spins are possible for an electron, these are clockwise or anti-clockwise. The value of
1 1
s may be + or - . The spinning electron possesses spin angular momentum which is
2 2
quantised. Thus, an orbital cannot hold more than two electrons and these two electrons
should have opposite spins.

Pauli Exclusion Principle

It was given after the introduction of concept of quantum number. The number of
electrons to be filled in various orbitals is restricted by the exclusion principle, given by
the Austrian scientist Wolfgang Pauli (1926), according to which “No two electrons in an
atom can have the same set of all the four quantum numbers. If two electrons have same
values of n, l and m (three quantum numbers), then they must differ in the value of s (i.e. if
1 1
it is + for one, it must be - for other). The maximum number of electrons in the shell
2 2
with principal quantum number n is equal to 2 n 2 .”
 Assessment
1. In atom, neutron was discovered by 9. Atomic mass of an element is equal to
[NDA 2020] the sum of number of [NDA 2020]
(a) JJ Thomson (b) Chadwick (a) electrons and protons only
(c) Rutherford (d) Newton (b) protons and neutrons only
2. Atomic theory of matter was given by (c) electrons and neutrons only
[SSC Multitasking 2014] (d) electrons, protons and neutrons
(a) Avogadro (b) Dalton 10. The presence of which of the following
(c) Newton (d) Pascal makes substance good conductor of
3. Which one is a fundamental particle electricity? [RRB NTPC 2017]
[UPRO/ARO (Mains) 2017] (a) Positron
(a) Neutron (b) Proton (b) Electron
(c) π - meson (d) Quark (c) Neutron
4. Which of the following elements does (d) Proton
not contain neutrons? [BPSC (Pre) 2018] 11. Mass number is always equal to …….. .
(a) Oxygen [SSC CHSL (10+2) 2018]
(b) Nitrogen (a) number of protons
(c) Hydrogen (b) number of neutrons
(d) None of the above
(c) sum of number of protons and number
5. Match the following Columns. of electrons
Column I Column II (d) sum of number of protons and
number of neutrons
A. John Dalton 1. Law of conservation of mass
12. Who is the founder of quantum theory
B. A Lavoisier 2. Law of reciprocal proportions
of radiation? [SSC CGL 2013]
C. Richter 3. Law of gaseous volume (a) Einstein
D. Gay Lussac 4. Law of multiple proportion (b) Bohr
(c) Planck
Codes
(d) S N Bose
A B C D
(a) 1 2 3 4 13. The plum pudding model of an atom
(b) 4 1 2 3 (electron) was propounded by [CDS 2017]
(c) 2 3 4 1 (a) Antoine Lavoisier (b) J.J. Thomson
(d) 3 4 2 1 (c) Ernest Rutherford (d) Robert Boyle
6. The nucleus of hydrogen atom is made of 14. When a metal is heated in a flame, the
(a) only 1 proton [RRB NTPC 2016] electrons absorb energy and jump to
(b) proton, neutron and electron higher energy state. They emit light,
(c) 2 electrons and 1 proton which we can observe in [SSC CGL 2013]
(d) nothing (a) Raman spectra
(b) absorption spectra
7. Charge on proton is equal to the charge
on ………… . [SSC CHSL (10+2) 2018] (c) emission spectra
(a) electron (b) positron (d) fluorescence
(c) neutron (d) alpha particle 15. Rutherford’s scattering experiment
8. Which of the following elements does proved the presence of [SSC CGL 2013]
not contain neutrons? [BPSC (Pre) 2018] (a) atoms in all matter
(a) Oxygen (b) Nitrogen (b) electrons in atoms
(c) Hydrogen (d) Copper (c) neutrons in atoms
(d) nucleus in atoms
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
24
16. Which statement(s) is/are correct 22. How many values of spin quantum
regarding Daltons Atomic theory? number is possible? [BSSC 2016]
I. All matters are made of very tiny (a) 2 (b) 3
particles. (c) 4 (d) 5
II. Atoms of different elements have 23. The types of quantum numbers are
different masses and chemical properties. [BSSC 2016]
III. The relative number of atoms is (a) 5 (b) 2
variable in any compound. (c) 3 (d) 4
[SSC CHSL (10+2) 2018]
(a) Only I and II (b) Only I and III 24. The atomic number of which of the
(c) Only II and III (d) All I, II and III following elements is more than that of
17. Match Column I (Scientist) with Column phosphorus? [SSC 2016]
II (Discovery) and select the correct (a) Aluminium (b) Silicon
answer using the codes given below the (c) Chlorine (d) Magnesium
Columns. [NDA/NA 2012] 25. The atomic number of which of the
Column I Column II
following elements is more than that of
iron? [SSC 2016]
A. Goldstein 1. Atomic theory
(a) Manganese
B. Chadwick 2. Proton (b) Cobalt
C. J.J. Thomson 3. Neutron (c) Calcium
D. John Dalton 4. Electron (d) Chromium
26. There are six protons in an atom of
Codes carbon and its mass number is 12. The
A B C D number of neutrons in an atom of
(a) 2 3 4 1 carbon is [NDA 2016]
(b) 2 4 3 1 (a) 12 (b) 6
(c) 1 4 3 2 (c) 10 (d) 13
(d) 1 3 4 2 27. Which one of the following statements
18. What are the maximum numbers of is not correct? [CDS 2016]
electrons that can be present in a shell (a) The mass numbers of atoms of
represented by shell number ‘n’? different elements may be same.
[SSC CHSL (10+2) 2018] (b) The mass numbers of atoms of an
(a) 2n (b) 2 n 2 element may be different.
(c) n (d) n 2 (c) The number of protons in the all atoms
of an element is same.
19. What is the maximum number of
(d) The number of neutrons in the all
electrons that the outermost shell can
atoms of an element is always same.
have? [SSC CHSL (10+2) 2018]
(a) 2 (b) 6 28. In which of the following pairs are the
(c) 8 (d) None of these Isoelectronic ions? [NDA 2019]
(a) Mg 2 + , Ar (b) Na + , O 2 −
20. The number of maximum electrons in
N shell is [NDA 2020] (c) Al 3 + , Cl − (d) K + , Ne
(a) 2 (b) 8 29. The atoms of the elements having same
(c) 18 (d) 32 difference between mass number and
21. The number of angular and radial nodes atomic number are called …………… .
for 4d-orbital is respectively [UPSC 2018] [SSC (10+2) 2018]
(a) 2 and 1 (b) 1 and 2 (a) Isobar (b) Isotopes
(c) 3 and 1 (d) 4 and 0 (c) Isotones (d) No option is correct
ASSESSMENT
25
30. Isotopes of an element have ……… . 37. Atom bomb is based on which of the
[SSC (10+2) 2018] following principle? [SSC 2016]
(a) same physical properties (a) Uncontrolled nuclear fusion
(b) different chemical properties (b) Uncontrolled nuclear fission
(c) different number of neutrons (c) Controlled nuclear fission
(d) different atomic number (d) Controlled nuclear fusion
31. There are two elements calcium (atomic 38. The name of atomic bombs dropped on
no. 20) and argon (atomic no. 18) both Japan were [SSC 2016]
elements have same mass number 40. (a) little boy and fat boy
These elements are called [CDS 2017] (b) little man and fat boy
(a) isoneutronic (b) isochoric (c) little girl and fat boy
(c) isobars (d) isotopes (d) little woman and fat girl
32. The chemical properties of an element 39. The basic principle of nuclear reactors is
depend on [CDS 2017] (a) fusion [SSC 2017]
(a) the number of electrons present in the (b) radioactivity
outer orbit of the atomic element (c) fission
(b) the number of isotopes of the element (d) None of the above
(c) the mass number of the element 40. Which one of the following radioactive
(d) the number of neutrons present in the
substances enters/enter the human
atomic element
body through food chain and
33. Who was the inventor of radioactivity causes/cause many physiological
(a) Madam Curie [RRB NTPC 2016] disorders? [CDS 2017]
(b) Irine Curie (a) Strontium - 90
(c) Henri Becqurel (b) lodine - 131
(d) Rutherford (c) Cesium - 137
34. Which of the following the unit of (d) All of the above
radioactivity? [SSC 2016] 41. Consider the following statements about
(a) Angstrom (b) Candela
Visible light, UV light and X-rays.
(c) Fermi (d) Curie [NDA 2018]
35. Which one of the following types of I. The wavelength of visible light is more
radiations has the smallest wavelength? than that of X-rays.
[NDA 2020] II. The energy of X-ray photons is higher
(a) Microwaves (b) Infra-red than that of UV light photons.
(c) Visible light (d) X-rays
III. The energy of UV light photons is less
36. In which types of reaction the most than that of visible light photons.
harmful radiation produces? [BSSC 2016] Which of the statement(s) given above
(a) Fusion reaction
is/are correct?
(b) Fission reaction
(a) I, II and III (b) I and II
(c) Chemical reaction
(c) II and III (d) Only I
(d) Photochemical reaction

1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (b)
11. (d) 12. (c) 13. (b) 14. (c) 15. (d) 16. (a) 17. (a) 18. (b) 19. (c) 20. (d)
21. (a) 22. (a) 23. (d) 24. (c) 25. (b) 26. (b) 27. (a) 28. (b) 29. (c) 30. (c)
31. (c) 32. (a) 33. (c) 34. (d) 35. (d) 36. (b) 37. (b) 38. (a) 39. (c) 40. (d)
41. (b)
3
Bonding and
Chemical Reactions
Chemical Bond
The attractive force which holds various constituents (atoms, ions, etc) together in
different chemical species to maintain a mutual atomic order and a definite but specific
geometrical shape, is called a chemical bond. During the formation of a chemical bond,
energy is released, i.e., it is an exothermic process and occurs with the decrease in free
energy of the system.

Valency
The combining power (or capacity of mutual combination) of an element is called its
valency. Valency of noble gases, previously called inert gases [i.e. Helium (He), Neon (Ne),
Argon (Ar), Krypton (Kr), Xenon (Xe) and Radon (Rn)] is zero. They generally do not take
part in chemical bonding because they have completely filled or very stable outermost
shell, i.e. 8 electrons (octet) in their outermost shell (except He atom, which has 2 electrons
in its outermost shell).
In other words, noble gases have no tendency to lose, gain or ■ The word ‘valence’
share the electrons and hence, they exist in free or monoatomic came from Latin word
form. Valency of an element is equal to the number of ‘valentia’ meaning
electrons lost or gained during the formation of a compound. It ‘strength, capacity’.
generally depends upon the number of valence electrons. ■ The electrons present
If an atom has 1, 2, 3 or 4 valence electrons, then its valency = in the outermost shell
number of valence electrons. of an atom are called
If an atom has 5, 6, 7 or 8 valence electrons, then its valency the valence electrons
= 8 − number of valence electrons. and the outermost
shell is called the
e.g. In Na (2, 8, 1), there is one valence electron, so it loses the
valence shell.
valence electron to achieve octet in valence shell and forms
Na + (2, 8).

Electronic Theory of Chemical Bonding (Octet Rule)

Kossel and Lewis in 1916 developed a theory of chemical combination between atoms
known as electronic theory of chemical bonding which was based on inertness of
noble gases.
BONDING AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS
27
According to this theory ‘‘atoms can combine either by transfer of valence electrons from
one atom to another (gaining or losing) or by sharing of valence electrons in order to have
an octet or stable configuration just like noble gases in their valence shells’’. This is known
as octet rule.

Ions
The electrically charged species atoms or group of atoms are known as ions.
The positively charged ion is called cation and is obtained by the lose of one or
more electrons from an atom. The negatively charged ion is called an anion and is
obtained by the gain of one or more electrons.
e.g. Sodium chloride (NaCl). Its constituent particles are positively charged sodium
ion Na + (cation) and negatively charged chloride ion Cl − (anion).
All metallic elements form cations (e.g. Na + , Mg2 + , Ca2 + , Al 3 + ), so also called
electropositive elements while all non-metallic elements form anions (e.g. F − , Cl − ,
O 2 − , CO 23 − ), so also called electronegative elements.
+ +
a H and NH4 cations are made from non-metals.

Types of Bonding
Bonding is broadly divided into two classes:
(i) Chemical bonding (ionic, covalent and coordinate bond)
(ii) Physical bonding (hydrogen and van der Waals’ bonding)

Ionic or Electrovalent Bond

The bond formed, as a result of the electrostatic attraction between the positive and
negative ions, is termed as electrovalent bond. The transfer of electrons takes place in
such a way so that each combining element achieves complete octet (or duplet in case of
H and He).
The compound formed by the transfer of electrons from a metal to a non-metal atom is
known as ionic or electrovalent compound.
e.g. formation of sodium chloride from sodium and chlorine.

× × –
Na + Cl Na+ Cl
2,8,1 2,8,7 2,8 2,8,8

(i) Sodium atom has one electron in its valence shell so it loses its one electron to attain
octet in its outer shell and forms Na + ion.
(ii) Similarly, Cl atom has 7 electrons in its valence shell so it gains one electron from
sodium to attain octet in its outer shell and forms Cl − ion.
(iii) The Na + and Cl − ions bind together by electrostatic forces of attraction.
Other examples of ionic compounds are MgCl 2 , CaO, NH4 Cl, NaOH, etc.
■ The electrovalency is equal to the number of unit charge(s) present on the ion(s). Thus, in the
above example electrovalency of Na and Cl is 1.

Characteristics of Ionic or Electrovalent Compounds

(i) Ionic compounds are generally crystalline solids, i.e. have definite shape and are
somewhat hard and brittle because of the long distance orders of their constituent
particles.
(ii) They have high melting and boiling points because of strong electrostatic forces of
attraction.
(iii) These are non-volatile and have high density.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
28
(iv) These are soluble in polar solvent like water because of high dielectric constant of
water and insoluble in non-polar solvents like benzene, acetone, kerosene, petrol,
etc., because these are covalent in nature.
(v) They can conduct electricity in their aqueous state and in molten state due to the
presence of mobile ions, i.e. in these states they behave like an electrolyte. However,
these are unable to conduct electricity in solid state because ions are held together by
strong electrostatic forces of attraction, i.e. ions are not free.
(vi) Ionic compounds undergo very fast reactions in solution.

Covalent Bond
The bond formed due to sharing of electrons between two similar atoms or different
atoms having almost similar electronegativity, is called covalent bond. The sharing
occurs in such a way that the formed molecules achieve a permanent electronic structure
just like noble gases.
The compounds that are the result of sharing of electrons are called covalent compounds.
For example, formation of Cl 2 molecule. Each Cl atom has one electron short for the octet
configuration. Both Cl atoms attain the outer shell octet by sharing of a pair of electrons.
Each Cl atom contributes one electron to the shared pair.

Single, Double and Triple Covalent Bonds

When two atoms share one electron pair, the covalent bond between them is called a
single covalent bond.
e.g. HH or H H

Single Bond in H2 Molecules

When two atoms share two pairs of electrons, the covalent bond between them is called a
double covalent bond.

e.g. O==C==O or O C O
8e– 8e– 8e–
Double Bond in CO2 Molecules

When combining atoms share three pairs of electrons, the covalent bond between them
is called a triple covalent bond.

e.g. N N or N N
Triple Bond in N2 Molecules

Covalency
In a covalent compound, covalency of an atom is the number of electrons which
are supplied by that atom for sharing. e.g. In H 2 molecules, covalency of each
hydrogen is 1, in N 2 molecules, covalency of each nitrogen atom is 3 and in CH 4 ,
covalency of C is 4 and of H is 1.

Characteristics of Covalent Compounds

(i) In general, covalent compounds are gases or liquids. Some of the compounds are soft
solids with a few exceptions like diamond, silica (SiO 2 ), carborundum (SiC), etc.
(ii) They have relatively low melting and boiling points because of weaker
intermolecular forces of attraction.
BONDING AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS
29
(iii) These are insoluble in water but soluble in non-polar ■ HCl although is a
solvents like benzene, carbon tetrachloride, etc. However, covalent compound
some of them like sugar, alcohol are miscible with water due but dissolves in water
to hydrogen bonding. due to separation of
(iv) Covalent compounds are bad conductors of electricity in ions in aqueous
molten as well as in solid state. However, graphite can medium and hence,
it can conduct
conduct electricity as it possesses free electrons.
electricity in aqueous
(v) The covalent bond is rigid and directional, therefore, solution.
covalent molecules have specific shapes.
(vi) The reactions of covalent compounds are slow and complex.

Types of Covalent Bond

On the basis of polarity, the covalent bond can be of two types:
(i) Non-polar Covalent Bond When covalent bond is formed between two similar
atoms. e.g. H2 , O 2 , Cl 2 , N 2 or F2 , the shared pair of electrons is equally attracted by two
atoms and situated exactly between two identical nuclei. The bond so formed is called
non-polar covalent bond.
(ii) Polar Covalent Bond In case of heteronuclear molecule like HF, the shared pair of
electrons between two atoms gets displaced more towards fluorine, since
electronegativity of F is greater than H. The resultant bond is polar covalent bond.
+δ −δ +δ −δ −δ +δ −δ
H  F, H  Cl, F  Be  F
Shapes and Bond Angle of Some Covalent Molecules
Molecule Shape Bond Angle Examples
Linear 180° Beryllium chloride (BeCl2 ), ethyne (C2H2 ), carbon dioxide (CO 2 ),
zinc chloride (ZnCl2 ) and hydrogen (H2 )
Trigonal planar 120° Boron trifluoride (BF3), boron trichloride (BCl 3), boron hydride
(BH3), aluminium chloride ( AlCl 3), ethene (C2H4 )
Tetrahedral 109.5° Methane (CH4 ), ammonium ion (NH+4 ), carbon tetrachloride
(CCl 4 ), silicon tetrachloride (SiCl 4 )
Trigonal bipyramidal 90°, 120° Phosphorus pentachloride (PCl 5), phosphorus pentafluoride
(PF5)
Octahedral 90° Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)
Bent Less than 120° Sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ), ozone (O 3)
Pyramidal Less than 109° 28′ Ammonia (NH3), phosphine (PH3), phosphorus trifluoride (PCl 3)
V-shape/angular Less than 109° 28′ Water (H2O), hydrogen sulphide (H2S )
See-saw Less than 109° 28′ Sulphur tetrafluoride (SF4 ), sulphur tetrachloride (SCl 4 )
T-shape 90° Chlorine trifluoride (ClF3)
Square pyramidal Less than 90° Iodine pentachloride (ICl 5)
Square planar 90° Xenon tetrafluoride ( XeF4 ), Cupraammonium ion [Cu(NH3) 4 ]2 +

Coordinate Bond or Coordinate Covalent Bond or

Dative Bond
It is a special type of covalent bond in which both the shared electrons are donated by
only one of the atoms. The atom supplying the electrons pair is called donar atom and
that receiving the electrons pair is called acceptor atom.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
30
This bond is represented by placing an arrow pointing towards the acceptor.
e.g. Formation of hydronium ion (H3 O + )
H H H
+

+
H O + H H O H or H O H
+
Hydronium ion (H3O )

Characteristics of Compounds
having Coordinate Bonds
(i) These compounds exist in all the three states, ■ Some compounds have both types
i.e. solid, liquid and gas under ordinary of bonding, i.e. ionic as well as
conditions. covalent bonding, e.g. sodium
(ii) The melting and boiling points of these hydroxide (NaOH), potassium
compounds are higher than that of covalent hydroxide (KOH), sulphuric acid
compounds but lower than that of ionic (H2 SO 4 ) and sodium carbonate
compounds. (Na 2 CO 3 ), etc.
(iii) Like covalent compounds, these are poor ■ The electrons of an atom that do
conductors of electricity. not involve in bonding are called
(iv) They are sparingly soluble in water but lone pair of electrons. e.g.
readily soluble in organic solvents. ••
(v) Like covalent compounds the reactions of H—N— H Lone pair of electrons
these compounds are slow. 
H
Hydrogen Bond
The attractive forces between a hydrogen atom (which is already covalently to a strong
electronegative atom, i.e. N, O or F) and an electronegative atom is known as hydrogen
bond. Thus, it is formed between hydrogen atom of one molecule and an electronegative
atom of another molecule.
e.g.
Hydrogen bond
δ+ δ+ δ+ δ– δ+ δ–
H F H F H F
Covalent bond

These bonds are present in inorganic molecules like water as well as in organic molecules
like DNA.

van der Waals' Forces

These are the sum of attractive or repulsive
interactions between molecules other than those
Everyday Science
due to covalent bonds or to the electrostatic a The ability of geckos, which
interaction of ions with one another or with can hang on a glass surface
using only one toe, to climb
neutral molecules. These are relatively weak as
on sheer surfaces has been
compared to normal chemical bonds and can be of attributed to the van der
the following three types: Waals’ forces between
(i) Forces between two permanent dipoles these surfaces and spatulae
(Keesom forces). or microscopic projections,
which cover the hair-like
(ii) Forces between a permanent dipole and a setae found on their footpads.
corresponding induced dipole (Debye forces).
(iii) Forces between two instantaneously induced dipoles (London or dispersion forces).
London forces dominate the interaction of non-polar molecules.
BONDING AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS
31

Chemical Formula
The chemical formula of a compound is symbolic representation of its composition. To
write a chemical formula of a compound, we need to learn symbols and combining
capacity of the elements, i.e. valency.
While writing the chemical formulae for compounds, we write the constituent elements
and their valencies as shown in the examples given below.

Examples
1. Hydrogen chloride
Symbol H Cl
+
Valency 1 1–
Formula of the compound would be HCl.
2. Ammonium sulphate
Formula NH4 SO4

Charge 1+ 2–
Formula of the compound would be (NH4 ) 2 SO 4 .
In compounds formed with polyatomic ions, the ion is enclosed in a bracket before
writing the number which indicates the ratio. In case the number of polyatomic ion is
one, the bracket is not required, e.g. NaOH.

Types of Chemical Formula

Chemical formula is classified into three groups:
(i) Empirical Formula It represents the simplest whole number ratio of various
atoms present in a compound. e.g. The empirical formula of ethane (C 2 H6 ) is CH3 .
(ii) Molecular Formula It shows the exact number of different types of atoms present
in a molecule of a compound.
If the mass per cent of various elements present in a compound is known, its
empirical formula can be determined. Molecular formula can further be obtained, if
the molar mass is known.
Mass of that element in the compound
Mass % of an element = × 100
Molar mass of the compound
Molecular formula = (Empirical formula) n
Molar mass
where, n=
Empirical formula mass
(iii) Structural Formula The structural arrangement of the atoms in a compound is
termed as structural formula.
H H
 
e.g. Structural formula of ethane (C 2 H6 ) is H  C  C  H.
 
H H
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
32

Chemical Reaction
The process in which substances (reactants) react to form new compounds (products), is
known as chemical reaction. This process involves the breaking of old bonds and
formation of new bonds. If bond energies of reactants are greater than the bond energies
of products, the reaction occurs with the evolution of energy in the form of heat.
However, in an opposite condition, absorption of energy takes place.

Characteristics of a Chemical Reaction

A chemical reaction can be observed with the help of any of the following observations:
(i) Change in state (ii) Change in colour
(iii) Evolution of a gas (iv) Change in temperature
(v) Formation of precipitate

Chemical Equation
The short representation of a chemical reaction with the help of symbols of elements or
formula of compounds is called chemical equation.
(i) The substances or compounds which take part in a reaction are called reactants.
These are written on the left hand side (LHS) with a plus sign ( + ) in between them.
(ii) The substances or compounds formed in the course of reaction are called products.
These are written on the right hand side (RHS) with a plus sign ( + ) in between them.
(iii) The arrow head (→ ) points towards the products which shows the direction of reaction.
e.g. Zinc reacts with sulphuric acid to form zinc sulphate and hydrogen gas.
Zn + H2 SO 4 → ZnSO 4 + H2 ( g )
(Zinc) (Sulphuric (Zinc (Hydrogen)
acid) sulphate)

Rules for Writing a Balanced Chemical Equation

(i) The number of atoms of reactants should be equal to the number of atoms of
products. (According to the law of conservation of mass)
e.g. Fe + H2 O → Fe 3 O 4 + H2
As per rule, the above equation is incorrect and can be correctly written as
3Fe + 4H2 O → Fe 3 O 4 + 4H2
(ii) The physical states of reactants and products should be mentioned along with their
chemical formula in parenthesis.
The above equation can be written in accordance to rule (ii) as
3Fe(s ) + 4H2 O( g ) → Fe 3 O 4 (s ) + 4H2 ( g )

Thermochemical Equation
The equation in which enthalpy change (heat energy) is written along with the
reaction, is called thermochemical equation.
e.g. N 2( g ) + 3 H 2( g ) → 2 NH 3 + 22.5 kcal
Ionic Equation
The equation in which atoms or ions (cations/anions) are used to represent the
reactants and products, is called ionic equation.
e.g. Zn + Cu2 + → Zn2 + + Cu,
Ca2 + + 2 e − → Ca(s )
BONDING AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS
33

Types of Chemical Reactions

Different types of chemical reactions are as follows:
1. Combination Reaction Everyday Science
A reaction in which a single new product is
formed from two or more reactants, is called a A solution of slaked lime is used for
white washing the walls.
a combination reaction. Such reactions may
occur in between the element or a Calcium hydroxide reacts slowly with
carbon dioxide in air to form a thin
compounds. layer of calcium carbonate on the
For example, formation of slaked lime by the walls. It gives a shiny finish to the
reaction of calcium oxide with water. walls.

CaO(s ) + H2 O( l ) 
→ Ca(OH) 2 ( aq ) a A bright light was observed when a
magnesium wire was ignited inside a
Quick lime Slaked lime
block of dry ice.
Other examples of combination reactions are:
(i) Burning of coal C(s ) + O 2 ( g ) → CO 2 ( g )
(ii) Formation of water from H2 ( g ) and O 2 ( g )
2H2 ( g ) + O 2 ( g ) → 2H2 O ( l )

2. Decomposition Reaction
A chemical reaction in which a single reactant (compound) breaks down to give simpler
products, is called a decomposition reaction. The decomposition reactions require energy
in the form of heat, light or electricity. Therefore, decomposition reactions are of three
types:
(i) Thermal Decomposition When a decomposition is carried out by heating, it is
called thermal decomposition.
For example, decomposition of calcium carbonate to calcium oxide and carbon dioxide
upon heating.
Heating
CaCO 3 (s )   → CaO (s ) + CO 2 ( g )
Lime stone Quick lime
Another example of thermal decomposition is the decomposition of lead nitrate to
lead oxide, nitrogen dioxide (brown fumes) and oxygen.
Heat
2Pb(NO 3 ) 2  → 2PbO(s ) + 4NO 2 ( g ) + O2
Lead nitrate Lead oxide Nitrogen dioxide Oxygen
(ii) Photolysis When a decomposition reaction is brought about by sunlight, it is called
photolysis.
Sunlight
For example, 2AgCl (s )    → 2Ag(s) + Cl 2 (g)
■ The above reaction is used in black & white photography since silver chloride or silver
bromide turns grey in sunlight.
■ When metal salts are heated, their ions emit various colours of light.
■ Decomposition reaction is the reverse of the combination reaction.
■ Decomposition reaction of calcium carbonate is used in various industries, e.g. in the
manufacturing of cement.
(iii) Electrolysis When a decomposition reaction is brought about by electricity, it is
called electrolysis.
Electric current
For example, 2H2 O ( l )      → 2H2 + O 2
Water Cathode Anode
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
34
3. Displacement Reaction
A reaction in which more reactive element displaces less reactive element from its
compound present in dissolved state, is called a displacement reaction.
For example, when an iron nail is suspended in aqueous solution of copper sulphate for
20 minutes, it becomes brownish and the blue colour of the solution is slightly faded. This
indicates that iron has displaced copper from copper sulphate solution.
For example, Fe(s ) + CuSO 4 ( aq ) →
 FeSO 4 ( aq ) + Cu (s )
Iron Copper sulphate Iron sulphate (Reddish brown)
(blue colour)
Zinc and lead are more reactive elements than copper, so they displace Cu from the
aqueous solutions of its compounds.

4. Double Displacement Reaction

A chemical reaction in which there is an exchange of ions between the reactants to give
new substances, is called a double displacement reaction.
For example, Na 2 SO 4 ( aq ) + BaCl 2 ( aq ) 
→ BaSO 4 (s ) ↓ + 2 NaCl( aq )
Sodium Barium Barium sulphate Sodium chloride
sulphate chloride (white ppt.)

In the above reaction, precipitates are formed. So, this reaction is also known as
precipitation reaction.

5. Neutralisation Reaction
Acids and bases neutralise each other to form corresponding salts and water. This
reaction is called neutralisation reaction. If acid and base both are strong, 57.1 kJ heat is
released during the process.
For example, HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2 O
Acid Base Salt

6. Isomerisation or Rearrangement Reaction

A chemical reaction in which the atoms of the molecule of a compound undergo
rearrangement, is called an isomerisation or rearrangement reaction. It is generally seen
in case of organic compounds.
For example, isomerisation of ammonium cyanate into urea.
∆
NH4 CNO → NH2 CONH2
Ammonium cyanate Urea

7. Reversible and Irreversible Reaction

A chemical reaction which proceeds in both the directions, is called a reversible reaction.
For example, formation of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen by Haber’s process.
Fe, Mo
N 2 + H2 s 2NH3
Ammonia

A chemical reaction which proceeds only in one direction, is called irreversible reaction.
For example, 2NaOH + H2 SO 4 → Na 2 SO 4 + 2H2 O

8. Hydrolysis Reaction
It is the reaction between salts of weak acid or weak base with water. Due to high
dielectric constant, water has a very strong hydrating tendency. It dissolves many ionic
compounds. However, certain covalent and some ionic compounds are hydrolysed in water.
For example, CH3 COONa + H2 O → CH3 COOH + NaOH
Sodium acetate Acetic acid Sodium hydroxide
BONDING AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS
35
9. Photochemical Reaction
These chemical reactions take place in the presence of sunlight.
Sunlight
For example, 6CO 2 + 12H2 O → C 6 H12 O 6 + 6H2 O + 6O 2
Photosynthesis
The rate of a photochemical reaction is affected by the intensity of light.
■ Photosensitizer is a substance which brings about a reaction without undergoing any
chemical change itself. In the process of photosynthesis, chlorophyll acts as a photosensitizer.

10. Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions

Reactions occurring with the evolution of energy are called exothermic reactions, e.g.,
respiration, decomposition, burning of natural gas, etc., whereas reactions for the
occurrence of which energy is absorbed, are called endothermic reactions, e.g. digestion.
A+B → C + ∆E (exothermic)
A+B → C − ∆E (endothermic)

11. Oxidation and Reduction

Oxidation It is defined as a chemical reaction in which a substance gains oxygen or any
other electronegative element or loses hydrogen or electrons and shows increase in
oxidation number.
Heat
For example, 2Cu + O 2  → 2CuO (Copper is oxidised to CuO)
CuO + H2 → Cu + H2 O (Hydrogen is oxidised to H2 O)
Reduction It is defined as a chemical reaction in which a substance gains hydrogen or
electropositive element or electrons or loses oxygen or electronegative element and
shows decrease in oxidation number.
For example, Oxidation (gain of oxygen)

Heat
CuO + H2 Cu + H2O

Reduction (loss of oxygen)

Oxidising Agent and Reducing Agent Acceptor of electrons is oxidising agent

(oxidant). Donor of electrons is reducing agent (reductant). In short, a substance which is
oxidised or oxidation number of which is increased acts as a reducing agent while a
substance which is reduced or oxidation number of which is decreased acts as an
oxidising agent.
0 +1 −1 +2 −1 0 ■ Some substances such as

For example, Z n(s ) + 2H Cl( aq ) → Zn Cl 2 ( aq ) + H2 ( g ) nitrous acid (HNO2 ), sulphur

Oxidation number of Zn is increased from 0 to +2 dioxide (SO2 ) and sulphurous
therefore, zinc is oxidised, while oxidation number of H acid (H2 SO 3 ) act as both
is reduced from +1 to 0 therefore, H is reduced. Further, reducing as well as oxidising
agent because in them, N and
zinc helps hydrogen in HCl to decrease its oxidation
S atoms are present in their
number, so Zn is reductant (reducing agent) and intermediate oxidation state
hydrogen in HCl is oxidant (oxidising agent). (oxidation state of N in HNO2 is
Some examples of reducing agents are hydrogen, +3 and of S in SO2 and H2 SO 3
sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulphide, are respectively +4 and +4)
■ In CO , the oxidation state of C
carbon, etc and some examples of oxidising agents are 2
oxygen, ozone, hydrogen peroxide, potassium is +4 which is its maximum
permanganate, potassium dichromate, etc. oxidation state, so its further
oxidation is not possible.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
36
Oxidation State or Oxidation Number The valence is the most characteristic
property of the elements. Now-a-days, the term oxidation state or oxidation number is
frequently used for valence. The real or imaginary charge which an atom appears to have
in its combined state, is called oxidation state or oxidation number of that atom.
Rules for the calculation of oxidation number are: ■ The oxidation number of

(i) The oxidation number of an atom in its elemental state an element varies from its
is zero, e.g. Oxidation number of H in H2 , S in S 8 and P in group number or number
P4 is zero. of valance –8 to + number
(ii) The oxidation number of F is always –1 in all of its of valence e − . e.g. N (2, 5)
compounds. contains 5 electrons in its
(iii) The oxidation number of O is always –2 except valence shell, so its
 1 oxidation state varies from
peroxides (–1), superoxides  −  and oxygen fluorides −3 ( 5 − 8 ) to +5. Thus, the
 2
oxidation number of an
(+2 or +1). element can never be more
(iv) The oxidation number of H in metallic hydrides is –1 than the number of valence
while in rest of the compounds it has +1 oxidation electrons present in it.
number.
(v) The oxidation number of an ion is equal to the charge present on it.
(vi) For complex ions, the sum of oxidation number of all the atoms is equal to the net
charge on the ion.
(vii)The sum of the oxidation number of all the atoms present in a molecule is zero.
For example, oxidation state of O in OF2 is calculated as:
x + ( −1 ) 2 = 0 ⇒ x = +2
Similarly, in H2 O
2 × 1 + x = 0 ⇒ x = −2

Effects of Chemical Reactions in Our Daily Life

Fermentation of fruits, digestion of food inside the stomach of human body, respiration,
burning of fuel, corrosion and rancidity are some examples of reaction in our daily life.

Corrosion
It is the process of oxidative deterioration of a metal surface by the action of substances
present in environment to form unwanted corrosion products. In other words, it is the
process of formation of oxide or other salts on the surface of a metal when it is exposed to
the atmosphere.
In this process, the metal surface which is in direct contact of air and moisture gets
oxidised and forms a mixture of oxide and hydroxides. The process is continued until the
metal is not destroyed completely.
e.g. Conversion of iron into rust [Fe 2 O 3 ⋅ xH2 O], tarnishing of silver (due to the formation
of Ag 2 S), development of green coating of Cu(OH) 2 ⋅ CuCO 3 (basic copper carbonate) on
copper and bronze. It is basically an electrochemical process.
3
2Fe(s ) + O 2 ( g ) + xH2 O( l ) 
→ Fe 2 O 3 ⋅ xH2 O(s )
Iron 2 4442444
1 3 Hydrated ferric
From moist air oxide (rust)

2Cu(s ) + CO 2 ( g ) + O 2 ( g ) + H2 O( l ) 
→ CuCO 3 ⋅ Cu(OH) 2
Copper 14444244443 Basic copper
From moist air carbonate (green)
BONDING AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS
37
2Ag(s ) + H2 S( g ) 
→ Ag 2 S(s ) + H2 ( g )
Silver 123 Silver sulphide
Hydrogen (black)
sulphide (from air)
Corrosion of iron is called rusting. It is accelerated by the presence of impurities, H+ ,
electrolytes such as NaCl, gases such as CO 2 , SO 2 , NO, NO 2 , etc.
It is prevented by the following methods:
— By electroplating
— By surface coating (coating of surface with oil, grease, paint and varnish)
— By alloying
— By galvanisation of iron (process of deposition of a thin layer of zinc over iron surface)
— By anodising (generally done by using aluminium metal as anode because it becomes
passive due to the formation of its oxide layer over its surface)
■ Food cans are coated with tin, not with Zn because Zn is more reactive than iron and hence
readily converts into toxic substances.
■ Formation of a layer of aluminium oxide over aluminium surface protects the metal from
further corrosion.
■ Platinum, gold, silver are the metals that do not undergo corrosion and hence, are called
noble metals.

Fermentation
Louis Pasteur discovered fermentation in 1857. In this process, complex organic
compounds are decomposed by micro-organisms such as yeast and bacteria into simpler
organic compounds. It is an exothermic process. CO 2 gas (H2 and CH4 in small amount) is
evolved in this process and the appearance of gas seems like boiling the fermentive
solution of the substance.
Examples of fermentation are:
(i) Conversion of milk into curd through lactobacilli.
(ii) Preparation of wine and vinegar from sugarcane juice or preparation of ethyl alcohol from
glucose by using yeast.
(iii) In baking industry for making breads, pastries and cakes.

Rancidity
When oils and fats or foods containing oils and fats are exposed to air or oxygen, they get
oxidised due to which the food becomes stale and its colour and smell changes. This
process is called rancidity.
It is prevented by the following methods:
— Antioxidants like BHT (Butylated hydroxytoluene), N 2 (dinitrogen) are added to foods
containing fats and oils.
— The food is kept in airtight containers in the refrigerator or deep freezers.

Everyday Science
a A sliced apple turns brown if kept open for sometimes due to the oxidation of iron present
in the apple.
a Corrosion causes damage to car bodies, bridges, iron railings, ships and to all objects
made of metals, specially those of iron.
a Corrosion of iron is a serious problem. Every year an enormous amount of money is spent
to replace damaged iron.
a Chips manufacturers usually flush bags of chips with nitrogen gas to prevent the chips
from getting oxidised.
 Assessment
1. Which one among the following is a 10. The date of manufacture of food items
covalent compound? friend in oil should be checked before
[SSC Multitasking 2014] buying because oils become rancid
(a) Calcium chloride (b) Magnesium fluoride due to [CDS 2014]
(c) Sodium chloride (d) Carbon tetrachloride (a) oxidation
2. Mark the compound which possesses ionic, (b) reduction
covalent and coordinate bonds. (c) hydrogenation
[SSC CHSL (10+2) 2013] (d) decrease in viscosity
(a) SO 3 (b) SO 2 (c) H 2 O (d) NH 4 Cl 11. Browning of paper in old books is
3. ……… character of a bond between two caused by [SSC Multitasking 2014]
atoms is greater if the difference in their (a) frequent use
(b) lack of aeration
electronegativities is lesser.
(c) collection of dust
[SSC CHSL (10+2) 2013]
(d) oxidation of cellulose
(a) Polar (b) Metallic
(c) Ionic (d) Covalent 12. In a reaction, what is the loss of
4. How many covalent bonds are present in a hydrogen by substance called as?
(a) Reduction [SSC 2018]
chloropropane molecule having molecular
(b) Oxidation
formula, C3 H2Cl? [NDA 2020]
(c) Hydronisation
(a) 6 (b) 8
(d) Both reduction and hydronisation
(c) 9 (d) 10
13. Bleaching action of chlorine is due to
5. If formula of sodium salt of an anion X is
which reaction? [SSC 2017]
Na 2 X, then the formula of its aluminium
(a) Oxidation (b) Hydrolysis
salt would be [Asst. Comm. 2019]
(c) Redox (d) Decomposition
(a) AIX (b) AIX 3
(c) AI 2 X 3 (d) AI 3 X 2 14. Which one of the following nitrogen
oxides has the highest oxidation
6. The atomic number of an element is 8.
number of the same element?
How many electrons will it gain to form a
[CDS 2018]
compound with sodium? [NDA 2018]
(a) NO (b) NO 2
(a) One (b) Two
(c) N 2 O (d) N 2 O 5
(c) Three (d) Four
15. Which one of the following compounds
7. Liquid water is denser than ice due to
does not exhibt a different oxidation
[Asst. Comm. 2017]
(a) higher surface tension
number of the same element?
(b) hydrogen bonding (a) Pb 3O 4 [NDA 2019]
(c) van der Waals’ force (b) Fe 3O 4
(d) covalent bonding (c) Fe 2O 3
8. The chemical reaction in which heat (d) Mn3O 4
release is called [RRB NTPC 2017] 16. When a substance loses oxygen during
(a) endothermic reaction a reaction, it is called ………
(b) combination reaction [SSC Junior Engineer (Civil) 2016, 2018]
(c) decomposition reaction (a) corrosion [SSC CGL 2017]
(d) exothermic reaction (b) reduction
(c) oxidation
9. Potassium permanganate is used in the
purification of drinking water because it (d) Both corrosion and oxidation
(a) is a reducing agent [SSC 2016] 17. Which of the following element has
(b) is a oxidising agent always its oxidation number −1?
(c) is a bonding agent [BSSC 2016]
(d) dissolves the impurities of water (a) F (b) Cl (c) Br (d) I
ASSESSMENT
39
18. The rusting in iron is [RRB NTPC 2016] 25. The process by which milk is converted
(a) a physical process into curd is called
(b) a chemical process [SSC Constable (GD) 2012]
(c) reverse process (a) pasteurisation
(d) a mixture (b) vernalisation
19. What happens in the rusting of iron? (c) fermentation
[SSC 2017] (d) retting
(a) Decomposition (b) Displacement 26. In the following reaction which one is
(c) Oxidation (d) Reduction oxidising agent.
20. Example of corrosion is HASO2 ( aq) + Sn 2 + ( aq) + H+ ( aq) →
[Chhattisgarh PCS (Pre) 2016]
As ( s ) + Sn 2 + ( aq) + H2O (l )
(a) black coating on silver
(b) green coating on copper [NDA 2014]
(c) brown coating on iron (a) HAsO 2 (aq) (b) Sn 2 +(aq)
(d) All of the above (c) H + (aq) (d) Sn 4 +(aq)
21. The iron sheet kept in moist air covered 27. Among the following which one is
with rust. The rust is [SSC 2014] oxidation reaction? [NDA 2018]
(a) an element (a) NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H 2 O
(b) a compound (b) CaO + H 2 O → Ca(OH)2
(c) a mixture of iron and dust
(c) 2Mg + O 2 → 2MgO
(d) a mixture of iron, oxygen and water
(d) NaSO 4 + BaCl 2 → BaSO 4 + 2NaCl
22. On rusting in the iron [SSC 2016]
28. Consider the following reaction:
(a) its weight is increased
(b) its weight is decreased CH4 +2O2 → CO2 +2H2O
(c) no changes take place Which of the following about the
(d) its weight changes reaction given above is/are correct?
23. During galvanisation, which metal is used I. Carbon is oxidised
for coating iron and steel objects, II. Hydrogen is oxidised
preventing them from rusting. III. Hydrogen is reduced
[SSC Scientific Assistant (Physics) 2017]
IV. Carbon is reduced
(a) Zinc (b) Copper
(c) Aluminium (d) Bronze Select the correct answer using the
code given below: [NDA 2017]
24. Pasteurisation is related to
(a) Only I
(a) sterilisation of milk [MPPCS (Pre) 2016]
(b) I and II
(b) dehydration of milk
(c) II and III
(c) fermentation of milk
(d) II and IV
(d) distillation of milk

1. (d) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (c) 6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (b) 10. (a)
11. (d) 12. (b) 13. (a) 14. (d) 15. (c) 16. (b) 17. (a) 18. (b) 19. (c) 20. (d)
21. (d) 22. (a) 23. (a) 24. (c) 25. (c) 26. (a) 27. (c) 28. (a)
4
Acids, Bases
and Salts
All the compounds on the basis of their chemical properties can be classified as acids,
bases and salts. They have certain definite properties which distinguish one compound
from other. The sour and bitter tastes of food are due to acids and bases respectively,
present in them.

Acids
The word ‘acid’ has been derived from a Latin word ‘acidus’ meaning sour. Thus, acids are
the substances that have sour taste, have one or more replaceable hydrogen atoms and
turn blue litmus and methyl orange to red, e.g. hydrochloric acid (HCl), nitric acid (HNO 3 ),
sulphuric acid (H2 SO 4 ), etc.

Types of Acids
Acids are classified into following groups:
(i) Inorganic or Mineral Acids These are generally prepared from the minerals
present in the earth’s crust, e.g. HCl, H2 SO 4 , HNO 3 , etc.
(ii) Organic or Edible Acids These are produced by plants or animals, e.g. lactic acid.
(iii) Hydra Acids The acids which contain hydrogen but oxygen is absent, are called
hydra acids, e.g. HCl (hydrogen chloride), HBr (hydrogen bromide), HCN (hydrogen
cyanide), etc.
(iv) Oxy Acids The acids which contain both hydrogen and oxygen, are called oxy acids,
e.g. H2 SO 4 , H3 PO 4 , HNO 3 , etc.
(v) Strong Acids The acids which dissociate completely when dissolved in water, are
called strong acids, e.g. mineral acids like H2 SO 4 (sulphuric acid), HCl (hydrochloric
acid), HNO 3 (nitric acid), H3 PO 4 (phosphoric acid), etc.
(vi) Weak Acids The acids which dissociate partially when dissolved in water, are
called weak acids, e.g. organic acids like CH3 COOH (acetic acid), oxalic acid and a
mineral acid H2 CO 3 (carbonic acid).
(vii) Dilute Acids If in an aqueous solution, concentration (amount) of acid is low, it is
called dilute acid.
(viii) Concentrated Acids If in an aqueous solution, concentration (amount) of acid is
high, it is called concentrated acid.
ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
41

Properties of Acids
(i) Acid reacts with metal to liberate hydrogen gas.
Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen gas
(ii) Acid reacts with all metal carbonates and metal hydrogen carbonates to form
corresponding salt, water and evolve carbon dioxide (CO 2 ).
Metal carbonate/Metal hydrogen carbonate + Acid→ Salt + Carbon dioxide + Water
(iii) Acid reacts with base to give salt and water.
Acid + Base → Salt + Water
HCl( aq ) + NaOH( aq ) → NaCl( aq ) + H2 O ( l )
The reaction between an acid and a base to give a salt and water is known as a
neutralisation reaction.
(iv) Acid reacts with metallic oxides to give salt and water.
Metal oxide + Acid → Salt + Water
Since this reaction is similar to the reaction
between a base and an acid, we can conclude that Everyday Science
metallic oxides are basic in nature. a Sour or sharper flavour of
(v) Acid releases brown fumes of NO 2 from nitrite, ‘Coca Cola’ or any other soft
drink is because of the
H2 S from sulphide and SO 2 from sulphite.
+
presence of phosphoric acid
(vi) Acids give hydrogen ions (H ) or hydronium ions (H 3PO 4 ). This acid also
(H3 O + ) in water. The separation of H+ ions from slows the growth of moulds
acid molecules is not possible in the absence of and bacteria.
water, i.e. hydrogen ions cannot exist alone, but a When lemon juice is added
they exist after combining with water molecules. to baking soda, brisk
effervescence occurs due to
For example, HCl + H2 O → H3 O + + Cl −
the evolution of CO 2 gas.
H+ + H2 O → H3 O +
(vii)Acids like HCl, HNO 3 , H2 SO 4 , etc., are good conductors of electricity in their aqueous
solutions.
■ Carboxylic acid reacts with alcohol to form a sweet smelling compound known as ester.
This reaction is called esterification.
∆
Carboxylic acid + Alcohol → Ester + Water

Some Naturally Occurring Acids

Natural Source Acid
Vinegar Acetic acid
Amla, citrus fruits (orange, lemon) Citric acid, vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
Tamarind, grapes, unripe mangoes Tartaric acid
Tomato, sarel tree, spinach Oxalic acid
Sour milk (curd) Lactic acid
Ant sting, nettle sting Methanoic acid (formic acid)
Grass, leaves, urine Benzoic acid
Wheat Glutamic acid
Tea Moleic acid

Uses of Acids
(i) Nitric acid (HNO 3 ) is used for making fertilizers, dyes, plastics, medicines, explosives
(TNT), aqua-regia, etc. It is also used in photography and as a laboratory reagent.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
42
(ii) Sulphuric acid (H2 SO 4 ) is used in the manufacture of fertilizers, plastics, paints,
explosives, dyes, detergents, accumulated batteries, etc. It is also used in petroleum
exploration.
(iii) Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is used for making plastics (PVC), medicines, cosmetics,
dyes, textile, aqua-regia, etc. It is also used in leather industry and as a laboratory
reagent.
(iv) Benzoic acid (C 6 H5 COOH) and formic acid (HCOOH) are used as preservatives for
food stuff. Formic acid is also used in making insecticides, in the processing of
rubber and in leather industries.
(v) Citric acid (C 6 H8O 7 ) is used in the processing
Everyday Science
and preserving of food stuff, for washing a Nettle’s leaves have stinging
metals and in cloth industries. hairs which cause painful
stings when touched
(vi) Oxalic acid (HOOC—COOH) is used in accidentally. This is due to the
photography, in colouration and printing of methanoic acid secreted by
clothes. It is used for bleaching leather and for them. It is neutralised by
removing ink or rust spots from the cloth. rubbing the area with the leaf
of dock plant which often
(vii) Acetic acid (CH3 COOH) is used as vinegar, in grows beside the nettle.
the preparation of acetone and in the
processing of food stuffs.

Bases
Bases turn red litmus to blue, methyl orange to yellow and have bitter taste. Their
solutions are soapy to touch, e.g. potassium hydroxide (KOH), magnesium hydroxide
[Mg(OH) 2 ] and sodium hydroxide (NaOH), etc.
In terms of chemistry, bases are those metallic compounds or radicals which react with
acid and neutralise them. In general, metal oxides and hydroxides behave like bases.

Types of Bases
Bases can be classified into two groups on the basis of dissociation in water:
(i) Strong Bases Bases which completely dissociate in water are called strong bases,
e.g. calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH) 2 ], sodium hydroxide (NaOH), potassium hydroxide
(KOH), etc.
In general, the oxides and hydroxides of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals are
strong bases.
(ii) Weak Bases Bases which partially dissociate in water are called weak bases,
e.g. iron hydroxide [Fe(OH) 2 ], ammonium hydroxide (NH4 OH), magnesium hydroxide
[Mg(OH) 2 ], etc.

Properties of Bases
(i) Base reacts with metal to form salt and liberates hydrogen gas. However, such
reactions are not possible with all metals. e.g.
Sodium hydroxide + Zinc → Sodium zincate + Hydrogen gas
(ii) Base reacts with acid to form salt and water (neutralisation reaction).
(iii) Base reacts with non-metallic oxide to form salt and water. Since this reaction is
similar to the reaction between a base and an acid, we can conclude that non-metallic
oxides are acidic in nature.
Base + Non-metal oxide → Salt + Water
ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
43
(iv) When a base is dissolved in water, it generates hydroxide ion (OH − ion) in water.
H2O
KOH(s )  → K + ( aq ) + OH− ( aq )
H O
Mg(OH) 2 (s )  
2
→ Mg 2+ ( aq ) + 2OH− ( aq )
Bases which are soluble in water are called alkalies, e.g. NaOH, KOH, Ca ( OH) 2 ,
NH4 OH, etc.
Thus, all alkalies are bases but all bases are not alkalies.
(v) The oil and sulphur dissolve in bases. Bases like oxides and hydroxides of Zn, Al, Sn,
etc dissolve in acids as well as in hot concentrated NaOH and KOH solutions, are
termed as amphoteric substances.
(vi) Strong bases like NaOH, KOH, etc., are good conductors of electricity in their aqueous
solutions and in molten state as they readily provide ions in these states.

Uses of Bases
(i) Calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH) 2 ] is used in Everyday Science
manufacturing bleaching powder,
concrete and plaster, in white washing, in a Aqua-regia is very powerful acid
and Latin means of its name is
softening water and in the treatment of royal water. 3 part conc. HCl + 1
acidic soil, etc. Hairs from the outer part conc. HNO 3 is known as aqua
surface of leather can also be removed regia. It is used to separate silver
with the help of it. and gold.
(ii) Magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH) 2 ] is used a The atmosphere of venus is made
up of thick white and yellowish
as an ‘antacid’ and in sugar industries.
clouds of sulphuric acid. Sulphuric
(iii) Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is used in acid (H 2SO 4 ) is used in almost all
manufacturing drugs and hard soaps. It is car batteries and is known as oil of
also used in paper and textile industry, in vitriol. Though H 2SO 4 is known as
king of acids but silver does not
petroleum refining and degreasing metals
react with dil. H 2SO 4 .
and for cleaning houses.
a Lactic acid is formed when milk is
(iv) Potassium hydroxide (KOH) is used as a fermented to form curd.
laboratory reagent, in the manufacture of a ‘Fizz’ sound in soft drinks is
soft soaps, shampoos and shaving creams. produced due to the decomposition
It has a capability of absorbing CO 2 and of carbonic acid (H 2CO 3 ) into CO 2
SO 2 gases. bubbles.
a Pickles are always kept in glass jar
(v) Calcium oxide (CaO) is used as drying because acid present in them reacts
agent, in bleaching powder production and with the metal of metallic pot.
as a constituent of mortar.
(vi) Magnesium oxide (MgO) is used as refractory material in furnaces and in the
manufacture of drugs. It is also used as a supplement of rubber.

Modern Concepts of Acids and Bases

These are as follows:
(i) Arrhenius Concept of Acids and Bases According to Arrhenius theory, acids are the
substances that dissociate in water to give hydrogen ions H+ ( aq ) and bases are the
substances that are produce hydroxyl ions OH− ( aq ).
For example, HCl( aq ) → H+ ( aq ) + Cl − ( aq )
Acid
NaOH( aq ) → Na + ( aq ) + OH− ( aq )
Base
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
44
(ii) Bronsted-Lowry Acids and Bases According to this theory, acids are the substances
that are capable of donating a hydrogen ion H+ (proton) and bases are the substances
that are capable of accepting a hydrogen ion H+ .
In short, acids are proton donors and bases are proton acceptors.
For example, NH3 ( aq ) + H2 O( l ) a NH+4 ( aq ) + OH− ( aq )
Base Acid
(iii) Lewis Acids and Bases GN Lewis defined an acid as a species which accepts an
electron pair and base which donates an electron pair (lone pair).
For example, BF3 + •• NH3 → BF3 •• NH3
All electron deficient species and cations are Lewis acids. Similarly, all electron rich
species and anions are Lewis bases.

Dissolution of an Acid or a Base in Water

The process of dissolving an acid or a base in water is highly exothermic. Thus, for
dilution the acid must always be added slowly to water with constant stirring. If water is
added to a concentrated acid, the heat generated may cause the mixture to splash out and
cause burns.
Mixing an acid or base with water results in decrease in the concentration of ions
(H2 O + / OH− ) per unit volume. Such a process is called dilution and the acid or base is said
to be diluted.

Salts
Salts are the compounds obtained by the reaction of acid and base, such reactions are
called neutralisation reaction. In other words, these are obtained by the replacement of
replaceable hydrogen of the acid by a base. Cation of the salt comes from a base while its
anion comes from an acid.
NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2 O
Salt
Types of Salts
Different types of salts are as follows:
(i) Simple or Normal Salts These are formed by the ■ If a normal salt is obtained from
complete replacement of hydrogen atom from acid a weak acid and a strong base,
by a metal. e.g. KCl, NaCl, FeSO 4 , K2 SO 4 , Ca 3 (PO 4 )2 ,
the salt is called alkaline salt as
Na 3 BO 3 , etc.
its aqueous solution turns red
The salts so obtained have no replaceable hydrogen litmus blue.
atom. e.g. Na2 CO 3 , CH3 COONa,
(ii) Acidic Salts These are formed by the incomplete Na2 B 4 O7 ⋅ 10 H2 O, etc.
neutralisation of acids, i.e. by the partial ■ If the normal salt is obtained by
replacement of hydrogen atoms by base or metal. the reaction of a strong acid with
These salts still contain one or more replaceable a strong base, the salt is called
hydrogen atoms in their molecules. neutral salt as its aqueous
e.g. NaHSO 4 , NaHCO 3 , NaH 2 PO 4 , etc. solution has no effect on litmus
(iii) Basic Salts These are formed by the incomplete paper.
neutralisation of bases. These salts still contain e.g. NaCl, KCl, K 2 SO 4 , NaNO 3 ,
one or more hydroxyl groups in their molecules. KClO 3 , etc.
e.g. Mg(OH)Cl, Zn(OH)Cl, etc. ■ If the normal salt is obtained by
(iv) Double Salt It is the mixture of two salts and exists the neutralisation of a strong acid
only in solid state. e.g. Potash alum and a weak base, the salt is called
[K2 SO 4 ⋅ Al 2 (SO 4 )3 ⋅ 24H 2 O] and Mohr salt acidic salt as its aqueous solution
[FeSO 4 ⋅ (NH 4 )2 SO 4 ⋅ 6H 2 O], etc. Such salts give test turns blue litmus red. e.g.
of all the constituents present in their formula. FeCl 3 , ZnCl2 , HgSO 4 , etc.
ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
45
(v) Complex Salts These salts contain complex ion and also exist in solutions. A complete
ion contains a central metal ion surrounded by a number of neutral or negative ions,
called the ligands. e.g. Potassium ferrocyanide K 4 [Fe(CN) 6 ] contains a complex ion
[Fe(CN) 6 ] 4 − and tetraamino cupric sulphate [Cu(NH3 ) 4 ]SO 4 contains a complex ion
[Cu(NH3 ) 4 ]2+ .
(vi) Mixed Salts These salts give more than one cation or anion on dissolving in water.
e.g. Bleaching powder, sodium potassium sulphate and Rochelle’s salt.

Uses of Some Common Salts

(i) Sodium chloride (NaCl) is known as common or ordinary salt or rock salt. Its crystals
appear brown because of the presence of impurities. It is an important raw material
for various materials of daily use, such as sodium hydroxide, baking soda, washing
soda, bleaching powder and many more. It is used in various food stuffs as a
preservatives. It was an important symbol in our struggle for freedom (Mahatma
Gandhi’s Dandi March).
(ii) Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO 3 ) is used in baking powder and antacid. It is also used in
fire extinguisher devices (soda acid fire extinguishers).
(iii) Epsom salts (MgSO 4 ⋅ 7H2 O) and calomel (Hg 2 Cl 2 ) have medicinal uses.
(iv) Gypsum (CaSO 4 ⋅ 2H2 O) loses water molecules of crystallisation to form Plaster of
 1 
Paris  CaSO 4 ⋅ H2 O (POP) which is used as a plaster for supporting the fractured
 2 
bones. POP is also used in making toys, materials for decoration and for making
surfaces smooth.
(v) Washing soda (Na 2 CO 3 ⋅ 10H2 O) is a basic salt and used for removing the permanent
hardness of water. It is also used in glass, soap and paper industry, in dry cleaning of
clothes and in the manufacture of sodium compounds such as borax.
(vi) Potassium nitrate (KNO 3 ) is used in the production of gun powder, firecrackers, in
glass industry, in production of fertilizers, etc.
(vii) Copper sulphate (CuSO 4 ⋅ 5H2 O) is used as an insecticide, in electroplating, in
colouration and printing and in the purification of copper.
(viii) Potash alum (K 2 SO 4 ⋅ Al 2 (SO 4 ) 3 ⋅ 24H2 O) is used in the purification of water, in
manufacturing drugs and as a colour bonding in colouration.

pH Scale
pH value is the measure of acidity or basicity of a substance. A scale which is used for
measuring hydrogen ion concentration in a solution, is called pH scale. The p in pH stands
for potenz in German meaning power. On the pH scale, we can measure pH generally
from 0 (very acidic) to 14 (very alkaline). Higher the hydronium ion concentration, lower
is the pH value.
The pH of a solution is defined as the negative logarithm to base 10 of the concentration
(in moles per litre) of hydrogen ions which it contains.
1 1
∴ pH = − log[ H+ ] = log +
or log
[H ] [H3 O + ]

[because H+ generally exists as H3 O + (hydronium ion)]

Note that an acidic solution has pH < 7, basic solution has pH > 7 and neutral solution has
pH = 7.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
46
Generally, paper impregnated with the universal indicator (a substance having different
colour under different conditions) is used for measuring pH.
The strength of acids and bases depends on the number of H+ ions and OH− ions
produced, respectively. Acids that give rise to more H+ ions are said to be strong acids and
acids that give less H+ ions are said to be weak acids.
pH of Some Common Substances Shown on a pH Paper
 pH 0-1 Battery acid
 pH 1.2-2 Stomach acid

 pH 2.2-3.4 Lemon juice, vinegar
Acidic  pH 3.2-3.9 Orange juice, soda, some dental rinses, wine
 pH 4.0-4.4 Tomato juice, bear

 pH 4.5-5.5 Black coffee
 pH 6.4-6.6 Saliva, cow’s milk
Neutral pH 7 Pure water
 pH 7.3-7.5 Human urine, human blood
 pH 8 Sea water, pH neutralizing dental rinses
 pH 9.2 Baking soda, drinking soda

Basic or  pH 10 Antacids
Alkaline 
pH 11 Antacids, dental treatment rinses

 pH 12.5 Soapy water
 pH 14 Sodium hydroxide

Neutral
Acidic nature increasing Basic nature increasing

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Increase in H+ concentration Decrease in H+ concentration

Variation of pH with the Change in the Concentration of H + (aq) Ions

■ pH of fresh ground water slightly reduces when it comes in contact of air. This is because of the
presence of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) in air which dissolves in water to give a weak acid H2 CO 3
(carbonic acid). This acid provides H + ions and thus, increases the acidity of water, due to
which pH reduces.
■ pH of acidic solution increases when a base is added to it and pH of basic solution decreases
when an acid is added to it.
■ If a strong acid like HCl, H2 SO 4 , etc., is added with the same equivalent of a strong base like
NaOH (sodium hydroxide), KOH (potassium hydroxide), etc., complete neutralisation takes
place and a neutral solution with pH 7 is obtained.
■ When an acid solution is diluted by adding water, its pH decreases, e.g. if a solution of pH 6 is
diluted, its pH reduces and it remains acidic. This is because in water generally ionisation
increases.

Importance of pH in Everyday Life

1. Plants and animals are pH sensitive. Our body works within the range of 7.0 to 7.8. Living
organisms can survive only in a narrow range of pH change. When pH of river water
becomes less than 5.6 due to acid rain, the survival of aquatic life in such rivers becomes
difficult. Plants require a specific pH range for their healthy growth.
2. Excessive use of fertilizers makes the soil acidic which is not good for the growth of the
plants. So, to make the soil suitable for growing plants, some bases like quick lime (calcium
oxide) or slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) are added to the soil which neutralise the excess
acid. If the soil becomes more basic, organic matter (which releases acid) is added to it.
ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
47
3. Factories run off contains several acids which, if fall in the water bodies, pollute them. So,
some basic substances are added to neutralise the acid.
4. Our stomach produces hydrochloric acid. It helps in the digestion of food without harming
the stomach. During indigestion, the stomach produces too much acid and this causes pain
and irritation. To get rid of this pain, people use bases called antacids such as magnesium
hydroxide (milk of magnesia). These antacids neutralise the excess acid.
5. Tooth decay starts when the pH of the mouth is lower than 5.5. Bacteria present in the
mouth produce acids by degradation of sugar and food particles remaining in the mouth
after eating. Toothpastes are generally basic, when we clean our teeth they can neutralise
this excess acid and prevent tooth decay.
6. Bee sting or ant bite leaves an acid (generally formic acid) into the skin which causes pain
and irritation. Use of mild base like baking soda (sodium hydrogen carbonate) or calamine
(zinc carbonate) on the stung area gives relief.
7. The nature of banana leaves is basic, so it avoids yeast formation. That’s why milkman
generally kept a banana leaf in the milk jar.

Indicators
Indicators show colour change in solution as the pH of the solution changes. So, these are
used to identify whether a solution is acidic, basic or neutral. The pH of a solution can be
determined by using pH paper or a universal indicator or a pH meter, e.g. litmus, turmeric,
China rose petals (gudhal), petals of Hydrangea, Petunia and Geranium.

Acid Base Indicators

These are either weak organic acids or weak organic bases, e.g. phenolphthalein can be
considered to be a weak organic acid and methyl orange can be considered to be a weak
organic base. Phenolphthalein is not suitable, if base is weak and methyl orange is not
suitable, if acid is weak.
Colour of Indicators in Different Media
Colour
Indicators pH Range In Basic Medium In Acidic Medium
Methyl orange 3.1-4.5 Yellow Red
Methyl red 4.2-6.3 Yellow Red
Phenolphthalein 8.0-9.8 Pink Colourless
Litmus 5.5-7.5 Blue Red

Buffer Solution
The solutions which resist the change in pH (or acidity or alkalinity) on dilution or with
the addition of small amount of acid or alkali, are called buffer solutions.

Types of Buffer Solutions

These are of two types:
(i) Acidic Buffer It is obtained by mixing a weak acid and its salt with strong base in
equal amount. e.g. A mixture of acetic acid and sodium acetate acts as acidic buffer
solution around pH 4.75. A mixture of boric acid and borax is an another example of
acidic buffer.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
48
(ii) Basic Buffer It is obtained by mixing a weak base and its salt with strong acid in equal
amount. e.g. A mixture of ammonium chloride (NH4 Cl) and ammonium hydroxide
(NH4 OH) acts as basic buffer solution around pH 9.25.
Blood pH is maintained with the help of H2 CO 3 /HCO −3 buffer inspite of many acidic
foods we take.

Hydrolysis of Salts
Salts are formed by the reactions between acids and bases in definite proportions. When
a salt of strong acid and strong base is dissolved in water, it completely ionises in the
solution but does not react with water.
On the other hand, when a salt of strong base and weak acid or weak base and strong acid
is dissolved in water, it reacts with water to give back the original acid and base from
which the salt was formed. This process is known as salt hydrolysis.
In this process, ions of the salt and ions or molecules of water mutually combine to each
other and forms acidic or alkaline solution.
e.g. Sodium carbonate (Na 2 CO 3 ) is a salt of NaOH (sodium hydroxide) and H2 CO 3
(carbonic acid). So, when it is treated with water, it gives the same acid and base.
Na 2 CO 3 + 2H2 O → 2NaOH + H2 CO 3
Strong base Weak acid

or 2Na + CO 23 − + 2H2 O → 2Na + OH− + H+ HCO −3

Because of the presence of strong base, its solution is basic.

Types of Salts on the basis of Hydrolysis

Depending upon the nature of species hydrolysed, the salts are classified into following
categories:
(i) Salts of Weak Acids and Strong Bases Sodium acetate is a salt of acetic acid (weak
acid) and sodium hydroxide (strong base).
CH3 COONa + H2 O a CH3 COOH + NaOH
Sodium acetate Weak acid Strong base

Its aqueous solution is basic in nature. Therefore, pH is greater than 7.

(ii) Salts of Strong Acids and Weak Bases Ammonium chloride is a salt of ammonium
hydroxide (weak base) and hydrochloric acid (strong acid). Therefore, upon
hydrolysis it gives acidic solution. Its pH is smaller than 7.
(iii) Salts of Weak Acids and Weak Bases Ammonium acetate is a salt of ammonium
hydroxide (weak base) and acetic acid (weak acid). Aqueous solution of this type of
salt may be neutral or acidic or basic.
(iv) Salts of Strong Acids and Strong Bases Halides, sulphates and nitrates of sodium or
potassium are the examples of this category of salts.
Acid as well as base both are strong, therefore no hydrolysis takes place and the
solution remains neutral. pH of aqueous solution of such salts is equal to 7.
A S S E S S M E N T
49

Assessment
1. Which acid is present in acid rain? 10. On the labels of the bottles, some soft
[Chhattisgarh (Pre) 2017] drinks are claimed to be acidity
(a) Benzoic acid (b) Acetic acid regulators. They regulate acidity using
(c) Nitric acid (d) Oxalic acid (a) carbon dioxide [CDS 2012]
2. Which one of the following gives the (b) bicarbonate salts
highest amount of hydrogen ions (H+ )? (c) Both (a) and (b)
[NDA 2018] (d) carbon dioxide and lime
(a) Sodium hydroxide solution 11. Vitamin C is also known as
(b) Milk of magnesia [SSC Multitasking 2014]
(c) Lemon juice (a) amino acid (b) ascorbic acid
(d) Gastric juice (c) acetic acid (d) azelaic acid
3. Which one of the following will not 12. Citric acid is present in free form in
produce carbon dioxide on reacting with [SSC Multitasking 2014]
an aqueous solution of hydrochloric (a) tamarind (b) milk
acid? [NDA 2019] (c) apple (d) lemon
(a) Limestone (b) Quicklime 13. A bee-sting leaves an acid which
(c) Chalk (d) Marble causes pain and irritation. The injected
4. Which one of the following was the first acid is [RRB 2018]
mineral acid discovered? [NDA 2020] (a) acetic acid (b) sulphuric acid
(a) Sulphuric acid (c) citric acid (d) methanoic acid
(b) Hydrochloric acid 14. Rectified spirit is [SSC 2014]
(c) Nitric acid (a) methylated spirit
(d) Phosphoric acid (b) tincture iodine
5. Which one of the following does not (c) 95% ethyl alcohol
contain COOH group? [Asst. Comm. 2019] (d) 100% ethyl alcohol
(a) Citric acid (b) Lactic acid
15. Which among the following acids is used
(c) Tartaric acid (d) Ascorbic acid
in lead storage batteries? [SSC 2017]
6. Which of the following is the major (a) Acetic acid (b) Hydrochloric acid
component of vinegar? [SSC 2019] (c) Sulphuric acid (d) Nitric acid
(a) Citric acid (b) Lactic acid
(c) Nitric acid (d) Acetic acid 16. Goldmiths uses aqua-regia, which is
prepared by mixing
7. What is the chemical name of the deadly
[UPPCS (Mains) 2014]
poison ‘cyanide’? [SSC 2019] (a) nitric acid and sulphuric acid
(a) Sulphuric acid (b) Hydrochloric acid (b) nitric acid and hydrochloric acid
(c) Nitric acid (d) Prussic acid (c) sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid
8. When we cut an onion, the synthase (d) citric acid and benzoic acid
enzyme converts the amino acid 17. Aqua-regia is a mixture of the following
sulfoxide of the onion into which acid? in the ratio 1 : 3 by volume
[SSC CGL 2020] [SSC Multitasking 2014]
(a) Citric acid (b) Nitric acid (a) conc. HNO3 and conc. HCI
(c) Sulphuric acid (d) Sulfenic acid (b) conc. HNO3 and conc. H2SO4
9. Vinegar is today mainly used in the (c) dil. HCI and dil. HNO3
kitchen as a general cooking ingredient. (d) conc. HCI and conc. HNO3
It is the most easily available in mild 18. An acid is a substance which
acid. It is made by fermentation of cane I. is sour in taste
II. turns red litmus paper into blue
sugar juice. It contains [NDA/NA 2013]
[SSC 2017]
(a) palmitic acid (b) lactic acid (a) Only I is correct (b) Only II is correct
(c) citric acid (d) acetic acid (c) Both I and II (d) None of these
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
50
19. Which among the following is an 27. Which one of the following salts should
incorrect pair? [SSC 2017] not be used as dining table salt?
Natural source Acid [UPRO/ARO (Pre) 2014]
I. Vinegar 1. Acetic acid (a) Iodised salt
II. Curd 2. Lactic acid (b) Sea salt
III. Tamarind 3. Citric acid (c) Rock salt
(d) Processed common salt
(a) I and II (b) II and III
(c) Only II (d) Only III 28. Iodised salt contains [BPSC (Pre) 2016]
(a) free iodine (b) calcium iodide
20. Which one of the following pairs is not
(c) magnesium iodide (d) potassium iodide
correctly matched?
[UP Lower Sub. (Pre) 2015] 29. Table salt (NaCl) is a product of [RRB 2018]
(a) a weak acid and a weak base
(a) Lactose - Sour milk
(b) a strong acid and a strong base
(b) Carbonic acid - Soda water
(c) a weak acid and a strong base
(c) Formic acid - Red ants
(d) a strong acid and a weak base
(d) Tartaric acid - Grape juice
30. Match the following Columns.
21. Substances which are generally bitter in
Column I Column II
taste and feel soapy on touching are
known as [SSC 2017] A. Sodium 1. For disinfecting water
hydroxide
(a) acids (b) bases
(c) indicators (d) litmus B. Bleaching powder 2. For removing permanent
hardness of water
22. Antacids are
C. Sodium hydrogen 3. In setting fractured bones
[Chhattisgarh PCS (Pre) 2016] carbonate
(a) base (b) acid
D. Washing soda 4. Soaps and detergents,
(c) salt (d) buffer paper making
23. Baking soda is E. Plaster of Paris 5. Soda-acid fire extinguisher
[Chhattisgarh PCS (Pre) 2018]
(a) Na 2 CO 3 Codes
A B C D E A B C D E
(b) NaHCO 3 ⋅ 6H 2 O
(a) 4 1 5 2 3 (b) 3 2 1 5 4
(c) NaHCO 3 (c) 4 3 1 2 5 (d) 5 1 4 3 2
(d) NaCO 3 ⋅ 10H 2 O
31. Match List - I with List - II and select the
24. The chemical formula of baking soda is correct answer using the codes given below
[RAS/RTS (Pre) 2016] the Lists :
(a) Ca(OH)2 (b) NaHCO 3
List-I List-II
(c) CaCO 3 (d) Na 2 CO 3
A. Artificial fruits ripening 1. Carbon dioxide
25. Which of the following properties is true B. Baking soda 2. Sodium silicate
for a tooth paste? [NDA 2018]
C. Soft drink 3. Ethylene
(a) It is acidic.
D. Quartz 4. Sodium bicarbonate
(b) It is neutral.
(c) It is basic. [UPPCS (Mains) 2017]
(d) It is made up of calcium phosphate, the Codes
material of tooth enamel. A B C D A B C D
(a) 3 4 2 1 (b) 3 4 1 2
26. The soda-acid fire extinguisher contains
(c) 4 3 2 1 (d) 2 1 4 3
[UPSC 2019]
(a) sulphuric acid and solution of sodium 32. The pH value of acid rain is nearly
hydrogen carbonate. [RRB NTPC 2016]
(b) nitric acid and solution of sodium (a) 5.5 or less (b) 12.5 or more
hydrogen carbonate. (c) 10.5 or more (d) 8.5 or more
(c) sulphuric acid and solution of sodium 33. The estimated pH value of distilled water
carbonate. is [CDS 2017]
(d) sulphuric acid and solution of (a) zero (b) 14
potassium carbonate. (c) nearly zero (d) nearly seven
ASSESSMENT
51
34. The estimated pH value of the human Codes
blood is [RRB NTPC 2017] A B C D E
(a) 7.4 (b) 7.9 (c) 6.7 (d) 8.1 (a) 6 5 3 4 1
(b) 1 2 3 4 5
35. The pH of fresh milk is 6. When it turns
(c) 6 4 5 1 2
sour, the pH [NDA/NA 2013] (d) 6 3 5 4 2
(a) becomes < 6
(b) remains the same, i.e. 6 41. Solutions in test tubes containing H2O
(c) becomes > 6 and aqueous NaOH can be differentiated
(d) becomes neutral, i.e. 7 with the help of [NDA/NA 2011]
36. The pH of fresh ground water slightly (a) red litmus
decreases upon exposure to air because (b) blue litmus
[CDS 2012] (c) Na 2 CO 3
(a) carbon dioxide from air is dissolved (d) HCl (aqueous)
in the water 42. Which of the following solutions will not
(b) oxygen from air is dissolved in the
water
change the colour of blue litmus paper to
(c) the dissolved carbon dioxide of the red?
ground water escapes into air I. Acid solution
(d) the dissolved oxygen of the ground II. Base solution
water escapes into air III. Common salt solution
37. Which of the following has pH value 7? Select the correct answer using the
[BPSC (Pre) 2018] codes given below. [CDS 2014]
(a) Neutral solution (b) Basic solution (a) I and III
(c) Acidic solution (d) None of these (b) II and III
38. A solution turns red litmus blue. The pH (c) Only I
of solution is (d) Only II
(a) 7 (b) 1 43. Statement I Mixing concentrated acids
(c) 5 (d) None of these or bases with water is a highly
39. Which of the following may be a possible exothermic process.
pH value of an acidic solution? Statement II Water of crystallisation is
[Chhattisgarh PCS (Pre) 2018] the fixed number of water molecules
(a) 6 (b) 7 (c) 8 (d) 9 chemically attached to each formula
40. Match the Column I with Column II and unit of a salt in its crystalline form.
choose the correct option from the (a) Both the Statements are individually
codes given below. true and Statement II is the correct
Column I Column II explanation of Statement I.
(Name of the fluid) (pH) (b) Both the Statements are
A. Human blood 1. 2.2 individually true but Statement II is
B. Milk 2. 1.2 not the correct explanation of
Statement I.
C. Human saliva 3. 1.0
(c) Statement I is true, but Statement II
D. Lemon juice 4. 6.8
is false.
E. Gastric juice 5. 6.4
(d) Statement I is false, but Statement II
6. 7.4 is true.

1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (d) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (d) 9. (d) 10. (a)
11. (b) 12. (d) 13. (d) 14. (c) 15. (c) 16. (b) 17. (a) 18. (a) 19. (d) 20. (a)
21. (b) 22. (a) 23. (c) 24. (b) 25. (c) 26. (a) 27. (c) 28. (d) 29. (b) 30. (a)
31. (b) 32. (a) 33. (d) 34. (a) 35. (a) 36. (a) 37. (d) 38. (a) 39. (c) 40. (c)
41. (a) 42. (b) 43. (b)
5 Solutions
and Colloids
In our daily life, we rarely come across pure substances. Most of these are mixtures
containing two or more pure substances. These mixtures are also called solutions.
Depending upon their composition (particle size of component), these are divided into
true solutions, suspension and colloids. Their utility or importance in life depends on
their composition and properties are uniform throughout the mixture.

Solution or True Solution

A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances in which at a constant
temperature the relative amounts of components can change upto a definite limit.
Lemonade, soda water, etc., are the examples of solutions in our daily life.

Components of a Solution
A binary solution (a mixture of two substances) has two components; solvent and solute.
(i) Solvent The component of the solution that is present in the largest quantity, is
known as solvent. The solvent which has greater dielectric constant is a better
solvent. Dielectric constant of water is very high nearly so, it is called universal
solvent.
Solvents are used in making perfumes, drugs, in the processing of various food stuffs
and in beverages. These are also used in dry cleaning.
(ii) Solute One or more components present in the solution other than solvent, are called
solutes. In general, in a binary solution amount of solute is smaller than solvent it is
also called dissolved substance.
e. g. A solution of iodine in alcohol (solvent) known as ‘tincture of iodine’, has iodine (solid)
as a solute. Aerated drinks like soda water contains CO 2 as solute and water as a solvent.

Properties of a Solution
(i) A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances (a mixture of uniform
composition).
(ii) The particles of a solution are smaller than 1 nm (10 − 9 m) in diameter. So, they can not be
seen by naked eye.
(iii) Because of very small particle size, they do not scatter a beam of light passing through the
solution. So, the path of light is not visible in a solution. In other words, they do not exhibit
Tyndall effect.
(iv) The components of a solution (i. e. solute and solvent) diffuse into each other in such a way
that they can not be distinguished.
(v) The solute particles can not be separated from the mixture by the process of filteration
because the size of solute particles is very tiny. The solute particles do not settle down when
left undisturbed, i.e. a true solution is stable, permanent and transparent.
SOLUTIONS AND COLLOIDS
53

Types of Solutions
I. Depending upon the amount of solute in a given solvent, the solution can be classified into
following types
(i) Unsaturated Solution A solution in which more solute can be dissolved without
changing the temperature, is called unsaturated solution.
(ii) Saturated Solution A solution in which no solute can be dissolved further at a
given temperature, is called saturated solution.
(iii) Supersaturated Solution When a saturated soluton is heated, its capacity to hold
more solute increases and it is called supersaturated solution. Supersaturated
solution contains excess amount of dissolved solute in it which is beyond the
capacity of the solution at a given temperature. If a small crystal of solute is added
to it, the excess solute immediately crystallizes out.
II. On the basis of states of solute and solvent, the solution may be of the following types:
Types of Solution Solute Solvent Common Examples
Gaseous solutions Gas Gas Mixture of gases, air
Liquid Gas Chloroform mixed with nitrogen gas fog, solution of gas
in water, humidity in air.
Solid Gas Camphor in nitrogen gas, smog (smoket + fog).
Liquid solutions Gas Liquid Oxygen dissolved in water, CO 2 dissolved in water,
aerated drinks.
Liquid Liquid Ethanol dissolved in water, bromine dissolved in carbon
disulphide, H2SO 4 in water
Solid Liquid Glucose (sugar) dissolved in water, I2 in CCl 4 , lead in
mercury.
Solid solutions Gas Solid Solution of hydrogen in palladium.
Liquid Solid Mercury with sodium forming an amalgam.
Solid Solid Alloys like bronze

Aqueous and Non-aqueous Solutions

When solute is dissolved in water, it is known as aqueous solution, e.g. ethanol in water,
sodium chloride in water. When solute is dissolved in solvent other than water, it is
known as non-aqueous solution, e.g. iodine in alcohol (tincture of iodine).
Acidic and Basic Solutions
Acidic solutions have more H + ions than that of OH − ions while basic solutions have
more OH − ions than that of H + ions.
Neutral Solutions
They have equal concentrations ofH + ions (hydrogen ions) andOH − ions (hydroxyl ions).

Concentration of a Solution
It is defined as the amount of solute present in a given amount (mass or volume) of
solution or solvent.
Solutions with relatively low concentration are called dilute solutions, while those with
relatively high concentration are called concentrated solution.
Various Ways of Expressing the Concentration of a Solution
Mass of the component
(i) Mass percentage of a component = × 100
Total mass of solution
Volume of the component
(ii) Volume percentage of a component = × 100
Total volume of solution
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
54
Number of moles of the component
(iii) Mole fraction of a component =
Total number of moles of all the components
Number of parts of the component
(iv) Parts per million (ppm) = × 10 6
Total number of parts of all components of solution
Moles of solute
(v) Molarity (M) =
Volume of solution in litre
Moles of solute
(vi) Molality (m) =
Mass of solvent in kg
Number of gram equivalents of solute
(vii)Normality ( N ) =
Volume of solution ( L )

Solubility
Maximum amount of a solute that can be dissolved in a given amount of solvent
(generally 100 g) at a given temperature and pressure, is known as its solubility at that
temperature.
If at a given temperature w g of solute is dissolved in W g of solvent (water), then
w × 100
Solubility of the solute in solvent =
W

Factors Affecting Solubility of a Solute in a Solvent

(i) Nature of Solute and Solvent (like dissolves like) Polar solute like sodium chloride
dissolves in a polar solvent like water. Similarly, non-polar solute like
cholestrol, bromine, etc., dissolves in non-polar solvent like benzene, carbon
tetrachloride (CCl 4 ), etc.
(ii) Effect of Temperature Usually solubility of a
solute increases with increase in temperature of Everyday Science
solution, i. e. their dissolution process is a To increase solubility of CO 2
endothermic (proceeds with the absorption of in soft drinks and soda
energy). But solubility of some substances such water, the bottle is sealed
as calcium nitrate, calcium oxide, sodium under high pressure.
sulphate, calcium hydroxide and calcium citrate a To minimise painful effects
decreases with increase in temperature, i. e. (bends) accompanying the
their dissolution process is exothermic (involves decompression of deep sea
evolution of energy or heat). Solubility of gas in divers, oxygen diluted with
a liquid decreases with increase in temperature. less soluble helium gas is
used as breathing gas.
(iii) Effect of Pressure Pressure has no effect on
the solubility of a solids in liquid. But solubility
of gases in liquids increases with increase in pressure.
(iv) Size of Substance Solubility decreases as the molecular mass of a substance
increases.

Colloidal Solution
A colloidal solution is a heterogeneous system which is made up of two phases; dispersed
phase (as solute) and dispersion medium (as solvent).
The substance distributed as the colloidal particles is called the dispersed phase and the
second phase in which the colloidal particles are scattered is called the dispersion
medium. Size of colloidal particles is in between 1 nm to 100 nm or 1000Å.
(i.e. 10 −9 m − 10 −7 m).
SOLUTIONS AND COLLOIDS
55
Milk, face creams, sponge, rubber, pumice, blood, gems, etc., are the examples of
colloids.
When one constituent particle of a solution is scattered around the another, then it is
called dispersion.

Classification of Colloids
I. On the basis of physical state of dispersed phase and dispersion medium, colloids are
classified into following types:

Dispersed Dispersion
Type Examples
Phase Medium
Solid Solid Solid sol Gemstone and coloured glasses
Solid Liquid Sol Milk of magnesia, mud, paints, cell fluids
Solid Gas Aerosol Smoke, automobile exhaust gas
Liquid Solid Gel Jelly, cheese, butter
Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, face cream, hair cream
Liquid Gas Aerosol Fog, clouds, mist, insecticide sprays
Gas Solid Solid sol Foam, rubber, sponge, pumice stone
Gas Liquid Foam Shaving cream, froth, whipped cream

II. On the basis of nature of interaction between dispersed phase and dispersion medium,
colloidal sols are divided into two categories:

Lyophilic Colloids Lyophobic Colloids

These are Liquid-loving colloids. These are Liquid-hating colloids.
These are directly formed by mixing These sols can be prepared only by special methods.
substances like gum, gelatin, starch,
rubber, etc., with a suitable liquid.
These are quite stable cannot be easily These are not stable can be easily coagulated by
coagulated. heating.
These are reversible, e.g. sol of starch. These are irreversible, e.g. gold sol.

■ If the dispersion medium in these colloids is water then they are known as hydrophilic and
hydrophobic colloids.
■ Gold number is a term used in colloidal chemistry for the protection of lyophobic colloids. It is
the minimum amount of lyophilic colloid in milligrams which prevents the coagulation of
10 mL gold sol by the addition of 1 mL of 10% NaCl solution.
III. On the basis of type of particles of dispersed phase, colloids are classified into three
categories.
(i) Multimolecular Colloids In this type of colloids, colloidal particles are aggregates
of large number of atoms or smaller molecules, e.g. gold sol, sulphur sol, etc.
(ii) Macromolecular Colloids Macromolecules in suitable solvents form solutions in
which the size of macromolecules may be in colloidal range. These colloids are
quite stable and resemble true solutions in many respects, e.g. naturally occuring
macromolecules starch, cellulose, proteins and enzymes; and those of man-made
macromolecules polythene, nylon, polystyrene, synthetic rubber, etc.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
56
(iii) Associated Colloids (Micelles) The formation of micelles takes place only above a
particular temperature called Kraft temperature ( Tk ) and above a particular
concentration called Critical Micelle Concentration (CMC).
These substances behave as normal strong electrolytes at low concentrations, e.g.
soap solution in water at particular temperature and at particular concentration.
■ Cleansing action of soap and detergents is due to the emulsification and micelle formation.

Properties of Colloidal Solutions

(i) It is a heterogeneous permanent system and can not be filtered by ordinary filter
papers. The dispersed particles can not be seen through naked eye but can be
distinctly seen through ultra microscope.
(ii) When light passes through a sol, its path becomes visible due to scattering of light by
colloidal particles. It is called Tyndall effect.
Tyndall Effect
It can be observed when a fine beam of light enters a dark room through a hole
and also observed when sunlight passes through the canopy of a dense forest.
It is responsible for blue appearance of sky and sea water, visibility of tails of
comets, twinkling of stars, blue tinge of smoke in source of light, red colour of
setting sun.

(iii) Continuous zig-zag motion of colloidal particles is called Brownian movement (first
observed by British botanist, Robert Brown). This motion is independent of the
nature of the colloid but depends on the size of the particles and viscosity of the
solution. Smaller the size, lesser is the viscosity and faster is the motion. Brownian
movement is a stirring effect, so it is responsible for the stability of sol. Suspension
and true solutions do not show Brownian movement.
(iv) Colloidal particles always carry an electric charge, e.g. haemoglobin (blood) is
positively charged sol while sols of starch, gum, gelatin, clay, charcoal are negatively
charged sols.
(v) Colloidal solutions impart colour due to scattering of light. The colour of colloidal
solution depends on the wavelength of light scattered by the dispersed particles.
(vi) The process of precipitation of a colloid on adding a small quantity of electrolyte is
called coagulation. During this process, the particles of the electrolyte carrying
charge opposite to that present on the colloidal particles, neutralise them, so they get
precipitated. Alum or ferric chloride is applied on minor acts, they stop bleeding by
coagulating the blood.

Emulsions
These are liquid-liquid colloidal systems. If a mixture of two immiscible or partially miscible
liquids is shaken, an emulsion is obtained. These are generally stabilised by adding certain
substances like protein, gum, soap, alcohol, etc., called the emulsifying agents or
emulsifiers.

Types of Emulsions
(i) Oil Dispersed in Water Type (O/W type) This is an emulsion in which oil is mixed
with water which acts as dispersion medium, e.g. milk, vanishing cream.
(ii) Water Dispersed in Oil Type (W/O type) This is an emulsion in which water acts as
dispersed phase and oil as dispersion medium, e.g. butter and cream.
SOLUTIONS AND COLLOIDS
57
Properties of Emulsions
(i) It is a dispersion of finely divided droplets into another liquid.
(ii) Emulsions also show Brownian movement and Tyndall effect.
(iii) These can be broken down into constituent liquids by heating, freezing,
centrifuging, etc.

Everyday Science
a Electrical Precipitation of Smoke Smoke is a colloidal solution of solid particles such
as carbon, arsenic compounds, dust, etc., in air. When smoke is passed through cottrell
smoke precipitator, the charged particles lose their charge and get precipitated. These
particles then, settle down on the floor of the chamber.
a Purification of Drinking Water When alum is added to water containing suspended
impurities, it coagulates the suspended impurities and makes water fit for drinking
purposes.
a Colloidal Nature of Medicines Most of the medicines are colloidal in nature. e.g. Silver
sol is used as an eye lotion, colloidal antimony is used in curing Kala-azar, colloidal gold
is used for intramuscular injection. Milk of magnesia is used for stomach disorders.
Colloidal medicines are more effective because they have large surface area and easily
assimilated.
a In Industries In rubber industry, rubber is obtained by coagulation of latex. In tanning
(hardening of leather), animal hide (positively charged colloid) is soaked in tannin
(negatively charged colloid). This results in hardening of leather. Paints, inks, synthetic
plastics, rubber, graphite lubricants, cement, etc., are all colloidal solutions.
a In Photography Photographic plates or films are prepared by coating an emulsion of
the light sensitive silver bromide in gelatin over glass plates or celluloid films.
a For Artificial Rain Silver iodide is sprinkled on clouds for seeding them or for
generating artificial rain.
a In Making Ice-cream Gelatin is generally added while making ice-creams. This is
because, it stabilises the colloid and prevents crystallisation.

Suspension
A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture in which the solute particles do not dissolve but
remain suspended throughout the bulk of the medium. Chalk water, polluted water of
river, smoke in atmospheric air, muddy water, soil etc., are the examples of suspension.

Properties of a Suspension
(i) It is a heterogeneous mixture.
(ii) The particles of a suspension can be seen by naked eye. Their size is of the order of
10 −5 cm or more.
(iii) The particles of a suspension scatter a beam of light passing through it and make its
path visible.
(iv) The solute particles settle down when a suspension is left undisturbed, i.e. a
suspension is unstable. They can be separated from the mixture by the process of
filteration. When the particles settle down, the suspension breaks and it does not
scatter light any more.
 Assessment
1. Which of the following is known as 9. ………… is one of the most important
solution? [SSC 2018] technique for the separation of a
(a) A compound mixture by passing it in solution or
(b) A homogeneous mixture suspension through a medium in which
(c) A heterogeneous mixture the components move at different rates.
(d) A suspension [SSC 2019]
2. Soil is an example of which of the (a) Filtration (b) Distillation
following? [SSC Multitasking 2017] (c) Evaporation (d) Chromatography
(a) Homogeneous mixture 10. The smog is the combination of
(b) Molecule [SSC 2016]
(c) Compound (a) air and water vapour
(d) Heterogeneous mixture (b) water and smoke
3. Which one of the following substances is (c) fire and water
not a mixture? [NDA 2019] (d) smoke and fog
(a) Tin (b) Sea water 11. Which of the following is an example of
(c) Soil (d) Air colloidal solution of liquid in solid?
4. Which one of the following substances is (a) Mud (b) Milk [SSC 2018]
not a mixture? [NDA 2019] (c) Cheese (d) Rubber
(a) Ice (b) Ice-cream 12. Solubility of calcium oxides in water
(c) Air (d) Honey increases on lowering the temperature.
5. The sugar in the sugar solution is Thus, dissolution process is
(a) solvent [RRB NTPC 2016] (a) endothermic (b) exothermic
(b) dissolved substance (c) non-thermic (d) cannot be decided
(c) colloid 13. Which of the following is not the state
(d) suspension of matter? [RRB NTPC 2017]
(a) Colloidal (b) Gaseous
6. Which of the following is soluble in
(c) Liquid (d) Solid
water? [RRB NTPC 2018]
(a) Sodium chloride 14. Soaps clean surfaces on the principle of
(b) Lithium bromide based on [NDA 2019]
(c) Calcium carbonate (a) viscosity (b) floatation
(c) elasticity (d) surface tension
(d) Magnesium iodide
15. Which one of the following is the best
7. Which of the following metal forms
example of desiccant? [NDA 2020]
amalgam by combining with any metal?
(a) Silica gel
[RRB NTPC 2016]
(b) Polystyrene
(a) Aluminium (b) Gold
(c) Sodium chloride
(c) Silver (d) Mercury (d) Sodium carbonate
8. If an unsaturated sugar solution is 16. Which is a natural colloid? [SSC CGL 2013]
prepared by mixing 100 grams of sugar (a) Urea (b) Cane sugar
with half litre of water, which of the (c) Blood (d) Sodium chloride
following physical quantities will not 17. Cloud is a colloidal dispersion of
change? [UPPCS (Pre) 2017]
(a) air in a dispersion medium of water
(a) Mass
(b) fog in a dispersion medium of water
(b) Density
(c) mist in a dispersion medium of air
(c) Concentration (d) water drops in a dispersion medium
(d) Volume of air
ASSESSMENT
59
18. Match the following Columns. 23. Some of the properties of emulsions are
Column I Column II I. emulsions scatter light and thus
exhibit Tyndall effect.
A. Smoke 1. Dispersion of gas in liquid
II. oily emulsions are more viscous than
B. Gel 2. Dispersion of solid in solid the aqueous emulsions.
C. Emulsion 3. Dispersion of liquid in liquid Select the correct properties.
D. Foam 4. Dispersion of liquid in solid (a) Only I (b) Only II
5. Dispersion of solid in gas (c) Both I and II (d) None of these
[CDS 2011] 24. Statement I When light passes through a
Codes colloidal solution its path becomes visible.
A B C D Statement II Light is scattered by
(a) 4 2 3 1 colloidal particles.
(b) 5 4 3 1 (a) Both the Statements are individually
(c) 2 4 1 5 true and Statement II is the correct
(d) 5 2 1 3 explanation of Statement I.
19. A substance which readily forms (b) Both the Statements are individually
colloidal solution in contact with true but Statement II is not the
water is called correct explanation of Statement I.
(a) extrinsic colloid (c) Statement I is true, but Statement II
(b) associated colloid is false.
(c) hydrophobic colloid (d) Statement I is false, but Statement II
(d) hydrophilic colloid is true.
20. Which of the following is a 25. Some of the following are suspensions.
heterogeneous mixture? [SSC 2018] I. Fog II. Air
(a) Solution III. Blood IV. Paint
(b) Suspension V. Aerosols sprays
(c) Both solution and suspension True suspensions are
(d) Neither solution nor suspension (a) I, II, III (b) III, IV, V
21. Soil is an example of which of the (c) I, III, V (d) I, III, V
following? [SSC 2017] 26. Match the following Columns.
(a) Homogeneous mixture
Column I Column II
(b) Molecule
A. Soap suds 1. Emulsion
(c) Compound
(d) Heterogeneous mixture B. Silt in water 2. Foam

22. Select the correct statement(s). C. Opal 3. Sol

(a) Emulsifiers stabilise the emulsion D. Mayonnaise 4. Gel

(b) Soaps, detergents, lyophilic colloids
Codes
are emulsifiers
A B C D A B C D
(c) Cleansing action of soap is due to the
(a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 3 4 2 1
formation of emulsions
(c) 4 2 3 1 (d) 2 3 4 1
(d) All the above are correct statements

1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (d) 9. (d) 10. (d)
11. (c) 12. (b) 13. (a) 14. (d) 15. (a) 16. (c) 17. (d) 18. (b) 19. (d) 20. (b)
21. (d) 22. (d) 23. (c) 24. (a) 25. (b) 26. (d)
6 Gaseous State
We have read that matter is found in three states (i.e. solid, liquid and gas) the latest
discovered state of matter is Bose-Einstein condensate. Gases have some special
properties different from solids and liquids.
■ Gases can be compressed easily.

■ Gases have neither a definite volume nor a definite shape, a gas occupies the entire

volume of containing vessel.

Gas Laws
Measurable properties of gases like mass ( m), volume ( V ), pressure ( p ), and temperature
( T ) etc., interdependent on each other. The laws which inter-relate these properties, are
called gas laws. Let’s discuss the various gas laws which give the relationship between
measurable properties of gases.
(i) Boyle’s Law (Pressure-Volume relationship) According to this law, at constant
temperature, pressure of a fixed amount (i.e. number of moles, n) of gas varies
inversely with its volume. i.e.
1
p ∝ (at constant T and n) or pV = k (constant) or p 1V1 = p 2 V2
V
At constant temperature, pressure of the gas is directly proportional to the density of a
fixed mass of the gas.
 Mass ( m) 
i.e. p∝d Q Volume ( V ) = Density ( d ) 
 
Note The molecular mass of a gas is twice of its vapour pressure.
Molar mass = (2 × vapour density)
(ii) Charles’ Law (Temperature-Volume relationship) According to this law, at constant
pressure, the volume of a fixed mass of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature, i.e. decreases with decrease in temperature.
V1 V2
V ∝ T (at constant p) or =
T1 T2
The lowest hypothetical or imaginary temperature at which gases are supposed to
occupy zero volume, is called absolute zero.
(iii) Gay Lussac’s Law (Pressure-Temperature relationship) According to this law, at constant
volume, pressure of a fixed amount of a gas varies directly with the temperature. i.e.
p p p
p ∝ T or = constant or 1 = 2
T T1 T2
(iv) Avogadro’s Law (Volume-Amount relationship) According to this law, equal
volumes of all the gases under the same conditions of temperature and pressure
contain the equal number of molecules. i.e.
V ∝ n (at constant T and p)
GASEOUS STATE
61
where, n = number of moles of the gas.
At STP, gram molecular mass or 1 mole of gas occupies volume of 22.4 L.
Number of molecules in one mole of a gas has been determined to be 6 . 022 × 10 23 .
This number is known as Avogadro’s constant.
(v) Combined Gas Law This is the relationship for the simultaneous variation of the
variables. If temperature, volume and pressure of a fixed amount of gas vary from T1
V1 and p 1 to T2 , V2 and p 2 then we can write
pV pV p V
= nR or 1 1 = 2 2
T T1 T2
(vi) Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures Atomic theory of matter was given by Dalton. It
states that the total pressure exerted by gaseous mixture of two or more non-reacting
gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of each individual component in a
gas mixture. i.e.
p total = p 1 + p 2 + p 3 K p n (at constant T, V)
where, p 1, p 2 , p 3 K are the partial pressures of individual gases.
(vii) Graham’s Law of Diffusion According to this law, at constant temperature and
pressure, the rate of diffusion ( r ) of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root
of its density (d). i.e.
1 r1 d2
r∝ or = Everyday Science
d r2 d1
a For transportation, gases are
We know that, M (molar mass) = 2 × d compressed at high pressure.
M r M2 a Carbon dioxide and oxygen gas,
or d= ∴ 1 = present in air are diffused into water
2 r2 M1 which are used for respiration by
(Diffusion is the process of spontaneous aquatic organisms. In general, lighter
gases are diffused more quickly than
mixing of different gases and the volume the heavier gases.
of a gas diffused per unit time, is called
a Bursting of hydrogen balloon and
rate of diffusion.) making of chappati are applications
This law is applicable of Charles’ law.
(a) in the production of marsh gas (CH 4 ). a The smell of food being cooked,
reaches us even from a considerable
(b) in the separation of gaseous mixtures. distance by the process of diffusion.
(c) in the determination of vapour densities
a The leakage of LPG is detected due
of the gases. to the diffusion of ethyl mercaptan,
(d) in the separation of isotopes. an additive.

Perfect Gas or Ideal Gas

The gas whose molecules are point masses (mass without volume) and do not attract each
other, is called ideal or perfect gas. It is a hypothetical concept which can not exist in
reality. The gases such as hydrogen, oxygen or helium which can not be liquefied, are
called permanent gases.
Properties of perfect gas are as follows:
(i) It strictly obeys Boyle’s law, Charles’ law and the law of pressure under all conditions
of temperature and pressure.
(ii) Its pressure coefficient and the volume coefficient are exactly equal to each other.
(iii) A perfect gas can not be converted into liquid or solid state, because a force of
attraction is necessary between the molecules in case of liquid or solid state.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
62

Ideal Gas Equation

The three laws (Boyle’s law, Charles’ law and Avogadro’s law) can be combined together
in a single equation which is known as ideal gas equation.
1
At constant T and n; V ∝ (Boyle’s law)
p
At constant p and n; V ∝ T (Charles’ law)
At constant p and T; V ∝ n (Avogadro’s law)
On combining the above three
nT nT
V∝ or V = R
p p
(here, R is proportionality constant or gas constant). On rearranging the above equation,
we obtain
pV = nRT (ideal gas equation)
pV
R=
nT
R is called universal gas constant and has value 8.314 J mol −1K −1 or
0.0821 L atm mol −1 K −1.
Ideal gas equation is a relation between four variables and it describes the state of any gas,
therefore, it is also called equation of state.

Real Gases
Real gases follow gas laws, i.e. behave ideally only at high temperature and low pressure.
These gases have definite volume and intermolecular forces of attraction. No real gas is
truely ideal.

Kinetic Theory of Gases

J Bernoulli was the first who, in 1738, explained the behaviour of gases. Later, Rudolph
Clausius and James Clark Maxwell developed the kinetic theory of gases in order to
explain gas laws, nature, character and behaviour of gases in terms of the motion of gas
molecules.
The molecular details regarding gases can be visualised with the help of kinetic molecular
theory of gases which is based on following assumptions.
(i) A gas consists of extremely small discrete identical particles, called the molecules,
dispersed throughout the container.
(ii) Molecules are so small and so far apart that the actual volume of the molecules is
negligible as compared to the total volume of gas.
(iii) Gas molecules are in constant random motion with high velocities. They move in
straight lines with uniform speed and change directions on collision with other
molecules or with the walls of container.
(iv) The intermolecular forces are negligible. Thus, the gas molecules can move freely,
independent of each other.
(v) All collisions are perfectly elastic, hence there is no loss of kinetic energy during the
collision. However, there may be redistribution of energy during such a collision.
(vi) The effect of gravity on the motion of the molecules is negligible in comparison to the
effect of collision.
GASEOUS STATE
63
(vii)The pressure of a gas is caused by the hits recorded by molecules on the walls of the
container. As a molecule collides, it suffers a change in momentum.
The rate of change of momentum is equal to the force exerted on the walls (Newton’s
second law of motion).
Since, a large number of molecules collide frequently, they exert a steady force given
by the average rate of change of momentum. This force per unit area of the wall is
called the pressure of gas.
Q Pressure ∝ Number of collisions per unit time per unit area by the molecules on the
wall of the container.
(viii) At a particular instance, different molecules in a sample have different speeds and
hence, different kinetic energies. However, the average kinetic energy of the
molecules is assumed to be directly proportional to the absolute temperature.
Kinetic energy ∝ Absolute temperature

Pressure of an Ideal Gas

On the basis of assumptions of kinetic theory, we can do mathematical calculation to find
expression for pressure exerted by a gas. The pressure due to an ideal gas is given by
1
pV = mN (v 2 )
3
where, m = mass of 1 gas molecule, p = pressure exerted by the gas,
N = total number of gas molecules, V = volume of the gas.
and v = root mean square velocity of gases

Different Speeds of Gaseous Molecules

(i) Average speed of the gas molecules is defined as the average of speeds of all the
molecules present in the gas. It is denoted by v.
(ii) Most probable speed of the gas molecules is defined as the speed at a given
temperature which is possessed by maximum fraction of the total number of
molecules of the gas. It is denoted by alpha (α ).
(iii) Root Mean Square (RMS) speed is defined as the square root of mean of the squares of
speed of a large number of molecules of same gas. It is denoted by u.
RMS speed of the gas molecules increases with rise in temperature while decreases
with increase in molecular weight as:
RMS ( u ) ∝ T
1
RMS ( u ) ∝
M
Relation between three types of speed is
α : v : u = 1.414 : 1.595 : 1.732

Degree of Freedom
Degree of freedom for a dynamic system is the number of directions in which it can move
freely or the number of coordinates required to describe completely the position and the
configuration of the system. It is denoted by N.
Degree of freedom of a system is given by
N = 3A − R
where, A = number of particles in the system
and R = number of independent relations
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
64

Degree of Freedom of Gas Molecules

A gas molecule can have following types of energies:
(i) Translational kinetic energy
(ii) Rotational kinetic energy
(iii) Vibrational energy (potential + kinetic)
On the basis of these three types of energies, degree of freedom of gas molecules can be
translational and rotational/vibrational.
∴ Number of degree of freedom
■ For monoatomic gas (He) = 3

2 and H 2 ) = 5
■ For diatomic gas (O , CO
2
■ For triatomic gas (NH ) = 6
3
Consider the following figures:
y

x
I II III
(a) In the figure I, the block has one degree of freedom, because it is confined to move in a
straight line and has only one translational degree of freedom.
(b) In the figure II, the projectile has two degrees of freedom, because it is confined to move
in a plane and has two translational degrees of freedom.
(c) In the figure III, the sphere has two degrees of freedom; one rotational and another
translational.

Assessment
1. What is the mathematical expression for (a) Boyle’s law (b) Charles’ law
Charles’ law ? [BSSC 2016] (c) Avogadro’s law (d) Gay Lussac’s law
C 1 4. The molecular mass of a gas is [SSC 2016]
(a) V ∝ (b) V ∝
T p (a) twice of its vapour pressure
1 (b) equal to its vapour pressure
(c) V ∝ T (d) V ∝
V (c) half of its vapour pressure
2. Which of the following law is not related (d) not associated with its vapour
to gas? [RRB NTPC 2016] pressure
(a) Boyle’s law (b) Joule’s law 5. The process of diffusion in gases take
(c) Avogadro’s law (d) Charles’ law
place due to the
3. Equal volumes of all the gases under the (a) difference in their densities
same conditions of temperature and (b) difference in their composition
pressure contain the equal number of (c) equal in densities
molecules, i.e. this law is called? (d) All of the above
[NDA 2017]

1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (a)

7
Chemical Kinetics
and Equilibrium
Chemical Kinetics
The word kinetics is derived from the Greek word ‘kinesis’ meaning ‘movement’.
Chemical kinetics is the branch of chemistry which deals with the study of chemical
reactions with respect to the reaction rates, the, factors affecting the rate of reactions and
the mechanism by which the reactions proceed. In other words,
“Chemical kinetics is the study of chemical reactions with respect to reaction rates, effect
of various variables, rearrangement of atoms and formation of intermediates.”

Slow and Fast Reactions

Some reactions (such as ionic reactions) occur instantaneously and thus, are called fast
reactions, e.g. precipitation of silver chloride (AgCl) occurs instantaneously by mixing
aqueous solutions of silver nitrate (AgNO 3 ) and sodium chloride (NaCl).
AgNO 3 + NaCl → AgCl ↓ + NaNO 3
On the other hand, some reactions take few days, months or years for their completion.
Such reactions are called slow reactions, e.g. rusting of iron in the presence of air and
moisture.
Also, there are some reactions like inversion of cane sugar, hydrolysis of starch, etc.,
which proceed with a moderate speed. Generally under the chemical kinetics, chemical
reactions with a moderate speed are studied.

Some Important Terms Related to Reactions

Some terms which are related to reactions are:

Bond Energy
The amount of energy required to break one mole of bond of a particular type between
two atoms in the gaseous state, is called bond energy. It is expressed in kJ mol −1.
Larger the bond dissociation energy, stronger will be the bond in molecule. Energy is
required to break a bond, i.e. bond breaking is an endothermic process and energy is
released when a bond is formed, i.e. bond formation is an exothermic process.

Heat of Reaction
Heat of reaction is the quantity of heat evolved or absorbed in a reaction.
e.g. H2 ( g ) + Br2 ( l ) → 2 HBr ( g ) + 72 . 8 kJ mol −1
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
66
Heat of Formation
The energy released or absorbed for the formation of one mole of a compound from its
constituent elements, is called heat of formation.
e.g. C (s ) + 2 H2 ( g ) → CH4 ( g ) + 74. 81 kJ mol −1

Heat of Combustion
The heat energy evolved during the combustion of one mole of a substance in the
presence of excess of oxygen, is called heat of combustion.
e.g. → 6CO 2 ( g ) + 6 H2 O ( l ) + 2802 . 0 kJ mol −1
C 6 H12 O 6 ( g ) + 6 O 2 ( g ) 

Rate of a Reaction
The speed of a reaction or rate of a reaction can be defined as the change in concentration
of a reactant or product in unit time. To be more specific, it can be expressed in terms of
(i) rate of decrease in concentration of any one of the reactants
(ii) rate of increase in concentration of any one of the products.
Decrease in concentration of reactant
Rate of reaction = K(i)
Time taken
Increase in concentration of product
Rate of reaction = K(ii)
Time taken

Unit of Rate of a Reaction

Unit of rate is concentration time −1. e.g. If the concentration is in mol L−1 and time is in
second then the unit will be mol L−1 s −1. However, in gaseous reactions, when the
concentration of gases is expressed in terms of their partial pressures, the unit of rate of a
reaction will be atm s −1.

Factors Influencing Rate of Reaction

Rate of reaction depends upon several experimental conditions which are described below:
(i) Effect of Concentration of Reactants Rate of a chemical reaction at a given
temperature may depend on the concentration of one or more reactants and
products. In general, the rate of reaction increases with increase in concentration of
the reactants, because number of collisions between the molecules increases with
increase in concentration.
(ii) Temperature Generally, rate of reaction increases with increase in temperature
and vice-versa. This is because at high temperature, molecules possess high kinetic
energy and hence, high velocity which increases the chance of combination of
molecules.
(iii) Nature of Reactants Rate of a reaction is also affected by the nature of reactants.
e.g. Sodium and potassium react vigorously with water at ordinary temperature but
iron reacts only with steam.
(iv) Surface Area of Reactants Larger the surface area of reactants, greater is the rate
of reaction because more sites are available for the reaction. The surface area of a
solid can be increased by converting it into its powdered form, e.g. reaction of zinc
dust with sulphuric acid takes place rapidly than the reaction of zinc piece with
sulphuric acid.
CHEMICAL KINETICS AND EQUILIBRIUM
67
(v) Presence of Light Rate of some chemical reactions increases in the presence of
light (radiations). e.g. Oxidation of chloroform takes place in the presence of light.
Light
2 CHCl 3 + O 2 → 2COCl 2 + 2 HCl
Chloroform Phosgene
So, it is kept in dark coloured bottles.
(vi) Effect of Presence of a Catalyst Rate of reaction increases in the presence of a
catalyst. A catalyst is specific in nature and it increases the rate of a reaction by
providing alternative path of lower activation energy to the reactants.

Activation Energy
Before involving in a chemical reaction, the reactant molecules absorb some extra energy
and come together to form an activated complex. This activated complex is unstable
because its potential energy is very high. Thus, it decomposes into products. Therefore,
activation energy is the additional energy which the reacting molecules must acquire to
form activated complex. Lower the value of activation energy, faster will be the reaction.

Catalysis
Substances which alter the rate of a chemical reaction and themselves remain chemically
and quantitatively unchanged after the reaction, are known as catalysts and the
phenomenon is known as catalysis.
Berzelius in 1835 was first to observe the process of catalysis.
Actually, a catalyst provides a new reaction path with a different activation energy so
that more and more reactant molecules can form the product.
Reaction
path with Reaction path
catalyst without catalyst
Energy of
Energy of activation
Potential energy

activation without
with catalyst catalyst

Reactants
Products

Reaction Progress
Effect of Catalyst on Activation Energy

A catalyst catalyses the spontaneous reactions but does not catalyse non-spontaneous
reactions.
Catalyst does not change the equilibrium constant of a reaction, rather it helps in
attaining the equilibrium faster. It catalyses the forward as well as backward reactions to
the same extent so that the equilibrium state remains same but is reached earlier.

Promoters and Poisons

Promoters are those substances that enhance the activity of a catalyst while poisons
decrease the activity of a catalyst. e.g. In Haber’s process for the manufacture of
ammonia, molybdenum acts as a promoter for iron which is used as a catalyst and
carbon acts as a poison for silica-alumina catalyst in the cracking of petroleum.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
68

Types of Catalysis
There are two types of catalysis:

1. Homogeneous Catalysis
When reactants and catalyst are in same phase (i.e. liquid or gas), the process is said to be
homogeneous catalysis.
NO(g )
e.g. 2 SO 2 ( g ) + O 2 ( g ) → 2SO 3 ( g )
The reactants sulphur dioxide and oxygen and the catalyst nitric oxide, all are in same
phase, i.e. gas.

2. Heterogeneous Catalysis
In this type of catalysis, the reactants and the catalyst are in different phases.
Pt(s )
e.g. 2SO 2 ( g ) + O 2 ( g ) → 2SO 3 ( g )
The reactants are in gaseous state while the catalyst is in solid state.

Types of Catalyst
Catalysts can be of the following types:
(i) Positive Catalyst Increases the rate of reaction by decreasing activation energy.
(ii) Negative Catalyst Decreases the rate of reaction by increasing activation energy.
(iii) Induced Catalyst Product of one reaction acts as catalyst for another reaction.
(iv) Auto Catalyst Product of one reaction acts as catalyst for same reaction.

Uses of Catalysts
The uses of some catalysts are tabulated below:
Catalyst Uses
Platinised asbestos For the manufacture of nitric acid by Ostwald’s process
Nickel (Raney nickel) In hydrogenation of large number of functional groups
Vanadium pentoxide ( V2O 5) For the manufacture of sulphuric acid by Contact process
Finely divided iron For the production of ammonia by Haber’s process
Iron For the production of hydrocarbons by Fischer-Tropsch process
Pt-Rh gauze For the production of HNO 3 from the oxidation of ammonia
Oxides of nitrogen For the production of sulphuric acid by Lead Chamber’s process
Hot alumina For the production of ether from alcohol
Cupric chloride For the production of chlorine by Deacon’s process

Order of a Reaction
It is defined as the sum of the power of concentration terms of reactants on which the
rate of a reaction actually depends as observed experimentally.
Order of a reaction can be 0, 1, 2, 3 and even a fraction. A zero order reaction means that
the rate of reaction is independent of the concentration of reactants.

Molecularity of a Reaction
The number of reacting species (atoms, ions or molecules) taking part in an elementary
reaction which must collide simultaneously in order to bring about a chemical reaction, is
called molecularity of a reaction.
CHEMICAL KINETICS AND EQUILIBRIUM
69
NH4 NO 2 → N 2 + 2H2 O (Unimolecular reaction; one reacting species)
14243
1
2HI → H2 + I2 (Bimolecular reaction; two reacting species)
123
2
2NO + O → 2NO 2 (Trimolecular reaction; three reacting species)
142432
2+1=3
■ If a reaction takes place in several steps, the overall rate of the reaction is controlled by the
slowest step of a reaction. The slowest step is called rate determining step.
■ Order of a reaction can be zero and even a fraction but molecularity can not be zero or a
non-integer.
■ Molecularity of the slowest step is same as the order of overall reaction.
■ Inversion of cane sugar and hydrolysis of an ester are examples of pseudo first order reaction.
i.e. in these reactions, reactants are more than one but rate of reaction depends upon the
concentration of one reactant.

Chemical Equilibrium
Let us consider a general case of a reversible reaction
C or D
A+ B ` C+ D
Concentration

With passage of time, rate of forward reaction decreases

and rate of backward reaction increases. After some time, a
A or B
stage is reached at which the rates of forward and reverse
reactions become equal and the concentrations of
reactants and products become constant. This is the state Time Equilibrium
of chemical equilibrium. This equilibrium is dynamic in Attainment of Chemical
nature, i.e. none of the reactions stops but both proceed Equilibrium
with equal rate.

Law of Chemical Equilibrium and Equilibrium Constant

CM Guldberg and Peter Waage proposed in 1864 the law of mass action. They proposed
that the rate of chemical reaction of any substance is directly proportional to the active
mass of the substance or the rate of chemical reaction of the reactants is directly
proportional to the product of active masses of reactants.
For a chemical reaction, aA + bB ` cC + dD
Rate of forward reaction, rf = kf [ A ]a [ B]b
Rate of backward reaction, rb = kb [ C ]c [ D ]d
At equilibrium, rf = rb
kb [ C ] [ D ]d = kf [ A ]a [ B]b
c

kf [ C ]c [ D ]d [ C ]c [ D ]d
or = or K c =
kb [ A ]a [ B]b [ A ]a [ B]b
This equation is the mathematical form of law of chemical equilibrium.
where, K C = equilibrium constant
Thus, the ratio of rate of backward reaction to the rate of forward reaction is called
equilibrium constant. Its value is constant at a fixed temperature and alters with change
in temperature.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
70

Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Equilibria

In homogeneous equilibrium, all the reactants and products are in same phase (i.e. solid,
liquid or gas).
e.g. CH3 COOC 2 H5 ( aq ) + H2 O( l ) ` CH3 COOH( aq ) + C 2 H5 OH( aq )
N 2 ( g ) + H2 ( g ) ` 2NH3 ( g )
While equilibrium in a system having more than one phase is called heterogeneous
equilibrium.
e.g. H2 O( l ) ` H2 O( g )
∆
CaCO 3 (s ) ` CaO(s ) + CO 2 ( g )

Le-Chatelier’s Principle
According to this principle, change in any of the factors that determine the equilibrium
conditions of a system will cause the system to change in such a manner to reduce or
counteract the effect of change.
When the concentration of any of the reactant is increased or product is removed at
equilibrium, then the reaction will take place in forward direction and if there is addition
of product or removal of reactant occurs at equilibrium, then the reaction will take place
in backward direction.
Increase in temperature shifts equilibrium in the forward direction of those reactions
which proceed with absorption of heat and in the backward direction of those reactions
which proceed with the evolution of heat.
If the pressure is increased, reaction will take place in a direction which will bring about
lowering of pressure.

Assessment
1. Which deals with the study of the (a) the reaction ends quickly
chemical kinetics? [SSC 2016] (b) the reaction proceeds slowly
(a) Rate of chemical reaction (c) the reaction does not occur
(b) Speed of reactants convert in product (d) the data is insufficient
(c) Order of the reaction 4. Which of the following represents the
(d) All of the above rate constant for the reaction in which
2. Corrosion is the oxidative deterioration activation energy is zero?
of a metal, such as tranishing of silver, (a) Rate constant decreases with increase
of temperature
rusting of iron and development of a
(b) Rate constant increases with increase
green coating on copper and bronze.
of temperature
Corrosion is an example of
(c) Rate constant decreases with decrease
(a) fast reaction of temperature
(b) slow reaction (d) Rate constant is independent of
(c) homogeneous reaction temperature
(d) heterogeneous reaction
5. What is the function of a catalyst in a
3. A group of students in a school reaction? [SSC 2018]
laboratory, mixed the solution of NaCl (a) Increases the rate of reaction
with AgNO3 during an experiment. But (b) No change in rate of reaction
they could not able to determine the (c) Catalyst is a final product of reaction
rate of reaction because (d) Decreases the rate of reaction
ASSESSMENT
71
6. What is the role of positive catalyst in a 10. Statement I Generally, catalyst
chemical reaction? [CDS 2013] increases, the rate of reaction in forward
(a) It increases the rate of reaction direction.
(b) It decreases the rate of reaction Statement II Catalyst decreases the
(c) It increases the yield of products activation energy of the reactant.
(d) It provides better purity of the products (a) Both the Statements I and II are
7. In a reaction, the concentration of individually true and Statement II is
reactants is equal to the concentration correct explanation of Statement I.
of products. This state of a reaction is (b) Both the Statements are individually
called as true but Statement II is not the
(a) reversible reaction correct explanation of Statement I.
(b) chemical equilibrium (c) Statement I is true, but Statement II
(c) irreversible reaction is false.
(d) forward reaction (d) Statement I is false, but Statement II
is true.
8. In the presence of a catalyst, what
happens to the chemical equilibrium? 11. Consider the following statements, in
(a) Energy of activation of the forward homogeneous reactions, the
and backward reactions are lowered I. reactants found in the same physical
by same amount state.
(b) Equilibrium amount is not disturbed II. reaction proceeds in forward direction
(c) Rates of forward and reverse when concentration of reactants is
reactions increase by the same factor more than products.
(d) All of the above III. reaction between ethanol and acetic
9. Statement I The reactions with the acid in the presence of sulphuric acid is
an example of slow reaction.
greater activation energy will be faster.
Statement II The reaction with the Which of the above statements are
smaller activation energy will be correct?
(a) I and II (b) II and III
faster.
(c) III and I (d) I, II and III
(a) Both the Statements I and II are
individually true and Statement II is 12. Consider the following statements :
correct explanation of Statement I. I. In some reactions, reactants react
(b) Both the Statements are individually rapidly in the presence of sunlight.
true but Statement II is not the II. Neutralisation reaction is an example
correct explanation of Statement I. of irreversible reaction.
(c) Statement I is true, but Statement II Which of the above statements is/are
is false. true?
(d) Statement I is false, but Statement II (a) Only I (b) Only II
is true. (c) I and II (d) Neither I nor II

1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (d) 10. (d)
11. (d) 12. (c)
8
Electrochemistry
Electrochemistry is the study of production of electricity from energy released during
spontaneous chemical reactions and the use of electrical energy to carry out
non-spontaneous chemical transformations. A large number of metals, sodium hydroxide,
chlorine, fluorine and many other chemicals are produced by electrochemical methods.

Electrolysis
The word ‘electrolysis’ is derived from two words ‘electro’ meaning electrical energy and
‘lysis’ meaning dissociation (breakdown). The process of decomposition of a molten
substance or its aqueous solution by passing an electric current, is called electrolysis.
In other words, electrolysis is a process in which electrical energy is used to bring about a
non-spontaneous chemical reaction.
William Nicholson showed the electrolysis of water.

Components Required for Electrolysis

The three components required for the process of electrolysis are:
1. Electrolyte 2. Electric current 3. Electrode

1. Electrolyte
The compound which can conduct electricity in liquified state or in aqueous state, is
termed as electrolyte, e.g. acid, base, salt, etc.
On the basis of dissociation, electrolytes are of two types; strong electrolyte and weak
electrolyte. Strong electrolytes dissociate completely while weak electrolytes dissociate
only partially. NaCl, KCl, CaCl 2 , MgSO 4 are the examples of strong electrolytes while
CH3 COOH is an example of weak electrolyte.
Non-electrolytes are bad conductors of heat because they do not dissociate into their ions
when dissolved in water, e.g. urea, glucose, sugar, etc.

2. Electric Current
The flow of electrons in a conductor, is termed as electric current. This results in the
transfer of ions to the respective terminal.

3. Electrode
A solid electric conductor through which an electric current enters or leaves an electrolyte, is
termed as electrode. It is used to make electrical contact with some part of circuit.
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
73

Arrhenius Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation or

Decomposition
This theory was proposed by Sweden chemist Arrhenius in 1894 in order to explain the
behaviour of electrolytes in aqueous solutions.
Main postulates of this theory are as follows:
(i) When an electrolyte is dissolved in water, it dissociates into its ions i.e., cations (positive
ions) and anions (negative ions) and this phenomenon is called ionisation.
(ii) In ordinary conditions, weak electrolytes dissociate in solution to a small extent and the
solution of these electrolytes contains ions which are in equilibrium with unionised
molecules. e.g.
CH 3 COOH 1 CH 3 COO − + H +
Such an equilibrium is called ionic equilibrium.
(iii) The fraction of the total number of molecules undergoing dissociation, is called the
degree of dissociation or degree of decomposition.
Number of ionised molecules
Degree of dissociation =
Number of molecules
(iv) Electrolysis takes place only at electrodes.
(iv) The conductivity of the solution depends upon the number of ions present in the solution.

Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis

Michael Faraday performed various experiments on the phenomenon of electrolysis and
their results were published in 1833-34. On the basis of these experiments, Faraday gave the
following two laws called the Faraday’s laws of electrolysis:

1. First Law
The amount of chemical reaction which occurs at any electrode during electrolysis by
current is proportional to the quantity of electricity passed through the electrolyte (in
solution or in molten).
m = ZQ = Zit
where, Z = electrochemical equivalent, m = substance deposited in gram
i = current in ampere, t = time in second, Q = charge in coulomb
When i = 1 A and t = 1 s then m = Z
i.e. Electrochemical equivalent is defined as the mass of substance deposited when
1 ampere electricity is passed for 1 second (or 1 coulomb charge is passed) through a
solution.

2. Second Law
The amounts of different substances liberated at the electrodes by the same quantity of
electricity passing through the electrolytic solution are proportional to their chemical
equivalent weights (Atomic mass of metal ÷ Number of electrons required to reduce the
cation).
If W1, W2, W3 are the deposited amounts of the substances and E 1, E 2, E 3 are their
respective chemical equivalent weights then
W1 E 1 W2 E 2
= and = or Z ∝ E
W2 E 2 W3 E 3
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
74
Thus, the electrochemical equivalent of a substance is directly proportional to the
chemical equivalent of the substance.
■ Faraday If an electric current due to 96487 coulomb charge is passed for 1 second through
an electrolyte, it will deposit one equivalent weight of the substance. This amount of electric
current is called 1 Faraday.
1 Faraday = 96500 C mol −1
■ It is basically the charge on 1 mole of electrons. Its exact value is 96487.

Products of Electrolysis
Products of electrolysis depend upon the nature of material being electrolysed and the
type of electrodes being used, e.g. if we use molten NaCl, the products of electrolysis are
sodium metal and chlorine gas. During the electrolysis of an aqueous sodium chloride
solution, the products are NaOH, Cl 2 and H2 . Electrolysis of an aqueous solution of copper
sulphate using copper electrodes produces copper at cathode.
Products of electrolysis also depend on the different oxidising and reducing species
present in the electrolytic cell and their standard electrode potentials.
■ A potential difference develops between the electrode and the electrolyte, this is called
electrode potential.
■ When the concentration of all the species involved in a half-cell is unity, then the electrode
potential is known as standard electrode potential.

Applications of Electrolysis
(i) In Electrorefining of Metals Pure form of copper, silver, gold are obtained by
electrorefining process in which anode is made up of impure metal and a thin strip of
pure metal acts as cathode. A salt solution of the metal is generally used as
electrolyte. The copper obtained by this process is 99.9% pure.
(ii) In Electroplating Objects Electroplating is the process of electrolysis in which the
desired metal is deposited on the another material to provide shiny appearance and
prevent it from corrosion and scratch.
e.g. Chromium plating is done on many objects such as car parts, etc. Jewellery
makers electroplate gold on silver or copper or nickel ornaments by placing these
metals in a solution having a salt of gold and by passing an electric current. Tin cans
used for storing food are made by electroplating tin on to iron.
(iii) In Electrotyping It is used in printing industries for making blocks, graphics, etc.
e.g. In large printing press, a thin layer of copper is coated on the printing paper by
using copper voltmeter and replacing cathode by printing paper because on copper
coated papers, excellent prints appear.
(iv) In Electrometallurgy Electrometallurgy is the process of extraction of certain
metals like calcium, aluminium, magnesium, etc., from their respective compounds.
(v) In Manufacturing of Compounds Chemical compounds like chloroform, ethane,
acetylene, drugs are manufactured by the process of electrolysis.
(vi) In the Evaluation of Equivalent Weight of Metals Equivalent weight of the
metals is calculated by using the formula w ∝ E.
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
75
(vii) In Electrolytic Capacitor (Condensor) Here, aluminium metal is used for making
both the electrodes. The mixture of boric acid, glycerine and aqueous ammonia is
used as electrolyte. On passing electric current, a layer of aluminium hydroxide
deposits on the anode which acts as a dielectric for the electrodes.

Electrolytic Cell
Battery
Electrolysis is carried out in a container, called electrolytic cell. An s r
electrolytic cell consists of two metallic rods called the electrodes. (+) (–)
The electrode which is attached with positive terminal of the A C
battery is called cathode and which is attached with negative n a
o t
terminal of the battery is called anode. Both the electrodes are h
d o
dipped in electrolytic solution. On passing electric current in e d
electrolyte, oxidation, i.e. release of electron(s) takes place at anode e
while reduction, i.e. gain of electron(s) takes place at cathode.
Electrolyte

Galvanic Cell or a Voltaic Cell Electrolytic Cell

A galvanic cell is an electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy of a
spontaneous redox reaction into electrical energy. A Daniell cell is a practical and
prototype example of a galvanic cell.
In Daniell cell, the anode is made up of zinc rod and dipped in solution of zinc sulphate
(electrolyte). Similarly, the cathode is made up of copper rod and dipped in the solution of
copper sulphate. When the zinc and copper electrodes are joined by a wire, an electric
current flows. Zinc rod loses its mass while copper rod gains its mass.

Electrochemical Series
The arrangement of elements in a proper way (i.e. in increasing or decreasing order) of
their electrode potentials, is called electrochemical series. The electrode potential of
hydrogen is taken as zero.
In this series, hydrogen is kept in the middle. Elements which are better reducing agents
than hydrogen get their place above hydrogen and the elements which are better
oxidising agent than hydrogen get their place below the hydrogen.
Electrochemical series of elements is Li, K, Ba, Ca, Na, Mg, Al, Zn, Cr, Fe, Co, Cd, Ni, Sn, H2 ,
Cu, I2 , Hg, Ag, Pd, Br2 , Cl 2 , Au, F2 .

Characteristics of Electrochemical Series

(i) Lower is the value of reduction potential, greater would be its reducing power.
(ii) Metal with lower (negative) reduction potential can have the ability to displace metal with
higher (positive) reduction potential from their salt solutions, i.e. metals higher in series
are more active than metals lying lower in the series.
(iii) Metals which are placed above hydrogen in the series have the ability to displace
hydrogen from any solution containing H + .
(iv) Higher the negative electrode potential, higher is the tendency to form ion.
(v) By the help of this series, we can compare the oxidising and reducing behaviour of
elements.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
76

Batteries
Any battery (which actually have one or more than one cell connected in series) or cell
that we use as a source of electrical energy is basically a galvanic cell, where the chemical
energy of redox reaction is converted into electrical energy. Infact in batteries, the
energy is stored in the form of chemical energy, when these are connected through any
circuit, the stored chemical energy is transformed slowly and steadily into electric energy.
There are mainly two types of batteries:

1. Primary Batteries
In primary batteries, the reaction occurs only once and after use over a period of time
battery becomes dead and can not be reused. The most familiar examples of this type are:
(i) Dry Cell It is known as Leclanche cell after its discoverer. It is commonly used in
our transistors and clocks. The cell consists of a zinc container that also acts as anode
and the cathode is a carbon (graphite) rod surrounded by the powdered manganese
dioxide and carbon. The space between the electrodes is filled by a moist paste of
ammonium chloride (NH4 Cl) and zinc chloride (ZnCl 2 ).
At Anode Zn(s ) → Zn 2 + + 2 e −
At Cathode MnO 2 + NH4 + e − → MnO(OH) + NH3
+

Ammonia produced in the reaction forms a complex with Zn 2+ . MnO 2 acts as

depolariser. The cell has a patential of nearly 1.5 V.
(ii) Mercury Cell It is suitable for low current devices like hearing aids, watches, etc.
It consists of zinc-mercury amalgam as anode and a paste of HgO and carbon as
cathode. The electrolyte is the paste of KOH and ZnO. The electrode reactions for cell
are
At Anode Zn(Hg) + 2OH− → ZnO(s ) + H2 O + 2 e −
At Cathode HgO + H2 O + 2e − → Hg ( l ) + 2 OH−
The overall reaction of the cell is written as:
Zn(Hg) + HgO (s ) → ZnO(s ) + Hg( l )
The cell potential is 1.35 V and remains constant during its life.

2. Secondary Batteries
A secondary cell after use can be recharged by passing current through it in opposite
direction so that it can be used again. The most important secondary cells are the lead
storage battery and Ni-Cd cell.
(i) Lead Storage Battery It is commonly used in automobiles and invertors. It consists
of a lead anode and a grid of lead packed with lead dioxide (PbO 2 ) as cathode. A 38%
solution of sulphuric acid is used as an electrolyte.
At Anode Pb(s ) + SO 24− ( aq ) → PbSO 4 (s ) + 2 e −
At Cathode PbO 2 (s ) + SO 42− ( aq ) + 4H+ ( aq ) + 2 e − → PbSO 4 (s ) + 2 H2 O ( l )
The overall reaction of the cell is written as:
Discharge
(act as electrochemical cell)
Pb (s ) + PbO 2 (s ) + 2H2 SO 4 ( aq ) 2PbSO 4 (s ) + 2H2 O ( l )
Recharge
(act as electrolytic cell)

On charging the battery, i.e. when it acts as electrolytic cell, the reaction is reversed
and PbSO 4 (s ) gives lead on anode and PbO 2 on cathode.
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
77
In it, there are six cells with a potential of 2 V each, i.e. its total voltage is usually 12 V.
Its capacity is expressed in ampere-hour. Because of the formation of water, the
specific gravity (density) of the cell decreases and hence, the cell gets discharged. The
emf of a fully charged battery is 2.2 V and of discharged cell is 1.8 V. The position of
discharged cell is called sulphating.
(ii) Ni-Cd Cell It consists of a cadmium anode and metal grid containing NiO 2 as
cathode. KOH solution is electrolyte. It has longer life than the lead storage cell but
more expensive to manufacture. It is commonly used in devices such as torchlights,
electric shavers, etc.
■ Now-a-days, Ni-MH (nickel-metal hydride) batteries are widely used. These batteries have
25% more rechargeable life and is less hazardous as compared to Ni-Cd (Nickel-Cadmium)
battery.
■ Repeated charging is required at the time of summer. This is because at higher
temperature the rate of self discharge of battery increases.

Lithium-Ion Battery (LIB) In it, lithium ions move from the negative electrode to the
positive electrode during discharge and back when charging. In these batteries, an intercalated
lithium compound like Lithium Manganese Oxide (LMO), Lithium cobalt oxide, etc., is used as
the electrode material.
Because of their light weight and high energy devices, lithium batteries are used in
a Portable Devices These include mobile phones and smartphones, laptops and tablets,
digital cameras and camcorders, electronic cigarettes, handheld game consoles and
torches (flashlights).
a Power Tools Li-ion batteries are used in tools such as cordless drills, sanders, saws and
a variety of garden equipment including whipper-snippers and hedge trimmers.
a Electric Vehicles Because of their light weight Li-ion batteries are used for energy
storage for many electric vehicles for everything from electric cars to pedelecs, from
hybrid vehicles to advanced electric wheelchairs, from radio-controlled models and
model aircraft to the Mars Curiosity rover.
a Li-ion batteries are used in telecommunication applications. Secondary non-aqueous
lithium batteries provide reliable backup power to load equipment located in a network
environment of a typical telecommunications service provider.

Hydrogen-Oxygen Fuel Cell It runs continuously as long as the reactants, i.e. fuels are
supplied. It produces electricity with an efficiency of about 70% as compared to thermal plants
whose efficiency is 40%. This cell is pollution-free. This cell was used in Apollo space
programme.

Cell Efficiency
It is the ratio of total beneficial work and total work done. If E is the emf of a cell and V is
the potential difference of the terminals of the cell in a closed cell, then
V
Cell efficiency η =
E
 Assessment
1. What happens, when electrical Which of the above statements is/are
conductance occur in a solution? correct?
(a) Chemical reaction (a) Only I (b) Only II
(b) Physical reaction (c) I and II (d) None of these
(c) Galvanisation 8. Consider the following statements :
(d) Vaporisation I. The phenomenon in which the
2. Why certain metals like Na, K, Al, Ca are molecules of an electrolyte in an
extracted from their respective aqueous solution dissociate into ions is
compounds by the process of known as ionisation.
electrolysis? II. The phenomenon of electrolysis occurs
on the electrodes only.
(a) They are reactive metals
(b) Electrolysis is an easy process Which of the above statements is/are
(c) They are good electrolytes
correct?
(a) Only I (b) Only II
(d) All of the above
(c) I and II (d) None of these
3. Which of the following is responsible for
9. Consider the following statements :
the conduction of electricity through
I. The electrolysis of water is also called
the electrolytic solution?
as hydrolysis.
(a) Movement of ions of electrolyte
II. The conductivity of an electrolyte
(b) Movement of only positive charges
increases with the rise in temperature.
(c) Movement of particles
(d) Movement of molecules Which of the above statements is/are
correct?
4. When a spoon is to be electroplated with (a) Only I (b) Only II
nickel the spoon is [SSC Steno 2011] (c) I and II (d) None of these
(a) dipped in a nickel sulphate solution
10. For the galvanic cell,
(b) made anode and a pure nickel rod,
the cathode Cu |Cu +|| Ag+| Ag which of the following
(c) made cathode and a pure nickel rod, observation is correct? [SSC 2018]
the anode (a) Cu acts as anode and Ag act as cathode
(d) coated with nickel sulphate and dried (b) Silver is more reactive than Cu
(c) Reaction at cathode
5. Silver ware turns black after a period of
Cu → Cu 2 + + 2 e −
time due to the formation of (d) Ag electrodes loses mass and Cu
[NDA/NA 2011] electrode gain mass
(a) nitrate coating on silver
11. Food cans are coated with tin but not
(b) sulphide coating on silver
with zinc because [CDS 2013]
(c) chloride coating on silver
(a) zinc is costlier than tin
(d) oxide coating on silver
(b) zinc has a higher melting point than tin
6. In an experiment, salt of sodium (c) zinc is more reactive than tin
carbonate (Na 2 CO 3 ) is dissolved in water (d) tin is more reactive than zinc
(H 2 O), then NaOH and a carbonic acid is 12. In the silver plating of copper,
formed. This experiment is an example of potassium argento cyanide is used
(a) electrolysis (b) hydrolysis instead of silver nitrate. The reason is
(c) ionisation (d) dissociation (a) a thin layer of silver is formed on copper
7. Consider the following statements : (b) more voltage is required
I. The substances in their aqueous (c) silver ions (Ag +), completely removed
from solution.
solutions are good conductor of
electricity is known as electrolytes. (d) less availability of silver ions (Ag + ) as
copper cannot displace silver from
II. HCl, NaOH, NaCl are electrolytes.
[Ag(CN)2 ]− ion
ASSESSMENT
79
13. In dry cell, which of the following are (a) Copper carbonate
used as electrolytes? (b) Copper oxide
[Jharkhand PCS (Pre) 2010] (c) Copper sulphate
(a) Ammonium chloride and zinc (d) Copper nitrate
chloride 17. Which one of the following pairs of
(b) Ammonium chloride and calcium materials serves as electrodes in
chloride chargeable batteries commonly used in
(c) Magnesium chloride and zinc chloride devices such as torch lights, electric
(d) Sodium chloride and zinc chloride shavers, etc?
14. Which one of the following solutions (a) Nickel and cadmium
of electrolytes is used in the car battery? (b) Zinc and carbon
(c) Lead peroxide and lead
[UPPCS (Pre) 2015]
(d) Iron and cadmium
(a) Sodium sulphate
(b) Nitric acid 18. Consider the following statements
(c) Sulphuric acid about the commonly used automobile
(d) Potassium nitrate battery.
I. It is usually a lead-acid battery.
15. Which one of the following acids is
II. It has six cells with a potential of 2V
used in lead storage battery? [SSC 2017] each.
(a) Hydrochloride acid
III. Its cells work as galvanic cells while
(b) Hydrofluoric acid discharging power.
(c) Sulphuric acid IV. Its cells work as electrolytic cells while
(d) Sulphurous acid recharging.
16. On exposure to moist air, copper gains Which of the statements given above are
a green coat on its surface due to correct? [CDS 2009]
formation of which one of the (a) I, II, III and IV (b) I, II and III
following compounds ? [NDA 2019] (c) II and IV (d) III and IV

1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (a)
11. (c) 12. (d) 13. (a) 14. (c) 15. (c) 16. (a) 17. (a) 18. (a)
9
Classification of
Elements
Elements are classified on the basis of similarities in their properties. At present,
118 elements are known to us, out of which 98 are naturally occurring while remaining
are synthesised artificially by man. Main objective of classification of elements is to make
the study of 118 elements more convenient, systematic and organised.

Periodic Classification
The arrangement of elements in such a way so that elements having similar properties
reappear at a regular interval, is called periodic classification or periodic arrangement of
elements.
Dobereiner grouped the elements into triads and said that the atomic weight and properties
of the middle element is the average of atomic weights or properties of other two elements.
Newlands gave the law of octaves and told that when elements are arranged in
increasing order of their atomic weights, every eighth element resembles in properties
with the first one just like musical notes.
But all these were unable to arrange all the known elements. The first impressive attempt
in this direction was given by Mendeleev.

Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

Mendeleev studied the formula and properties of hydrides and oxides of different
elements and on the basis of their comparative study, he gave a law called the
Mendeleev’s periodic law.
It states that the properties of elements are the periodic function of their atomic masses
or atomic weights, i.e. if elements are arranged in increasing order of atomic weights,
after a regular interval the elements having similar properties reappear.
Mendeleev’s periodic table is the tabular representation of Mendeleev’s periodic law.
It contains vertical columns called groups and horizontal rows called periods. In this
table, there were 8 groups and 7 periods.
Mendeleev placed elements with similar nature in the same group with respect to atomic
weight.

Characteristics of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

(i) To place certain elements into correct group from the point of view of their chemical
properties, Mendeleev reversed the order of some pairs of elements, e.g. cobalt (atomic
mass 58.9) appeared before nickel (atomic mass 58.7).
CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
81
(ii) Mendeleev left some gaps in his periodic table for new elements that had not been
discovered at that time. e.g. Eka-boron, Eka-aluminium and Eka-silicon, the properties of
which had been found similar to the scandium, gallium and germanium discovered later.

Advantages of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

This table was found helpful
(i) for the study of elements conveniently.
(ii) for the prediction of properties of new elements.
(iii) for predicting the valency of the elements.
(iv) for calculating actual atomic weight.

Limitations of Mendeleev’s Classification

(i) He could not assign a correct position to hydrogen in his table.
(ii) Isotopes of all the elements posed a challenge to Mendeleev’s periodic law.
(iii) Atomic masses do not increase in a regular manner in going from one element to the next.
So, it was not possible to predict how many elements could be discovered between two
elements.
(iv) Some elements having similar properties had been placed in ■ Only 63 elements were
different groups like Cu and Hg; Ag and Tl; Au and Pt were discovered at the time of
placed separately. Similarly, some elements having different Mendeleev when he was
properties had been placed together, e.g. in group 8, block of composing the periodic
three elements had been placed together but they differ in table.
properties. Similarly, copper, silver and gold are placed with ■ Inert gases were not
chemically dissimilar alkali metals in group 1. discovered at that time.
(v) Metals and non-metals were not placed separately in this
periodic table.

Modern Periodic Table

It was given by British chemist Moseley in 1913 on the basis of his discovery that atomic
number is the most fundamental property. It is a tabular form of modern periodic law,
according to which, “the physical and chemical properties of the elements are the
periodic function of their atomic numbers’’. This table removed almost all the drawbacks
of Mendeleev’s periodic table.
Numerous forms of periodic table have been devised from time to time. A modern
version, so called long form of the periodic table of elements, which is based on the
electronic configuration of elements, is the most convenient and widely used.

Characteristics of Long Form of Periodic Table

(i) The horizontal rows are called periods and the vertical columns are called groups.
(ii) The groups are numbered from 1 to 18 and there are altogether 7 periods.
(iii) Elements having similar outer electronic configurations in their atoms are arranged in the
vertical columns, i.e. groups or families. That’s why elements of a group possess similar
chemical properties.
(iv) The period number corresponds to the highest principal quantum number (n) of the
elements in the period and each period marks a new electronic shell getting filled.
(v) The first period contains 2 elements and the subsequent periods consist of 8, 8, 18, 18 and
32 elements respectively and seventh period is incomplete.
(vi) In this form of the periodic table, 14 elements of both six and seventh periods
(lanthanoids and actinoids respectively) are placed in separate panels at the bottom.
 s-Block Elements p-Block Elements

Group 1 (New notation for long form) 17 18 82

IA As version for modern periodic table VIIA 0(zero)
Period 1 s 1 G 2 G
Key to chart
STATE
H Gas G G 8 Atomic number H He
1 2 13 14 15 16
Hydrogen Liquid L Hydrogen Helium
1.008 1IA O Symbol IIIA IVA VA VIA 1.006 4.003
Solid S Oxygen Name
3 s 4 s 5 s 6 s 7 G 8 G 9 G 10 G
X 15.9994 Atomic mass
Not found in nature
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
6.941 9.0121 10.811 12.011 14.007 15.999 18.998 20.180
11 s 12 s d-Block Elements 13 s 14 s 15 s 16 s 17 s 18 s

3 Na Mg 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Al Si P S Cl Ar
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulphur Chlorine Argon
22.990 24.305 11IB 1VB VB VIB VIIB VIII IB IIB 26.962 28.086 30.914 32.066 35.453 39.948
19 s 20 s 21 s 22 s 23 s 24 s 25 s 26 s 27 s 28 s 29 s 30 s 31 s 32 s 33 s 34 s 35 L 36 G

4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromlne Krypton
39.098 40.079 44.956 47.867 50.942 51.996 54.938 55.845 58.933 58.693 63.546 65.39 69.723 72.61 7.822 78.96 79.904 83.30
37 s 38 s 39 s 40 s 41 s 42 s 43 s 44 s 45 s 46 s 47 s 48 s 49 s 50 s 51 s 52 s 53 s 54 G

5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
85.468 87.62 88.906 91.224 92.906 95.94 (98) 101.07 102.906 106.42 107.868 112.411 114.818 118.710 121.80 177.60 125.904 131.29
55 s 56 s 57 s 72 s 73 s 74 s 75 s 76 s 77 s 78 s 79 s 80 s 81 s 82 s 83 s 84 s 85 s 86 G

6 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Cesium Barium Lanthanum Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
132.505 137.327 138.906 178.49 180.948 183.84 186.207 190.23 192.217 195.078 198.967 200.59 204.383 207.2 208.980 (209) (210) (222)
87 s 88 s 89 s 104 x 105 x 106 x 107 x 108 x 109 x 110 x 111 x 112 x 113 114 x 115 116 x 117 118

7 Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Uub Uut Uuq Uup Uuh Uus Uuo

Francium Radium Actinium Rutherfordium Dubium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Damstadtium Rontgenium Ununbium Ununtrium Ununqua- Ununpen- Ununhexium Ununseptium Ununoctium
(223) (226) (227) (261) (262) (263) (262) (265) (266) (269) (272) (277) dium tium

f-Block Elements
58 s 59 s 60 s 61 x 62 s 63 s 64 s 65 s 66 s 67 s 68 s 69 s 70 s 71 s
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Metals Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dyrprorium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
140.116 140.908 144.908 (145) 150.36 151.064 157.25 158.925 162.50 164.930 167.26 168.934 173.04 174.957
Metalloids 90 s 91 s 92 s 93 s 94 s 95 x 96 x 97 x 98 x 99 x 100 x 101 x 102 x 103 x
Non-metals
Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
Thorium Prolactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Amercium Curium Barkelium Californium Eisteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium
232.038 231.036 238.029 (237) (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (269) (257) (258) (259) (262)

Modern Periodic Table

Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
83
Characteristics of Periods
(i) The number of valence electrons in elements increases from 1 to 8 on moving from left to
right in a period.
(ii) The elements in a period have consecutive atomic numbers.
(iii) The valency of element increases from 1 to 4 and then decrease to 0 (zero) on moving from
left to right in a period, with respect to hydrogen.
(iv) Atomic size, electropositive nature, metallic nature, reducing nature of elements and basic
nature of oxides all decrease from left to right in a period.
(v) Electronegative nature, non-metallic nature, acidic nature of oxides, ionisation potential
all increase from left to right in a period. In a period, electron affinity also increases from
left to right.

Characteristics of Groups
(i) All the elements of a group of the periodic table have the same number of valence
electrons and hence, have almost similar chemical properties.
(ii) Atomic size, electropositive nature, metallic nature, reducing nature of elements and basic
nature of oxides all increase from top to bottom in a group.
(iii) Electronegative nature, ionisation potential, electron affinity, non-metallic nature and
acidic nature of oxides all decrease down a group with increasing atomic number.
(iv) Reactivity of metals increases down the group but that of non-metals decreases down the
group.

Prediction of number of group and period of an element

a Number of shells in an atom determines period in the periodic table.
a Number of valence electrons determines group in the periodic table.
a For s-block elements; group number = electrons in the valence shell .
a For p-block elements; group number = 10 + electrons in the valence shell.
a For d-block elements; group number = electrons in ns-shell + electrons in ( n − 1)
d shell.

Types of Elements
The electronic configuration of atoms provides a theoretical foundation for the periodic
classification. Elements of a group exhibit similar chemical properties because they have
same electronic configuration of their outermost shell.
Depending upon the type of orbital receiving the valence electron, the elements can be
classified into following four blocks:

s-Block Elements
(i)In these elements, valence electron(s) enters in s-orbital.
(ii)Group-1 and 2 (IA and IIA) of the periodic table belong to this block.
(iii)Group-1 (IA) of the periodic table is collectively called as alkali metals.
(iv) Group-2 (IIA) of the periodic table is collectively called as alkaline earth metals.
(v) The general electronic configuration of s-block elements is (noble gas) ns 1 for alkali metals
and (noble gas) ns 2 for alkaline earth metals.
(vi) These elements are soft metals, electropositive and form basic oxides.

p-Block Elements
(i) In p-block elements, valence electron(s ) enters in p-orbital.
(ii) Valence shell electronic configuration is ns 2 np 1 − 6 .
(iii) Group 13 to 18 (IIIA to VIIIA) are p-block elements in the periodic table.
(iv) It is the only block which contains metals, non-metals and metalloids.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
84
(v) Heavier members of this block show inert pair effect, i.e. their lower valency becomes
more stable. e.g. + 2 valency is more stable for Pb as compared to its + 4 valency. Similarly,
+ 1 valency is more stable for Tl as compared to its + 3 valency.
Ununseptium, recently discovered, a superheavy chemical element with atomic number 117,
is a member of group-17 in the periodic table below the five halogens (fluorine, chlorine,
bromine, iodine and astatine). Its synthesis was claimed in Dubna, Russia by a joint
Russian-American collaboration.
In 2014, the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research in Germany also claimed to have
successfully repeated original experiment. Ununseptium is a temporary systematic name that is
intended to be used before a permanent one is established. It is commonly called ‘element-117’
instead of ununseptium.

d-Block Elements
(i) These elements are called transition elements (except zinc, cadmium and mercury).
(ii) In d-block elements, valence electron(s) enters in d-orbital.
(iii) Valence shell electronic configuration is (n − 1 )d 1 − 10 ns 1 − 2 .
(iv) This block contains the elements of group-3 to 12 of the periodic table.
(v) The three series of transition metals are known 3d series (Sc to Zn), 4 d series (Y to Cd) and
5 d series (La to Hg, excluding Ce to Lu).

f-Block Elements
(i) The f-block consists of two series lanthanoids (fourteen elements following lanthanum)
and actinoids (fourteen elements following actinium) of the periodic table.
(ii) Electronic configuration of lanthanoids is 6 s 2 5d 0 − 2 4f 1 − 14 . ■ s- and p-block elements

(iii) Electronic configuration of actinoids are irregular. are collectively called

(iv) Elements of this block are also called inner-transition representative elements.
elements. ■ Hg, Zn, Cd are d-block
(v) Elements beyond uranium (at. no. 92) are man-made elements but not the
elements, i.e. synthesised by man artificially. So, these are transition elements .
called transuranic or synthetic elements. All these ■ All elements of s, d and f
elements are radioactive in nature, e.g. neptunium (Np), block are metals except
plutonium (Pu), americium (Am), curium (Cm), berkelium hydrogen.
(Bk), californium (Cf), einstenium (Es), mendelevium (Md), etc.

Highest and Lowest Properties of Some Elements

Highest/Lowest
Elements Highest/Lowest Properties Elements
Properties
Lightest element Hydrogen Element having highest ionisation Helium
(non-metal) potential
Heaviest element Osmium Element having least ionisation potential Caesium
Lightest metal Lithium Metal having highest melting point Tungsten
Liquid metal Mercury Element having highest electron affinity Chlorine
Liquid non-metal Bromine (i.e. electron accepting tendency)
Best conductor (metal) Silver Most electronegative element Fluorine
Second best conductor Copper Strongest oxidant Fluorine
Best non-metallic Graphite (an Strongest reductant Lithium
conductor allotrope of carbon) Monoatomic gases Inert or noble gases
Most ductile and Gold Group of gaseous elements zero group
malleable metal Element stored in kerosene oil Sodium
Most reactive metal Caesium Element present in bones and teeth Calcium
Most reactive non-metal Fluorine Most poisonous metal Plutonium
CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
85

Trends in Modern Periodic Table (Periodic Properties)

The properties which are repeated at regular intervals are known as periodic properties.
These properties show a regular order along a group and period.
(i) Valency It generally increases from 1 to 7 in a period with respect to hydrogen but
with respect to oxygen, it first increases from 1 to 4 and then decreases to 0.
For alkali metals (i.e. sodium, potassium, etc.) it is 1, for alkaline earth metals
(i.e. magnesium, calcium, etc.) it is 2, for aluminium it is 3 and for nitrogen it varies
from −3 to + 5.
(ii) Atomic Size It refers to the radius of an atom. It generally increases on moving
down the group because new shells are being added as we go down the group.
It decreases along a period from left to right. This is due to an increase in nuclear
charge which tends to pull the electrons closer to nucleus and reduces the size of the
atom. Thus, size of alkali metals is largest and that of halogens is smallest in a period.
Size of noble gases is larger as compared to corresponding halogens.
(iii) Ionisation Energy It is the energy required to remove an electron from an isolated
gaseous atom in its ground state. It generally increases along a period from left to
right due to increase in effective nuclear charge but ionisation energy of group-2
elements (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr) is larger than the ionisation energy of group-3 (B, Al, Ga, In)
elements.
Similarly, ionisation energy of group-15 elements (N, P, As) is larger than ionisation
energy of group-16 (O, S, Se) elements because of the stable configuration of group-2
elements ( ns 2 ) and group-15 elements ( ns 2 , np 3 ) than that of group-3 elements
( ns 2 , np 1 ) and group-16 elements ( ns 2 , np 4 ) respectively.
It generally decreases along a group on moving downwards due to increase in atomic
size.
(iv) Electron Gain Enthalpy ( ∆e g H) It is defined as the enthalpy change
accompanying
the process when an extra electron is added to neutral gaseous atom to convert it into
an anion. The energy released during the process is called electron affinity (EA).
EA increases across a period from left to right but EA of group-2, group-15 and
group-0 is zero or positive.
It decreases on moving down the group. It is highest for chlorine.
(v) Electronegativity It is the tendency of an atom in a molecule to attract the shared
pair of electrons towards itself. It increases regularly along a period from left to right
and decreases on moving down a group. It is highest for fluorine.
(vi) Metallic Character It is the tendency of an element to form cation by the loss of
electrons. It decreases along a period from left to right and increases in a group on
moving downwards. Thus, metallic elements occupy the left hand columns of the
periodic table.
(vii) Non-Metallic Character It is the tendency of an element to form anion by the gain
of electrons. It increases along a period from left to right and decreases in a group on
moving downwards.
(viii) Density It is defined as mass per unit volume and increases on moving down a
group as well as along a period from left to right but density of gold is higher than that
of mercury. The order of density of steel, mercury and gold is steel < mercury < gold.
 Assessment
1. Which of the following statements is (b) Both the Statements are individually
correct? true but Statement II is not the
(a) Dobereiner arranged element by the correct explanation of Statement I.
help of triads methods (c) Statement I is true, but Statement II
(b) Law of triads seemed to work for is false.
large number of elements (d) Statement I is false, but Statement II
(c) The properties of Br were in between is true.
those of Cl and I 6. Consider the following statements :
(d) Both (a) and (c) I. In Mendeleev's periodic table, position
2. Which of the following relationship of the isotopes was not fixed.
proposed graphically by Lothar Meyer? II. In the 19th century, Mendeleev
propounded periodic law is based on
(a) Chemical properties vs atomic weight
atomic mass.
(b) Physical properties vs atomic weight
(c) Physical properties vs atomic number Which of the above statement(s) is/are
(d) Chemical properties vs atomic number correct?
(a) Only I (b) Only II
3. Mendeleev’s left the gap under aluminium
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) Either of them
and a gap under silicon having atomic
weights 68 and 72 respectively. These 7. In a periodic table, while moving from
elements respectively are left to right in a period, number of
(a) Eka-aluminium and Eka-silicon remains same. [SSC 2017]
(b) aluminium and silicon (a) electrons (b) protons
(c) Eka-germanium and Eka-silicon (c) shells (d) neutrons
(d) Eka-aluminium and Eka-germanium 8. Which of the following is not a noble
4. Match the Column I with Column II and gas? [SSC 2019]
select the correct answer using given (a) Neon (b) Hydrogen
codes. (c) Helium (d) Argon

Column I Column II
9. Which one of the following metal is the
(Number of periods) (Number of elements) best conductor of electricity? [SSC 2016]
(a) Gold (b) Silver
A. First period 1. 14
(c) Copper (d) Zinc
B. Third period 2. 2
10. Which of the following is a noble metal?
C. Lanthanoids 3. 8
[RRB NTPC 2016]
D. Actinoids 4. 4 (a) Iron (b) Silver
(c) Aluminium (d) Bronze
Codes
A B C D A B C D 11. Which of the following is the heaviest
(a) 2 4 1 3 (b) 2 3 1 1 metal? [SSC 2016]
(c) 4 2 1 3 (d) 4 2 3 3 (a) Gold (b) Silver
(c) Iron (d) Copper
5. Statement I The third period contains
only 8 electrons and not 18 like fourth 12. Which of the following metal is called
period. quick silver? [RRB NTPC 2016]
(a) Silver (b) Aluminium
Statement II In third period, filling
(c) Mercury (d) Lead
starts from 3s1 and complete at 3 p 6
whereas in fourth period it starts from 13. Which of the following metal is to be
4 s1 and complete after 3d10 and 4 s 2 . found in the liquid state at the room
(a) Both the Statements are individually temperature? [UP Police 2019]
true and Statement II is the correct (a) Mercury (b) Platinum
explanation of Statement I. (c) Lead (d) Zinc
ASSESSMENT
87
14. Which of the following metal pollutes 20. In modern periodic table, while moving
the air of a big city? [RRB NTPC 2016] left to right across a period, the metallic
(a) Copper (b) Chromium character …… [SSC 2018]
(c) Lead (d) Cadmium (a) increases
15. The heaviest naturally occurring element (b) decreases
(c) remain same
is [SSC CPO 2013]
(d) first increases then decreases
(a) thorium (b) uranium
(c) mercury (d) polonium 21. The most electronegative element
16. Which one of the following represents among the following is
[SSC CHSL (10+2) 2013]
the correct order of electron releasing
(a) sodium (b) chlorine
tendency of metals? [NDA 2019]
(c) oxygen (d) fluorine
(a) Zn > Cu > Ag
(b) Ag > Cu > Zn 22. Which among the following has lowest
(c) Gu > Zn > Ag electron affinity?
(d) Cu > Ag > Zn [SSC CHSL (10+2) 2018]
(a) Fluorine (b) Chlorine
17. Which of the following represent, the
(c) Bromine (d) Argon
correct order of ionisation potential of
the elements? 23. Arrange the following oxides of the
(a) Li < B < Be < C < N elements in their decreasing order of
(b) Li < Be < B < C < N
basicity.
(c) N < C < B < Be < Li NaO, MgO, Al 2O3 , SiO, P2O5
(d) B < Be < N < C < Li (a) NaO, MgO, Al2O3, SiO, PO2 5

18. Arrange the following elements in the (b) PO

2 5, SiO, Al2O3, MgO, NaO
(c) Al2O3, MgO, NaO, SiO, PO2 5
increasing order of their metallic
(d) PO
2 5, SiO, NaO, MgO, Al2O3
property. Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs
(a) Na, Li, Rb, K, Cs 24. Consider the following statements :
(b) Cs, Rb, K, Na, Li I. In the period, the value of electron
(c) Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs affinity increases from left to right.
(d) Li, Na, K, Cs, Rb II. Electronegativity of the elements
19. Multiplication of equivalent weight and increases from top to bottom in a group.
valency of an element is equal to Which of the above statements(s) is/are
……… . [SSC (10+2) 2018] correct?
(a) density (a) Only I
(b) relative temperature (b) Only II
(c) atomic weight (c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) atomic (d) Neither of the above

1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (b)
11. (a) 12. (c) 13. (a) 14. (c) 15. (a) 16. (a) 17. (a) 18. (c) 19. (c) 20. (b)
21. (d) 22. (d) 23. (a) 24. (a)
10
Hydrogen and
Its Compounds
Hydrogen
Hydrogen (symbol H) has atomic number 1 and mass number 1. It was discovered by Henry
Cavendish in 1766 but named by Antoine Lavoisier. It has the simplest atomic structure among
all the elements around us in nature. In atomic form, it consists of only one proton and one
electron but no neutron. However, in elemental form it exists as a diatomic (H 2 ) molecule and
is generally called dihydrogen. It forms more compounds than any other element.

Position of Hydrogen in the Periodic Table

It is the first element in the periodic table. Its electronic configuration is 1 s 1 . It resembles with
alkali metals as well as with halogens in some properties. So, it is best placed separately in the
periodic table.

Occurrence
Dihydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe (70% of the total mass of universe).
It is the principal element in the solar atmosphere. The giant planets Jupiter, Saturn and Stars
consist mostly of hydrogen. However, due to its light nature, it is much less abundant in the
earth’s atmosphere. It is the ninth most abundant element in the earth’s crust.

Isotopes of Hydrogen
1 2 3
Hydrogen has three isotopes; protium (1 H), deuterium ( 1 H or D) and tritium ( 1 H or T).
(The subscript shows the atomic number and the superscript shows the mass number).
These isotopes differ from one another in respect of the presence of neutrons. Ordinary
hydrogen (protium) has no neutrons, deuterium (also known as heavy hydrogen) has one and
tritium has two neutrons in the nucleus. The predominant form is protium. Tritium is a
radioactive isotope (half-life period is 12.4 years). It is a beta emitter.
Deuterium was prepared by Urey, Brickwedde and Murphy in 1931 and is used for studying
the mechanism of organic reaction and as a bombarding particle in nuclear reactions.

Special Forms of Hydrogen

(i) Nascent Hydrogen It is the hydrogen at the moment of its generation, i.e. it is
present only in-situ. This is more reactive and powerful reducing agent.
(ii) Atomic Hydrogen It is produced at elevated temperature by the decomposition of
molecular hydrogen. Its reducing power is more than that of nascent hydrogen.
HYDROGEN AND ITS COMPOUNDS
89
(iii) Ordinary Hydrogen It is a mixture of two forms; ortho and para. In ortho hydrogen,
spins of both the nuclei are in same direction while in para hydrogen, spins of both the
nuclei are in opposite directions.
(iv) Adsorbed Hydrogen H 2 on bubbling at the surface of Pt, Pd, Ni, etc., is adsorbed.
These metals adsorbed large amount of H 2 at normal and released it at higher
temperature. The process of adsorption of H 2 over these metals, is called occlusion of
hydrogen.

Preparation
Following methods are used for the preparation of ■ Pure H2 is obtained by the
dihydrogen. reaction of Mg with dil. H2 SO 4 or
(i) In laboratory, it is prepared by the reaction of granulated NaH with water.
zinc with dilute hydrochloric acid. ■ At present, for the production of
(ii) Commercially, it is prepared by electrolysis of acidified
dihydrogen, the contribution of
water using platinum electrodes and by the reaction of
petro-chemicals is about 77%, of
steam on hydrocarbons or coke at high temperature in
the presence of catalyst. coal is about 18%, of electrolytic
processes is 4% and of other
(iii) It is also prepared by passing water vapours over red
hot iron or by treating hydrolith or sodium with water.
sources is only 1%.

Properties of Dihydrogen
The physical and chemical properties of dihydrogen are as follows:

Physical Properties
(i) It is a colourless, odourless, tasteless and combustible gas.
(ii) It is lighter than air and insoluble in water.
(iii) Its melting point is 13. 96 K and boiling point is 20 . 39 K.
(iv) Its density is 0.09 g L−1 .

Chemical Properties
(i) It is relatively inert at room temperature due to the high H  H bond energy. It reacts with
halogens, X 2 to give hydrogen halides, HX.
(At high temp.) H 2 (g) + X 2 (g) → 2HX (g) (X = F, Cl, Br, I )
(ii) It reacts with oxygen (or air) at high temperature to form water. The reaction is highly
exothermic.
Catalyst or
2H 2 (g) + O 2 (g) → 2H 2 O (l ) + Heat
heating
(iii) It reacts with dinitrogen to form ammonia (Haber’s process).
673 K, 200 atm
3H 2 (g ) + N 2 (g ) → 2NH 3 (g ) + Heat
Fe, Mo
(iv) It reacts with metals to form hydrides at high temperature.
H 2 (g) + 2 M (g) → 2 MH(s ) (M = alkali metal)
(v) It reacts with many organic compounds in the presence of catalysts to give useful
hydrogenated products.
(vi) When water itself combines chemically with some element or mineral, the reaction is called
hydration.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
90
Commercial Importance of Hydrogenation
a Hydrogenation (reaction with hydrogen) of vegetable oils (unsaturated fats)
using nickel catalyst gives edible fats (vanaspati ghee or saturated fats).
a Hydroformylation of olefines yields aldehydes which further undergo reduction
to give alcohols.

Uses of Dihydrogen
(i) The largest single use of dihydrogen is in the ■ Use of hydrogen for filling balloons is
synthesis of ammonia by Haber’s process, which prohibited now-a-days because of
is used in the manufacture of nitric acid and its volatile and inflammable nature.
nitrogenous fertilizers.
■ Hydrogen, helium and lithium are
(ii) It is used in the manufacturing of vanaspati fat
the three elements which are
by the hydrogenation of poly unsaturated
believed to be produced in the Big
vegetable oils like soyabean, cotton seeds, etc.
Bang.
(iii) It is used in the manufacturing of bulk organic
chemicals particularly methanol.
■ The solar energy of the sun is due to
the conversion of hydrogen into
(iv) It is widely used for the manufacturing of metal
helium.
hydrides, hydrogen chloride, etc.
(v) In metallurgical processes, it is used to reduce
■ Anti-hydrogen is the anti-matter
heavy metal oxides to metals. element which reacts explosively
(vi) Atomic hydrogen and oxyhydrogen torches are
with the elements– oxygen, chlorine
used for cutting and welding purposes. and fluorine.
(vii) It is used as a rocket fuel in space research.
■ Hydrogen is very light gas and is not
(viii) It is used in fuel cells for generating electricity held by the earth’s gravity. Thus, no
and is also called fuel of future. free hydrogen is present on earth.
(ix) A mixture of helium and hydrogen (He = 85% and
■ Hydrogen is the only element which
H = 15%) is used in filling the balloons. exists without neutrons.

Water (H2O)
A major part of all living organisms is made up of water. Human body has 65% (about) and
some plants have as much as 95% water. 97% part of the entire water is assumed to be confined
in oceans while rest is present in pure form. Rain water is the purest form of water.

Properties of Water
(i) It is colourless and tasteless liquid. In pure form, it is neutral. Its pH is 7.
(ii) Pure water is a bad conductor of electricity, however its conductivity can be increased by
adding some strong electrolyte.
(iii) At 4°C, water has maximum density and minimum volume.
(iv) At 0°C, water solidifies and converts into its solid form, called ice.
(v) Due to the presence of extensive H-bonding between water molecules, it has high freezing
point, high boiling point, high heat of vaporisation, high heat of fusion in comparison to H 2 S
and H 2 Se and exists in liquid state.
(vi) In comparison to other liquids, water has a higher specific heat, thermal conductivity, surface
tension, dipole moment and dielectric constant, etc. Due to its high specific heat, it is a good
coolant and is used to cool the engines of cars, buses, trucks, etc.
(vii) Because of its high dielectric constant, it is an excellent solvent for the transportation of ions
and molecules required for plant and animal metabolism.
(viii) Due to H-bonding with polar molecules, even covalent compounds like alcohols and
carbohydrates (glucose, sugar) dissolve in water.
HYDROGEN AND ITS COMPOUNDS
91

Structure of Water Molecule

In the gas phase, water is a bent molecule with bond angle of 104.5° and OH bond length of
95.7 pm. In ice, each oxygen atom is surrounded tetrahedrally by four other oxygen atoms.
H-bonding gives ice, a rather open type structure with wide holes. That’s why density of ice is
lesser than that of liquid water although ice is a solid and water is a liquid.

Hard Water
Presence of calcium and magnesium salts (mainly) ■ If boiled water is kept for a longer
and iron salt in the form of hydrogen carbonate, time, the inner surface of the container
chloride and sulphate in water makes water hard. get covered with a white layer of
Hard water does not give leather with soap. Hard carbonates of Ca or Mg.
water forms scum/precipitate with soap. It is, ■ Hard and soft water can not be
therefore, unsuitable for laundry. It is harmful for distinguished by the use of detergent.
boilers as well because of deposition of salts in the ■ Degree of hardness is defined as the
form of scale. number of parts of CaCO 3 or
equivalent Ca or Mg salts present in
Soft Water 10 6 parts of water by mass.
Rain water is almost pure. The water free from ■ The process of removal of salts of Ca
soluble salts of calcium and magnesium, is called soft
or Mg or Fe is called softening.
water. It gives lather with soap.
■ If some gamma emitting isotope is
present in drinking water, it is detected
Temporary Hardness by scintillation counter, a device used
Temporary hardness is due to the presence of
to detect the radioactive isotope.
magnesium and calcium hydrogen carbonates in
water. It can be removed by
(i) Boiling During boiling, the soluble magnesium hydrogen carbonate is converted into
insoluble magnesium hydroxide and calcium hydrogen carbonate is converted into
insoluble calcium carbonate. These insoluble precipitates can be removed by filtration.
(ii) Clark’s Method In this method, calculated amount of lime is added to hard water. It
precipitates out calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide which can be filtered off.

Permanent Hardness
It is due to the presence of soluble salts of magnesium and calcium in the form of chlorides and
sulphates in water.
Permanent hardness can be removed by the following methods:
(i) Treatment with Washing Soda (Na 2 CO 3 or Sodium Carbonates) Washing soda
reacts with soluble calcium and magnesium chlorides and sulphates in hard water to
form insoluble carbonates.
(ii) Calgon’s Method Sodium hexametaphosphate (Na 6 P6 O 18 ), commercially called
‘Calgon’, when added to hard water, complex anions are formed. The complex anion
keeps the Mg2+ and Ca 2+ ions in solution.

(iii) Ion Exchange Method This method is also called zeolite/permutit process. Hydrated
sodium aluminium silicate is called zeolite. When zeolite is added to hard water,
exchange reactions take place which results in softening of water.
(iv) Synthetic Resins Method Now-a-days hard water is softened by using synthetic
cation exchangers. This method is more efficient than zeolite process.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
92
Blue ice is the purest form of ice. It is virus-free. It is nearly 2500 years old and
found in Greenland. It is used in making whisky (wine).
Poly water is the water prepared in hair shaped capillary. In chemical composition, it
resembles with ordinary water. Its freezing and boiling points are respectively −40 °C
and 150°C. It is assumed to be most dangerous substance on the earth’s surface.
Potassium permanganate, bleaching powder (Cl 2 gas) and potash alum are used to
sterilise and purify water.

Heavy Water ( D 2O)

It was discovered by Urey and Washburn in 1932 and so called because it is an oxide of heavy
hydrogen or deuterium. It is also called deuterated water. It can be prepared by exhaustive
electrolysis of water or as a by-product in some fertilizer industries.
In 5000 parts of ordinary water, only one part of heavy water exists. It is extensively used as a
moderator in nuclear reactors and in exchange reactions for the study of reaction
mechanisms. It is used for the preparation of other deuterium compounds such as CD 4 , D 2 SO 4 ,
etc. Its density is more than that of ordinary water.

Hydrogen Peroxide ( H 2O2 )

It was discovered by Thenard in 1818. In pure state, it is an odourless and almost colourless
(very pale blue) liquid. It is miscible with water in all proportions. It is also called oxygenated
water. It can be prepared by acidifying barium peroxide with sulphuric acid or by exposing
ultraviolet rays on the oxygen in the presence of water vapour. It generally exists in liquid
form due to excessive hydrogen bonding.
Hydrogen peroxide acts as oxidising as well as reducing agent.

Uses of Hydrogen Peroxide

(i) In daily life, it is used as hair bleach and as a mild disinfectant. Its bleaching property is
because of its oxidising nature.
(ii) As an antiseptic, it is sold in the market as perhydrol.
(iii) It is used to manufacture chemicals like sodium perborate and percarbonate which are used in
high quality detergents.
(iv) It is employed in the industries as a bleaching agent for textiles, paper pulp, leather, oils,
fats, etc.
(v) It is used for examining the milk, wine, etc.
(vi) It is used in glazing the old oil paintings and in exposing its original colour.
(vii) It is used in the synthesis of hydroquinone, tartaric acid and certain food products and
pharmaceuticals (cephalosporin), etc.
(viii) Now-a-days, it is also used in Environmental (Green) Chemistry, e.g. in pollution control
treatment of domestic and industrial effluents, oxidation of cyanides, restoration of aerobic
conditions to sewage wastes, etc.
(ix) It is also used as a fuel in rocket, submarines, etc because of its oxygen releasing tendency.
 Assessment
1. How many isotopes of hydrogen element (b) Both the Statements are individually
are there? [SSC 2017] true but Statement II is not the
(a) 2 correct explanation of Statement I.
(b) 3 (c) Statement I is true, but Statement II is
(c) 4 false.
(d) None of the option is correct (d) Statement I is false, but Statement II
2. The process of separation of hydrogen is true.
from the water is called [SSC 2016] 10. Deuterium is a non-radioactive isotope
(a) electric decomposition of hydrogen. It resembles hydrogen in
(b) osmosis chemical properties but reacts
(c) ozonolysis (a) slower than hydrogen
(d) oxidation (b) faster than hydrogen
3. Tritium is an isotope of (c) more vigorously than hydrogen
[SSC CHSL (10+2) 2013] (d) just as hydrogen
(a) oxygen (b) hydrogen
11. Which of the following statements about
(c) phosphorus (d) nitrogen
hydrogen is/are correct?
4. Which one of the following statements is I. Hydrogen has three isotopes of which
not correct? [CDS 2016] protium is the most common.
(a) Hydrogen is an element.
(b) Hydrogen is the lightest element.
II. Hydrogen ion (H + ) exists freely in
(c) Hydrogen and oxygen forms an solution.
explosive mixture. III. Dihydrogen H 2 , acts as a reducing agent.
(d) Hydrogen has non-isotope. Select the correct answer using the
5. Preparation of ‘Dalda or Vanaspati’ ghee codes given below. [NDA/NA 2014]
from vegetable oil utilises the following (a) I, II and III (b) I only
process (c) I and III (d) III only
(a) hydrolysis (b) oxidation 12. The melting points of most of the solids
(c) hydrogenation (d) ozonolysis increase with an increase of pressure.
6. The gas used in the manufacture of However the ice melts at a temperature
vanaspati ghee from vanaspati oil is lower than its usual melting point when
[UPPCS (Mains) 2013] the pressure is increased. This is because
(a) hydrogen (b) oxygen (a) ice is less denser than water
(c) nitrogen (d) carbon dioxide (b) pressure generates heat
7. Which one of the following catalysts is (c) the chemical bonds break under
used in hydrogenation of vegetable oils? pressure
[UPPCS (Main) 2016] (d) ice is not a true solid
(a) Zinc (b) Platinum (c) Nickel (d) Iron 13. Surface water is a better source of
8. Which one of the following fuels causes drinking water because it is poor in
minimum air pollution? [SSC 2013]
[UP Lower Sub (Pre) 2015] (a) Dust (b) Bacteria (c) Arsenic (d) Algae
(a) Kerosene oil (b) Hydrogen 14. Statement I Water is a high boiling point
(c) Coal (d) Diesel liquid.
9. Statement I Oxyhydrogen flame Statement II Hydrogen bonding in water
produces higher temperature than oxy is responsible for high, boiling point of
atomic hydrogen flame. water. [NDA/NA 2012]
Statement II The heat generated during (a) Both the Statements I and II are
burning of these gases in oxygen is used individually true and Statement II is
to melt substances. the correct explanation of Statement I.
(a) Both the Statements I and II are (b) Both the Statements are individually
individually true and Statement II is true but Statement II is not the correct
the correct explanation of Statement I. explanation of Statement I.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
94
(c) Statement I is true, but Statement II is (c) Statement I is true, but Statement II is
false. false.
(d) Statement I is false, but Statement II is (d) Statement I is false, but Statement II is
true. true.
15. Why hard water does not give leather 21. Heavy water [UPPCS (Mains) 2007]
with soap? [CDS 2013] (a) contains more dissolved air
(a) Hard water contains calcium and (b) contains deuterium in plane of hydrogen
magnesium ions which form (c) contains more dissolved minerals and
precipitate with soap. salts
(b) Hard water contains sulphate and (d) contains organic impurities
chloride ions which form precipitate.
22. Heavy water has molecular weight
(c) pH of hard water is high. [UP Lower Sub. (Mains) 2015]
(d) pH of hard water is less. (a) 18 (b) 20 c) 36 (d) 54
16. Hard water and soft water can be 23. Heavy water is made by [SSC 2017]
distinguished by using [SSC 2017] (a) dissolving salts of heavy metals in
(a) dillute acid (b) ordinary soap distilled water
(c) detergent (d) liquid soap (b) repeated distillation and condensation
17. Hardness of the water is commonly of water
measured in terms of [SSC 2012] (c) burning deuterium in oxygen
(a) calcium carbonate equivalents (d) by burning the heavier isotope of
(b) calcium sulphate equivalents oxygen in hydrogen
(c) magnesium carbonate equivalents 24. Which one of the following heavy water is
(d) megnesium sulphate equivalents used in nuclear reactor? [CDS 2009]
18. Hard water causes serious problems in (a) Water having molecular weight 18 u
the industrial equipments. Hardness of (b) Water having molecular weight 20 u
the water is caused by which of the (c) Water at 4°C but having molecular
following elements? weight 19 u
(a) Calcium and magnesium (d) Water below the ice in a frozen sea
(b) Sodium and calcium 25. The substance used as moderator and
(c) Manganese and sodium coolant both in nuclear reactors is
(d) Sodium and potassium [UPPCS (Pre) 2016]
19. Which process is used to examine the (a) ordinary water (b) heavy water
harness of water? [RRB NTPC 2016] (c) liquid ammonia (d) liquid hydrogen
(a) Boiling 26. Which one of the following is used to
(b) Distillation restore the colour of old oil paintings?
(c) To form leather through the soap (a) Ozone (b) Hydrogen peroxide
(d) None of the above (c) Barium peroxide (d) Sodium peroxide
20. Statement I Hard water does not give 27. The boiling point of water is
leather with soap. [UP Police 2019]
Statement II Calcium and magnesium (a) 210° F (b) 212° F
salts present in hard water form (c) 214° F (d) 208° F
precipitate with soap. [NDA/NA 2013] 28. Consider the following substances :
(a) Both the Statements I and II are I. Heavy wate II. Graphite
individually true and Statement II is
the correct explanation of Statement I.
Which of the substances given above is/are
(b) Both the Statements are individually used as a moderator in a nuclear reactor?
true but Statement II is not the (a) Only I (b) Only II
correct explanation of Statement I. (c) Both I and II (d) Neither I nor II

1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (d) 10. (a)
11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (a) 16. (c) 17. (a) 18. (a) 19. (c) 20. (a)
21. (b) 22. (b) 23. (c) 24. (b) 25. (b) 26. (b) 27. (b) 28. (c)
11
Metals and
Their Compounds
Elements having a tendency to lose electron and form cation, are called metals. These occupy a
major portion of the periodic table. Except the right corner, all other elements (i.e. elements of
s, d and f-block) are metals.
At the pre-historic era, only three metals, i.e. copper (Cu), silver (Ag) and gold (Au) were known
but now the number of known metals increases to 90.

Physical Properties of Metals

(i) All metals except mercury exist as solid at room temperature.
(ii) Metals in their pure state have metallic lustre because of the presence of free electrons. They
can be polished.
(iii) Metals are generally hard (except sodium, potassium and calcium which are soft in nature) and
the hardness varies from metal to metal.
(iv) Metals are malleable, i.e. can be converted into thin sheets by hammering. Gold and silver are
the most malleable metals.
(v) Metals are ductile. Gold is the most ductile metal. From 1 mg gold, a 200 m long wire can be
drawn.
(vi) Metals are good conductors of heat. Silver and copper are the best conductors of heat. Lead and
mercury are comparatively poor conductors of heat.
(vii) Metals are good conductors of electricity.
(viii) Metals are sonorous.
(ix) Metals have high densities except sodium and potassium.
(x) Metals have high melting points. Gallium and cesium have low melting points.

Chemical Properties of Metals

(i) Metals are electropositive in nature, i.e. have a tendency to lose electrons forming cations.
So, they react readily with non-metals like oxygen, hydrogen, chlorine, sulphate, etc.
(ii) Reaction of Metals with Oxygen
(a) Almost all metals combine with oxygen to form metal oxides. They react with oxygen
at different rate.
Metal + Oxygen ¾® Metal oxide
e.g. When copper is heated in air, it combines with oxygen to form copper (II) oxide, a
black oxide. Similarly, aluminium forms aluminium oxide.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
96
(b) Metal oxides are basic in nature but some metal ■ Lithium is the lightest metallic
oxides such as aluminium oxide and zinc oxide element which is a very strong
show both acidic as well as basic behaviour. reducing agent.
These are amphoteric oxides.
■ Potassium and sodium metals react
(c) Most metal oxides are insoluble in water but
so vigorously with oxygen that they
which dissolve in water are called alkalis.
catch fire if kept in the open. Hence,
(iii) Reaction of Metals with Water Highly reactive to protect them, they are kept
metals like Na, K, Ca, Mg react with water and immersed in kerosene oil.
produce a metal hydroxide and hydrogen. ■ At ordinary temperature,
Moderately reactive metals like Al, Fe and Zn react
magnesium, aluminium, zinc and
with steam to form metal oxide and hydrogen.
lead are covered with a protective
Least reactive metals like lead, silver, copper and
layer of oxide which prevents the
gold do not react with water at all.
metal from further oxidation.
(iv) Reaction of Metals with Acids Metals react with
dilute acids to give salt and hydrogen. In case of
■ Iron does not burn on heating but
dilute nitric acid, hydrogen does not evolve iron fillings burn vigorously when
because HNO 3 is a strong oxidising agent, it sprinkled in the flame of burner.
oxidises H 2 to H 2 O and itself gets reduced to any of ■ Silver and gold do not react with
the nitrogen oxides (N 2 O, NO, NO 2 ). But Mg and oxygen even at high temperature.
Mn on reaction with dil. HNO 3 give H 2 gas. ■ Beryllium and magnesium because
(v) Reaction of Metals with Solution of Other of their high ionisation energy do
Metal Salts More reactive metals can displace less not impart any colour to the flame.
reactive metals from their compounds in solution
or molten form.
e.g. Fe + CuSO 4 (aq ) ¾® FeSO 4 (aq ) + Cu ¯

Reactivity Series or Activity Series of Metals

The reactivity series is a list of metals arranged in the order of their decreasing
activities.
K > Na > Ca > Mg > Al > Zn > Fe > Pb > H > Cu > Hg > Ag > Au

(vi) Flame Colouration Alkali metals and alkaline earth metals (except beryllium and
magnesium) impart characteristic colours to the flame. That’s why these are used to
provide colours to fire works.

Metal Colour
Sodium Golden yellow
Potassium Violet
Rubidium Violet
Lithium Crimson red
Calcium Red or brick red
Stronsium Crimson red
Barium Apple green or green
METALS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS
97

Sodium and Its Compounds

Sodium (Na)
Its atomic number is 11 and mass number is 23. It belongs to group-I, 3rd period and s-block of
the periodic table. Its electronic configuration is 1 s 2, 2 s 2 2 p 6, 3 s 1 . Earth’s crust contains 2.27%
sodium by weight. Because of its high reactivity, sodium is always found in combined form.
The ores of sodium are chile salt petre (NaNO 3 ), sodium sulphate (Glauber’s salt,
Na 2 SO 4 × 10H 2 O), borax (Na 2 B 4 O 7 × 10H 2 O) and brine or common salt (NaCl). It is extracted by
the electrolysis of molten NaOH in Castner’s process or molten NaCl in Down’s process.

Properties
(i) It is a light, soft silvery white metal that can be cut through knife.
(ii) It is highly reactive metal, i.e. reacts with air to form sodium oxide (Na 2 O) and water to
form sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and hydrogen (H 2 ). Because of its high reactivity, it is
generally stored in the kerosene oil.
(iii) It is soluble in benzene.
(iv) Sodium on reaction with ammonia forms sodamide and on reaction with alcohol, forms
sodium alkoxide and hydrogen with acids. It also forms salt and releases hydrogen.

Uses
It is used
(i) as a reducing agent, an alloying metal, an anit-scaling agent.
(ii) as a coolant in nuclear reactors (in liquefied form).
(iii) in making TEL (tetraethyl lead) from the sodium- lead alloy in synthetic reaction.

Compounds of Sodium
1. Sodium Chloride (NaCl)
It is commonly known as table salt or Everyday Science
common salt. It is used as an important a When sodium chloride is mixed with ice
component of human’s food. It is used for at a lower pressure and a moderate
anti-icing and as a preservative for pickles, temperature, freezing mixture is
meat and fish. It is also used as an important obtained.
raw material for various materials of daily a A human body requires 500 mg of
use such as sodium hydroxide, washing sodium per day. It regulates blood
soda, bleaching powder and many more. pressure and pH of the human body.
a Pure sodium chloride is not
2. Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) hygroscopic (i.e. does not absorb
It is commonly known as caustic soda. It is moisutre). It shows hygroscopic nature
used for manufacturing of soaps and due to the presence of impurities of
MgCl 2 and CaCl 2 .
detergents and salts, for pH regulations. It is
also used as a laboratory reagents as a At the time of dehydration, loose
petroleum purifier in the extraction of motion or vomiting, the level of salt in
the human body abruptly falls.
sodium.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
98

3. Sodium Carbonate (Na 2 CO 3 ) ■ On exposure to air, sodium

Sodium carbonate decahydrate (Na 2 CO 3 × 10H 2 O) is
hydroxide becomes liquid and
commonly known as washing soda and soda crystals.
after sometime it changes to
Anhydrous sodium carbonate is soda ash. Its aqueous white powder because NaOH,
solution is alkaline. That’s why it is used as a detergent. on absorbing CO2 from air, gets
converted to Na2 CO 3 . Sodium
It is used for removing permanent hardness of water and
carbonate efflorescence on
for cleaning the grease, oil and wine stains from the
standing in air and crumble to
clothes. It is also used in the production of borax, soap,
white powder.
caustic soda and in paper, paints, water glass, petroleum
refinery and textile industry. ■ Baking soda when mixed with
tartaric acid, is called baking
4. Sodium Bicarbonate (NaHCO 3 ) powder. CO2 produced during
It is commonly known as baking soda, cooking soda or reaction causes bread or cake to
bread soda. It is used in soda-acid fire extinguishers, in rise making them soft and
baking bread, cakes and other food items. spongy. That’s why it is also
called baking soda.
5. Glauber Salt (Na 2 SO 4 × 10H 2 O)
It is used in pulp-paper, detergents and drugs industry in the production of water glass. It is
also used as drying agent, purgative and in the preparation of sodium sulphide.

6. Sodium Thiosulphate (Na 2 S 2 O 3 × 5H 2 O)

It is also known as hypo. It is prepared by reacting aqueous solution of sodium sulphate,
sulphur with sodium hydroxide (NaOH). It is used in film and photography as a fixing agent. It
removes undecomposed AgBr as soluble silver thiosulphate salt. It is also used as an antidote to
cyanide poisoning and to remove chlorine (anti-chlor) gas from tap water to be filled in
aquariums.

7. Microcosmic Salt [Na(NH 4 )HPO 4 × 4H 2 O]

It is chemically sodium ammonium hydrogen phosphate. It is found in human urine. On
heating, it gives sodium metaphosphate and ammonia. It is used in microcosmic salt bead test
in salt analysis.

Magnesium and Its Compounds

Magnesium (Mg)
The word ‘magnesium’ comes from Greek word ‘magnesia’. Its atomic number is 12 and atomic
mass is 24. It belongs to group-2, 3rd period and s-block of the periodic table. It is a shiny grey
solid having hexagonal closed packing (hcp). Its electronic configuration is 1 s 2 , 2 s 2 2 p 6 , 3 s 2 .
Because of its high reactivity, it does not occur in free state. It generally occurs in the form of its
chlorides, carbonates and sulphates. Some important ores of magnesium are magnesite (MgCO 3 ),
dolomite (MgCO 3 × CaCO 3 ), epsomite (MgSO 4 × 7H 2 O) and carnallite (MgCl 2 × KCl × 6H 2 O).
Magnesium can be extracted from magnesite by electrolytic reduction of magnesia or from
carnallite by the electrolysis of anhydrous MgCl 2 . It occurs in chlorophyll which is widely
distributed in plants and reponsible for the green colour of the leaves. In powder form, it is
used in flash bulbs in photography.
METALS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS
99
Properties
(i)It is white coloured extremely glazed metal.
(ii)Its melting and boiling points are 650°C and 110°C respectively.
(iii)It is malleable and ductile metal.
(iv) It evolves hydrogen gas with dilute acids but not with the bases.
(v) In the presence of dry ether, it combines with alkyl halide (RX) to give alkyl magnesium
halide which is also known as Grignard’s reagent.
(vi) Because of its high reactivity, magnesium ribbon is generally kept in an atmosphere of
nitrogen.

Uses
It is used
(i) in making flash light ribbon, in fire crackers and in photography.
(ii) in making alloys as its alloys are very light and soft. Electron is an alloy of magnesium
which contains Mg (95%), Zn (4.5%), Cu (0.5%). It is used in the frames of aircraft and motor
vehicles.

Compounds of Magnesium
1. Magnesium Hydroxide [Mg(OH) 2 ]
It is a white coloured substance, slightly soluble in water. A suspension of Mg(OH)2 in water is
called milk of magnesia. Its nature is alkaline (or basic). It is used as an antacid, as laxative and
for neutralising acidic waste water. It is also used as chewable tablets and capsules and in the
treatment of scalp’s dandruff.

2. Magnesium Sulphate (MgSO 4 )

It is a colourless crystalline solid, naturally occurs in hot water spring in the form of epsomite
or epsom salt (MgSO 4 × 7H 2 O) which is isomorphous with ZnSO 4 × 7H 2 O. It shows
deliquescence and efflorescence. It is used in fireproof fabrics and in the manufacture of
ceramics, cement and match boxes. It is also used as a mordant in dyeing and tanning
industries and as a purgative in medicine.

3. Magnesium Carbonate (MgCO 3 )

It occurs naturally in the form of magnesite or dolomite (MgCO 3 × CaCO 3 ). Its colour is white
and it is soluble in water.
It is used as magnesium alva (in the form of drug) and as an antacid.

4. Magnesium Alba (2MgCO 3 × Mg(OH) 2 × 3H 2 O)

It is used as a medicine in removing the acidity from human stomach. It is also used as a dental
abrassive (in tooth pastes) and in cosmetics.

5. Sorel Cement [MgCl 2 × 5MgO × nH 2 O]

It is used in the dental fillings, for cementing glass and porcelain, etc.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
100

Calcium and Its Compounds

Calcium (Ca)
Its atomic number is 20 and mass number is 40. It was first isolated by Humphry Davy in
1808. It is the third most abundant element in earth’s crust. It is present in the soil, plants,
bones and egg shells.
It belongs to group-2, 4th period and s-block of the periodic table.
Its electronic configuration is 1 s 2 , 2 s 2 2 p 6 , 3 s 2 3 p 6 , 4s 2 .
It generally occurs in combined form. Some important ores of calcium are marble, chalk, lime
(CaCO 3 ), gypsum (CaSO 4 × 2H 2 O), dolomite (CaCO 3 × MgCO 3 ), fluorspar (CaF2 ) and phosphorite
(Ca 3 (PO 4 )2 ). It is extracted by the electrolysis of fused mixture of 85% CaCl 2 and 15% CaF2 . CaF2
is added to maintain temperature and to lower the melting point of anhdydrous CaCl 2 . Calcium
chloride is obtained as a by-product of the Solvay process.

Properties
(i) It is a soft (but harder than lead) and silvery white metal.
(ii) Its melting and boiling points are 1115 K and 1757 K respectively. Its relative density is 1.55.
(iii) It gives hydrogen when treated with acids and water but not with bases.

Uses
It is used
(i) as a dehydrating agent (water removing agent) for the preparation of absolute alcohol.
(ii) for removing last traces of air to produce high vacuum.
(iii) as oxidiser for cast iron, steel and copper.
(iv) as a reducing agent for chromium, thorium, etc.

Compounds of Calcium
1. Calcium Oxide or Quick Lime (CaO)
It is white porous solid that is readily miscible with water and gives calcium hydroxide. Hissing
sound is produced when it is dissolved in water.
It is used in the manufacturing of cement, mortar, bleaching powder and glass. It is also used
for the purification of sugar, production of dye stuff and other chemicals.

2. Calcium Hydroxide or Slaked Lime [Ca(OH) 2 ] ■ The addition of limit

It is prepared by adding water to quick lime (CaO). It is a white
amount of water breaks
powder which is slightly soluble in water and its aqueous solution
the lump of lime and
is known as lime water and a suspension of slaked lime is known converts it into slaked
as milk of lime. It is used as a primary material in the preparation lime. This process is called
of mortar, glass, bleaching powder (by passing chlorine gas over slaking of lime. Quick
dry slaked lime) and in white wash. lime slaked with soda
gives solid soda lime.
3. Calcium Carbonate (CaCO 3 )
It occurs in nature in the form of limestone, chalk, marble, slaked lime, pearl, etc. It is a white
powder and insoluble in H 2 O. At high temperature (1200 K), it decomposes to evolve CO 2 gas.
It is used as the building materials in the form of marble, as filler in cosmetics and its
precipitate is used in the production of high quality of paper.
METALS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS
101
4. Calcium Chloride (CaCl 2 )
It is found in sea water and oceans in small amount. It is a colourless crystalline solid which is
generally associated with six molecules of water of crystallisation. It is hygroscopic and
deliquescent in nature. It is soluble in alcohol as well as in water. It is used as water absorbing
substance or as dehydrating agent to ensure dryness in packed materials. It can not be used to
dry alcohol or ammonia as it forms addition products with them.

5. Bleaching Powder [Ca(OCl)Cl]

Its chemical name is calcium chlorooxychlorite. It is a white powder having smell of chlorine. It
is used as a disinfectant, water purifier, germicide, insecticide, a bleaching agent in textile
paper and jute industry.

6. Gypsum (CaSO 4 × 2H 2 O)
It is a white crystalline solid which is associated with two molecules of water of crystallisation.
It is used in the production of Plaster of Paris and in ammonium sulphate (NH 4 )2 SO 4 fertilizer.
1
7. Plaster of Paris [CaSO 4 × H 2 O]
2
It is chemically calcium sulphate hemihydrate. It is a white coloured powder which is insoluble
in water. It is obtained by the heating of gypsum at » 150° C. When Plaster of Paris comes in
contact with water, it gets converted into an another hydrate due to the hydration and sets
into a hard mass. This process is called setting of Plaster of Paris.
1 1 setting
CaSO 4 × H2 O + 1 H2 O ¾¾¾® CaSO 4 × 2H2 O
2 2 Gypsum
Plaster of Paris
Since, the above reaction is exothermic, so the temperature of reaction mixture increases.
It is used for plastering fractured bones, in dentistry, in making statues, toys and in
ornamental work, etc.

8. Super Phosphate of Lime [CaH 4 (PO 4 ) 2 + CaSO 4 × 2H 2 O]

It is a mixture of calcium hydrogen phosphate and calcuim sulphate. It is obtained from
phosphorite and bone ash. It is soluble in water and thus easily assimilated by plants. It is used
as a fertilizer to increase the production of crop.
■ Nitrolim (CaCN2 ) is prepared by heating CaC 2 with N 2 gas at 2000 ° C.
■ Hydrolith (CaH 2 ) is used as a ready supplier of H 2 gas because on treatment with water, it gives
hydrogen gas.
■ Calcium phosphate [Ca 3 (PO4 ) 2 ] is used in toothpaste.

Aluminium and Its Compounds

Aluminium (Al)
It is a silvery, white, soft and ductile metal. Its atomic number is 13 and atomic mass is 27. It
belongs to groups-13, 3rd period and p-block of the periodic table.
Its electronic configuration is 1 s 2 , 2 s 2 2 p 6 , 3 s 2 3 p 1 .
Al is third most abundant element in the earth’s crust. It does not occur in free state. In
combined form, it occurs as bauxite (Al 2 O 3 × 2H 2 O), corundum (Al 2 O 3 ), feldspar
(K2 O × Al 2 O 3 × 6SiO 2 ) and cryolite (Na 3 AlF6 ). Its chief ore is bauxite or hydrated alumina which
is concentrated by Baeyer’s process or Hall’s process, if it contains Fe 2 O 3 as the main impurity.
White bauxite which contains SiO 2 as the main impurity is concentrated by Serpek’s process.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
102
Cryolite and fluorspar lower the temperature when added to alumina in the extraction of
aluminium by electrolytic process. Purification of aluminium is done by Hoope’s electrolytic
process.

Properties
(i) It is a silvery white glazing metal with melting and boiling points 659.8°C and 2200°C
respectively.
(ii) It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
(iii) Its specific gravity is 2.7.
(iv) It releases H 2 gas with conc. HCl or dil. H 2 SO 4 but gives SO 2 gas with conc. H 2 SO 4 .
(v) It also evolves hydrogen gas (H 2 ) with alkalies like NaOH, KOH, etc., along with the
formation of aluminate salt.
(vi) It gives aluminium nitrite with nitrogen.

Uses
It is used
(i) as a reducing agent in metallurgical processes.
(ii) in the form of thin foil for decorating sweets and in packing cigarettes.
(iii) as a main constituent of silvery paints which consists of aluminium powder in linseed oil.
(iv) to form alloys which, being lighter, is used in making aeroplane plants.

Alloys of Aluminium
Alloys Composition Uses
Aluminium bronze Al (10%), Cu (90%) In making coin, utensils
Duralumin Al (95%), Mg (0.5%), Cu (4%), In making pressure cooker and in
Mn (0.5%) aircrafts
Nickel alloy Al (90%), Ni (6%), Cu (4%) In aerospace manufacturing
Magnalium Al (95-96%), CuFe (2-3%), Mg (2%) In aerospace industry

Aluminium Chloride (AlCl 3 )

Anhydrous aluminium chloride is a white deliquescent solid which fumes in air. It is used in
the refining of petroleum, in the production of synthetic polymers and rubbers, as a catalyst in
the gasoline production and Friedel-Crafts reaction, as a hardening agent and an
antiperspirant.
■ Aluminium carbide (Al4 C 3 ) is known as methanide which reacts with water to form CH 4 gas.
■ Aluminium acetate is known as red liquor. It is used as a mordant in dyeing and calico printing.

Manganese and Its Compounds

Manganese (Mn)
Ultra pure manganese is silvery white but commercial samples have pink tinge.
Its atomic number is 25 and mass number is 55. It belongs to group-7, 4th period and d-block of
the periodic table. Its electronic configuration is [Ar] 3 d 5, 4s 2 .
It is extracted from pyrolusite ore by carbon reduction process or by alumino thermic process.
Pure Mn is obtained by the electrolysis of aqueous MnSO 4 solution (MnO 2 and Mn 3 O 4 are
first converted into MnSO 4 ).
METALS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS
103
Alloys of Manganese
Spiegeleisen, an alloy of Mn with Fe and C is used in the manufacture of steel.
Ferromanganese contains 70-80% Mn.

Potassium Permanganate (KMnO 4 )

It is a potassium salt of permanganic acid (HMnO 4 ). It is prepared by fusion of MnO 2
(pyrolusite) with KOH followed by electrolytic oxidation. It is dark violet, rhombus, prismatic
crystalline solid. It is moderately soluble in water and solubility increases with increase in
temperature. Its aqueous solution is reddish in colour. That’s why it is also called red medicine.
It is isomorphous with KClO 4 . On heating at 200°C, it gives off oxygen.
It is used as an oxidising agent in laboratory and industry, as disinfectant and germicide for
water under the name red medicine, in the estimation of Fe 2+ and C 2 O 2- 4 , in redox titrations
and in preparation of Cl 2 in the laboratory, as an colour remover for oils, as a bleaching agent
for woolen, silk and cotton garments.

Iron and Its Compounds

Iron (Fe)
It is the most useful metal. It was discovered before 5000 BC. Its atomic number is 26 and
atomic mass is 56.
It belongs to group-8, 4th period and d-block of the periodic table. Its electronic configuration
is 1 s 2 , 2 s 2 2 p 6 , 3 s 2 3 p 6 3 d 6 , 4s 2 .
Iron is the fourth most abundant element in the earth’s crust. It is present abundantly in green
vegetables and in the haemoglobin of the blood. It occurs only in combined state in the form of
red haematite (Fe 2 O 3 ), brown haematite (2 Fe 2 O 3 × 3 H 2 O), magnetite (Fe 3 O 4 ), etc. Iron is extracted
basically from haemetite (Fe 2 O 3 ) in the blast furnance by the carbon-reduction process.

Properties
(i) It is ferromagnetic (i.e. attracted by magnet
lustrous), metallic and greyish tinge element. Everyday Sciene
(ii) Its melting and boiling points are 1533° C and a The tribal people of Africa
2450° C respectively. are generally found to be
suffering from siderosis
(iii) It does not react with dry air and water but on because of the excess
passing steam over red hot iron, it produces H 2 consumption of bear in iron
gas. utensils.
(iv) It reacts with cold and dilute HNO 3 to form
ferrous nitrate and ammonium nitrate.
(v) With hot concentrated H 2 SO 4 it forms ferrous and ferric sulphate and SO 2 gas, with cold
and conc. HNO 3 it forms ferric nitrate and nitrogen dioxide.
(vi) It forms halides and sulphides when treated with halogen and sulphur.

Passivity of Iron
Highly concentrated nitric acid reacts with iron and forms a layer of iron oxide
(Fe 3O 4 ) on its surface which makes iron passive (unreactive). The passive iron can
be activated by heating in the flow of H 2 gas.
Deficiency of iron causes anaemia whereas its excess intake leads to siderosis.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
104
Varieties of Iron
There are various varieties of iron such as:
(i) Pig Iron The iron obtained from blast furnace contains 4% C and many impurities in
small amount like S, P, Si, Mn, etc.
(ii) Cast Iron It is made by melting pig iron with scrap iron and coke using hot air blast. It is
hard and brittle form of iron as it contains 3% C . It is used for casting, railing, hot water
pipe, utensils, type-writer cover, electric poles where strain is minimum. It is also used
for making steel and wrought iron.
(iii) Wrought Iron It is the purest form of iron. It contains 0.12-0.25% C. It is manufactured
from cast iron by oxidising impurities in a reverberatory furnace lined with haematite.
Limestone is added as a flux. It is tough, highly malleable, ductile and has high magnetic
permeability.
It is used in making chain, hooks, nails, bolts, wires and bars, etc.
(iv) Steel It is an alloy of iron and carbon, and is generally manufactured from cast iron by
three processes; Bessemer process, LD process and Open Hearth process. In steels, the
amount of carbon varies from 0.25 to 1 . 5%. There are many varieties of steel depending
upon the amount of carbon present in it; mild steel, medium steel, hard steel and alloy steel.
Some Alloys of Steels
Special
Alloys Properties Uses
Component
Nickel steel Ni (3.5%) Hard, flexible, rust resistant Cable, armour plates, autoparts,
axles, etc.
Stainless steel Cr (12% -18%) Hard, strong resistant to rust Utensils, surgical instruments, blades,
etc.
Chrome vanadium Cr (1 -10%), and High tensile strength and Axles, springs, wheels, ball bearings,
steel (0.15 - 0.51%) load bearing tendency gears
Manganese steel Mn (12 -15%) Extremely hard, high melting Rock cutters, burglarproof, safes
point, free from rust railway tracks, axles, etc.
Invar Ni ( 36%) Absence of expansion Clock pendulum, scales, yardsticks, etc
Tungsten steel W (14 - 20%) Very hard and strong Spring, cutting tools, etc.
Chrome steel Cr ( 5%) High tensile strength, bear Cutting tools, cutlery, etc.
high temperature, very hard
and resist to abrasion
■ Stainless steel cooking pans are fabricated with copper bottom because copper is more
conducting as compared to stainless steel.

Heat Treatment of Steel Surface Treatment

It is done to change hardness and elasticity of steel. of Steel
Following three steps involve in the heat treatment of steel Following two steps involve in the
surface treatment of steel:
(i) Annealing It is the process of heating steel to bright
(i) Case Hardening It is done
redness and then cooling it very slowly to make steel by heating mild steel with
soft and ductile. charcoal and then plunging
(ii) Quenching It is the process of heating steel to bright into oil to make it resistant
redness and then cooling it suddenly by plunging in to wear and tear.
water or oil to make it very hard and brittle. (ii) Nitriding It is done by
heating the steel in the
(iii) Tempering It is the process of heating the quenched
atmosphere of dry
steel to a temperature much below redness and then ammonia at 500-600°C for
cooling it slowly to make steel neither so hard nor so about 3 to 4 days. A hard
brittle. During tempering, a thin film of oxide layer is coating of iron nitride is
formed on the surface of steel. formed on the surface.
METALS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS
105
Ferrous Sulphate (FeSO 4 )
Hydrated ferrous sulphate (FeSO 4 × 7H 2 O) is called green vitriol. It is green crystalline solid
which is readily miscible with water.
It is used in the production of iron containing drugs, in making blue and black inks, Mohr’s salt
and other compounds, as a mordant in dyeing and as an insecticide in agriculture.

Iron Oxides
Iron forms two oxides ; ferrous oxide (FeO) and ferric oxide (Fe 2 O 3 ). Later, it is also called
jeweller’s rouge.

Mohr’s Salt [FeSO 4 × (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 × 6H 2O]

Its chemical name is ferrous ammonium sulphate. It is a double salt prepared by mixing
saturated solution of ferrous sulphate and ammonium sulphate (in pure form) in air-free
distilled water. It is a green coloured crystalline solid, soluble in water but insoluble in alcohol.
It is used as a reducing agent, in the textile industry for the colouration of garments, in the
preparation of blue ink and insecticides and in the colouration of leather.

Copper and Its Compounds

Copper (Cu)
It is a transition element and called coinage or currency metal along with silver and gold
(elements of group II or I B). Because of their use for making coins, it is the second most useful
metal. Its atomic number is 29 and atomic mass is 64. It is named after a mining place cyprus in
Roman era in 9000 BC. It belongs to group-11, 4th period and d-block of the periodic table. Its
electronic configuration is [Ar] 3 d 10, 4s 1.
It exists in native as well as in combined form. It is mainly extracted from copper pyrite
(CuFeS2 ) and copper glance (Cu 2 S) by auto-reduction process.

Properties
(i) It is reddish orange coloured metal.
(ii) It is malleable, ductile and good conductor of heat and electricity.
(iii) Its melting and boiling points are 1083°C and 2310 °C respectively.
(iv) Its specific gravity is 8.95.
(v) It does not react with dry air but with moist air it forms basic copper carbonate (green
coating).
(vi) It does not react with dilute and cold HCl and H 2 SO 4 both.
(vii) With hot conc. H 2 SO 4 it gives SO 2 gas, with dilute HNO 3 it forms N 2 O (nitrous oxide) gas,
with 50% HNO 3 it forms NO (nitric oxide) gas but with conc. HNO 3 it forms NO 2 gas.
Nitrogen gas (N 2 ) is formed when vapours of HNO 3 is passed over hot copper.

Uses
It is used
(i) in electroplating and electrotyping.
(ii) for making wires, electrical appliances, calorimeter and domestic utensils.
(iii) for making coins and alloys.
(iv) as an essential element of all living organisms. It is the main constituent of respiratory
enzyme complex, cytochrome C oxidase.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
106

Some Alloys of Copper

Alloys Composition Uses
Brass Cu (70%), Zn (30%) Household utensils, idols, etc.
Bronze Cu (90%), Sn (10%) Utensils, bells, idols, coins, etc.
Gun metal Cu (88%), Sn (10%), Zn (2%) Equipments of machine, gun engineering
goods, etc.
Constantan Cu (60%), Ni (40%) Electrical tools and apparatus
Bell metal Cu (80%), Sn (20%) Utensils, bells, idols, coins, etc.
German silver Cu (50%), Zn (35%), Ni (15%) Utensils, idols
Rolled gold (artficial gold) Cu (90%), Al (10%) Cheap ornaments
Delta metal Cu (60%), Zn (38%), Fe (2%) Propellers of ships (as it is resistant to sea water)
Muntz metal Cu (60%), Zn (40%) Coins, tubes and castings
Monel metal Cu (70%), Ni (30%) Alkali resistant containers
Dutch metal Cu (80%), Zn (20%) Cheap ornaments (because of green yellow
golden colour)

Copper (II) Sulphate (CuSO 4 )

It is a pale green or grey white coloured powder. Hydrated CuSO 4 [CuSO 4 × 5H 2 O] is blue
coloured compound and known as Nila thotha or blue vitriol. Its nature is poisonous.
It is used to treat parisitic infections of aquarium fish, in agriculture as a fungicide and
germicide as bordeaux mixture, to prevent damping off seedlings, in horticulture as chestnut
compound, in electroplating, in electric cells, in refining of crude copper, in making green
dyes, etc.

Fehling’s Solution
It is a mixture of two solutions; Fehling solution A and Fehling solution B. Fehling solution A is
copper sulphate and Fehling solution B is an alkaline solution of sodium potassium tartarate.
This solution gives red precipitates of Cu 2 O when treated with aldehydes or monosaccharides
like glucose. It is used to test the presence of these compounds.

Silver and Its Compounds

Silver (Ag)
Silver is a soft, white, lustrous transition metal. It is found in the free (native) as well as in
combined state. Its atomic number is 47 and mass number is 108. It belongs to group-11,
5th period and d-block of the periodic table. Its electronic configuration is [Kr] 4d 10, 5s 1 .
Important ores of silver are argentite or silver glance (Ag2 S), horn silver (AgCl) and ruby silver
or pyrargyrite (3Ag2 S × Sb 2 S3 ). It is mainly extracted from argentite ore (Ag2 S) by Mac Arthur
cyanide process, however commercially it is obtained as a by-product during the extraction of
gold.

Properties
(i) It is a shining white solid with high ductility and
malleability.
Everyday Science
(ii) Its melting and boiling points are 960°C and a It is dangerous to eat egg by
a silver spoon because egg
1955°C respectively. However, its relative
contains sulphur which
density is only 10.47. reacts to form black coloured
(iii) It is the best conductor of heat and electricity. silver sulphide ( Ag2S ) which
damages the spoon.
METALS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS
107
(iv) It is inert towards dry of heat and H 2 S free air but turns black, if H 2 S is present due to the
formation of black coloured silver sulphide.
(v) It is inert towards acids and bases but dissolves in NaCN in the presence of oxygen to give
soluble complex sodium argento cyanide.
(vi) It is inert with dilute sulphuric acid but evolves SO 2 with concentrated sulphuric acid.
Further, it gives NO and NO 2 gases with dilute and concentrated nitric acid (HNO 3 )
respectively.

Uses
It is used
(i) for making coins, utensils ornaments, etc.
(ii) for filling tooth cavities, if alloyed with it.
(iii) in silver plating.

Silver Halides
Silver reacts with halogens to form compounds like AgCl, AgBr, AgI, etc. AgBr is used in
photography, AgCl is used in making photochromatic glasses and AgI is used in producing
artificial rains.

Silver Nitrate or Lunar Caustic (AgNO 3 )

It is produced by the reaction of Ag with hot and dil. HNO 3 . It is a white crystalline solid with
melting point 214° C. It is readily miscible with water. It is kept inside the coloured bottle
because it decomposes in the presence of sunlight.
It is used as voter marker on the finger and as a special ink used by washerman in cloths
marking, in the electroplating of Ag, making hair dyes and as laboratory reagent.

Gold and Its Compounds

Gold (Au)
Gold is a soft, bright yellow coloured lustrous metal. Its atomic number is 79 and mass number
is 197. It belongs to group-11, 6th period and d-block of the periodic table. Its electronic
configuration is [Xe] 4f 14, 5d 10 , 6 s 1 .
It occurs in nature in free elemental (native) form or in alluvial deposits or in the form of ores.
It is extracted from calaverite ore (AuTe 2 ) and sylvanite (AgAuTe 2 ). It is also extracted from
auriferous sand by amalgamation process (i.e. by alloying with Hg). It is also extracted from
alluvial auriferous sand.

Properties
(i) It is a heavy metal with melting and boiling points 1064°C and ■ Purity of gold is
2610°C respectively. However, its specific gravity is 19.7. expressed in carat. Cu is
(ii) It is inert towards most of the reagents but dissolves in mixed with Au to
aqua-regia (a mixture of HCl and HNO 3 in 3 : 1). provide hardness. 24
(iii) It is inert towards air but reacts with potassium or sodium carat gold is pure
cyanide in excess of air to give aurocyanide ion. whereas 23 carats and
(iv) It is so soft that to convert it into ornaments, it is alloyed with
22 carats have 1 and 2
parts of Cu respectively.
copper.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
108
Uses
Gold is used in making ornaments, coins, in electroplating and in sugar and pharmaceutical
industries.

Purple of Cassius [Au + Sn(OH) 4 ]

It is colloidal gold having purple colour and was named after German physician Cassius. It is
immersible with water.
It is used in making ruby glass and in the colouration of expensive potteries for purple colour.

Zinc and Its Compounds

Zinc (Zn)
It is also a transition element. Its atomic number is 30 and atomic mass is 65. It was discovered
before 1000 BC.
It belongs to group-12 (or II B), 4th period and d-block of the periodic table. Its electronic
configuration is 1 s 2 , 2 s 2 2 p 6 , 3 s 2 3 p 6 3 d 10 , 4s 2 .
It occurs in combined state in the form of zinc blende (ZnS), zincite (ZnO), calamine (ZnCO 3 ),
etc. It is extracted mainly from the ore zinc-blende (ZnS) by carbon reduction process.

Properties
(i) It is bluish white, hard, brittle, non-malleable and non-ductile metal.
(ii) Its melting and boiling points are 419°C and 920°C respectively.
(iii) Its specific gravity is 7.1. It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
(iv) It reacts with dilute HCl, H 2 SO 4 and HNO 3 to form H 2 , SO 2 and NO 2 gases respectively.
(v) Zinc also reacts with both NaOH or KOH to form H 2 and sodium zincate. It displaces
copper from the solution of copper sulphate.

Uses
It is used
(i) for the galvanising of iron and for the production of alloys.
(ii) in the production of many household items, smoke screen in battlefield and dihydrogen gas.
(iii) in the extraction of gold.

Zinc Sulphate (ZnSO 4 )

Hydrated zinc sulphate is known as white vitriol (ZnSO 4 × 7H 2 O). It is a colourless crystalline
solid that is miscible with water. It forms double sulphates with alkali metal sulphates and
(NH 4 )2 SO 4 such as K2 SO 4 × ZnSO 4 × 6H 2 O.
It is used in dyes and printing industries, as a electrolyte in zinc plating process, a mordant in
dyeing and calico printing.

Lithopone (BaSO 4 + ZnS)

It is obtained by the reaction of zinc sulphate with barium sulphide. It is a white pigment of
white paint as it does not react with H 2 S present in the atmosphere. It turns grey in sunlight
and white in dark. It is one of the ingredients of white paint and enamels.
METALS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS
109

Mercury and Its Compounds

Mercury (Hg)
It is commonly known as quick silver. Its atomic number is 80 and atomic mass is 200. It
belongs to group-12 (or II B), 6th period and d-block of the periodic table.
Its electronic configuration is [ Xe] 4f 14, 5d 10, 6 s 2 .
It is generally found in the form of cinnabar (HgS) ore from which it is obtained by the
carbon-reduction process.

Properties
(i) It is a silvery white metal which exists in liquid form at room temperature.
(ii) At 4.12 K, its electrical resistance gets vanished and it acts like a superconductor.
(iii) A mixture of Hg with fats or sugar on strong mobilisation gives a brown powder. This is
called deadening of mercury.
(iv) Mercury, on exposure to ozone, loses its meniscus and sticks to the glass. It is due to
superficial oxidation.
(v) It forms alloys with all metals except iron
and platinum. Hence, it is transported in
Everyday Science
iron containers. Its alloys are called a An immediate rise or fall in the
amalgams. It does not react with water, reading of barometer is an
indication of clear weather and
steam, alkalis and dilute HCl and H 2 SO 4 .
prediction of occurrence of
(vi) On reaction with cold and dilute HNO 3 , it cyclone.
forms mercurous nitrate and NO but with
a Mercury and iron are two metals
conc. HNO 3 it forms mercuric nitrate, NO which produce greater electrical
and NO 2 . resistance with compare to others
(vii) It also dissolves in aqua-regia. It forms on passing the electric current.
mercuric chloride (HgCl 2 ) when reacts with
chlorine and sulphur.

Uses
It is used
(i) in thermometers, barometers, amalgams and cosmetic products like mascara.
(ii) in mercury-vapour lamps, fluorescent lamps, tube lights (Hg vapour + Ar).
(iii) as contact liquid in electrical connection.
(iv) in extraction of silver and gold and for making vermillion.
(v) in LCD screens, battries, measuring and control devices, etc.

Mercuric Sulphide (HgS)

It is a red coloured, crystalline solid, also called vermillion. It is immiscible with water and does
not react with acid. When treated with aqua-regia, it gets dissolved to give mercuric chloride
(HgCl 2 ). It is used in medicines and water colours for colouring.

Mercurous Chloride (Hg 2Cl 2 )

Mercury (I) chloride is white solid which is immiscible with water, also known as calomel. It is
used in the production of drugs, medicines, etc.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
110
Mercuric Chloride (HgCl 2 )
It is a crystalline colourless solid, also known as corrosive sublimate. It is poisonous and best
antidote for it, is white of an egg. It, is moderately soluble in cold water but dissolves readily in
hot water.
It is used in Nessler’s reagent (K2 HgI 4 ) when mixed up with NaOH, which is used to test the
presence of ammonium ion or ammonia. It is also used to wash surgical equipments before
surgery, as a herbicide in farms, in dry cell and as a wood preservative.

Lead and Its Compounds

Lead (Pb)
Lead is a soft bluish-white coloured metal which gives a dull greyish colour when reacts with
air. It is the most stable element. Its atomic number is 82 and atomic mass is 207. It belongs to
group-14 (or IV A), 6th period and p-block of the periodic table. Its electronic configuration is
[ Xe] 4f 14, 5d 10, 6 s 2 6 p 2 .
It generally occurs in combined form. It is extracted from the ore by self reduction process or
by carbon or carbon monoxide reduction process. Pure lead is obtained by the Betts
electrolytic process.

Properties
(i)It is an amphoteric metal with melting and boiling points 327°C and 1620°C respectively.
(ii)It is quite malleable but not so ductile.
(iii)It is a heavy metal with specific density 11.34.
(iv) It is inert towards dry air but reacts with moist air. With oxygen lead forms oxides, with
chlorine it forms chloride (PbCl 2 ), with sulphur it forms sulphide (PbS) and with H 2 SO 4
it forms corresponding sulphate (PbSO 4 ) × NaOH.
(v) It forms plumbate (Na 2 PbO 2 ) and releases H 2 with dilute HNO 3 .
(vi) It gives nitric oxide but with conc. HNO 3 it gives nitorgen dioxide (NO 2 ) gas, the form of
brown smoke.

Uses
It is used
(i) in making of lead chambers, lead storage batteries covering of electric cables, lead arsenic
bullets, pipes, alloys, etc.
(ii) to protect harmful emissions from radioactive minerals.
(iii) in soldering circuit board and other device components.

Alloys of Lead
Pewter — Sn (75%) and Pb (25%)
Solder — Sn (50 - 70%) and Pb (50 - 30%)
Type of metal — Pb (75%), Sb (20%) and Sn (6%)
■ Use of lead pipes for supplying drinking water is now banned as it forms poisonous (toxic)
substance with water.

Lead Oxide or Litharge (PbO)

It is prepared by heating the nitrate. It is a yellow colour volatile amphoteric oxide. It is used to
produce lead storage batteries, flint glasses, etc.
METALS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS
111
Red Lead or Minium or Sindhoor (Pb 3O 4 )
Chemically, it is triplumbic tetraoxide. It is a red powder, insoluble in water and obtained by
heating litharge at 470°C in air.
It is used as a red pigment in glass industry, in match industry and for making protective paint
for iron and steel.

Tetraethyl Lead [Pb(C 2 H 5 ) 4 ]

It is a colourless mobile liquid. It suppresses the knocking of petrol when added to it in small
amount in the vehicles. Thus, it is known as anti-knocking agent. Petrol containing TEL is red
in colour and is known as leaded petrol or ethyl petrol.
Lead Carbonate or White Lead (PbCO 3 )
It is immiscible with water but dissolves in acids like HCl and HNO 3 . It is used in making white
pigments.
Lead Acetate [Pb(CH 3COO) 2 ]
It is a white crystalline solid and soluble in water. Its crystals have sweet taste. Thus, it is called
sugar of lead or inorganic sugar. It is used to detect the presence of H 2 S and as a mordant.

Uranium (U)
It is a silvery white element. Its atomic number is 92 and mass number is 238. This element was
discovered by German chemist M H Klaproth. It belongs to group-3, 7th period and f-block of
the periodic table. Its electronic configuration is [Rn] f 3, 6 d 1, 7 s 2 .
It does not occur in free state and is extracted from pitch blende ore. It possesses six radioactive
isotopes 232 U, 233 U, 234 U, 235 U, 236 U, 238 U. Out of which, U 238 is the most abundant (99.28%)
while U 235 (0.71%) and U 234 (0.006%) occur in very small amount. Only U-235 isotope is
fissionable, so used in the atomic reactor as nuclear fuel.
Properties
(i) It is a paramagnetic element with specific gravity 19.05.
(ii) Its melting and boiling points are 1850°C and 3500°C respectively.
(iii) It is brittle in its impure form.
(iv) It is also called metal of hope.
■ Uranium oxide is smuggled across border as yellow cake. Enriched uranium can be used in making
illegal nuclear explosives that are dangerous to humanity.
Uses
It is used in army sector, as a fuel for nuclear reactor other than research nuclear reactor and
for the production of electricity, etc. It is also used as a catalyst in the production of NH 3 by
Haber’s process, for the production of alloys, drugs, nitrates, acetate, etc.
It is also used as an electrode in gas discharge tube, in photography in the form of uranium
acetate and uranium nitrate.

Thorium (Th)
It is a naturally occurring radioactive element which does not occur in free state but occurs as
monozite and near sea shore. Its crystals are octachedral in shape. The atomic number of
thorium is 90 and mass number is 232. It belongs to group-3, 7th period and f-block of the
periodic table. Its electronic configuration is [Rn]6 d 2, 7 s 2 .
It is a brown coloured metal with melting and boiling points 145°C and 2800°C respectively. Its
relative density is 11.23.
It is used as Mag-Thor alloy in aircraft engines and rockets, in the production of nuclear
energy and in candescent gas mantle in tungsten filament or arc lamp.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
112

Platinum (Pt)
It is a noble metal. Its atomic number is 78 and mass number is 195. It belongs to
group-10 (or VIII), 6th period and d-block of the periodic table. Its electronic configuration is
[Xe]4f 14, 5d 9, 6 s 1 .
It is known as white gold or Adam’s catalyst. It is inert towards air and acids.
It is used in making alloys, tip of the nozel of the pen, in laboratory devices, in ornaments and
as a catalyst in Ostwald’s process.

Plutonium (Pu)
It is radioactive element produced artificially by man. Its atomic number is 94 and mass
number is 244. Its electronic configuration is [Rn] 5f 6 , 6 d 0, 7 s 2 .
It is used in making nuclear fission bomb. The bomb exploded over Hiroshima contained U-235
and that exploded over Nagasaki contained Pu-239. Reasearch nuclear reactors use plutonium.

Information about
Some Other Important Metals
a Symbol of tungsten is W and its melting point is 3500°C. It is produced from Degana mines of
Rajasthan. The filament of an electric bulb is made of tungsten and the bulb is evacuated
(vacuumed) in order to prevent the filament from burning and for a longer life span of the bulb.
a Titanium (Ti) is called strategic metal as it is used in defence. It is stronger but lighter as
compared to steel. It is used for making boats as it does not corrode by the sea water.
a The metal zirconium burns in both oxygen and nitrogen. Zirconium has a neutron absorbing
characteristic and that’s why it is used in atomic reactor.
a Chromium is used in magnetic recording products like audio cassettes and VHS tapes.
a Beryl is the main ore of metal beryllium. Beryllium is used in circuit boards, hard disks,
motherboard, etc.
a Francium is a radioactive liquid metal.
a Stanus sulphide SnS 2 is called Mosaic Gold and it is used in the form of paint.
a The fuse wire in domestic electric circuits are made of alloys of Pb and Sn.
a Metal palladium is used in the manufacturing of aircrafts.
a Metal gallium exists in liquid state at ordinary temperature.
a Metal cesium is used in the manufacturing of photoelectric cells.
a Iron is present in cytochrome.
a Barium sulphate is used as a barium indicative code in the human stomach during its X-ray test
(barium meal). Because barium is a good absorber of X-ray and thus, helps the stomach to
appear clearly in contrast with the other regions in the picture.
a Potassium bromide (KBr) is used in photography, potassium nitrate is used in gun powder and
monopotassium tartrate is used in bakery.
a Potassium carbonate (K 2CO 3 ) is known as pearl ash.
a Nichrome is an alloy of nickel, chromium and iron. The coil of the electric heater is made of
nichrome.
a Every naturally occurring radioactive element transforms finally into a stable element, i.e. lead.
a Use of cadmium in electronic products was banned by the European Union 2004. Elsewhere it
is used in soldering semiconductors and chip resistors.
a Osmium (Os) is the heaviest metal.
a Britannia is an alloy of antimony (Sb), copper (Cu) and tin (Sn).
a Babbitt metal contains tin (89%), antimony (9%) and copper (2%).
 Assessment
1. Which one of the following metals is 11. Table salt gets moist during rainy season
accessed in the native state? because [SSC 2011]
[UPPCS (Mains) 2016] (a) sodium chloride is hygroscopic
(a) Aluminium (b) Gold (b) sodium chloride is deliquescent
(c) Chromium (d) Zinc (c) sodium chloride contains some
2. Which of the following metal is the quantity of sodium iodide
heaviest? [SSC 2017] (d) sodium chloride contains hygroscopic
(a) Iron (b) Silver impurities like magnesium chloride
(c) Nickel (d) Osmium 12. What is the purpose of adding baking
3. Identify the metal which is non toxic in soda to dough?
nature? [SSC 2010] (a) To generate moisture
(a) Chromium (b) Gold (b) To give a good flavour
(c) Cadmium (d) Cobalt (c) To give a good colour
4. The “king of metals“ is (d) To generate carbon dioxide
[SSC CHSL (10+2) 2015] 13. Consider the following statements :
(a) Gold (b) Silver
I. Potassium is kept immersed in kerosene
(c) Iron (d) Aluminium
oil.
5. An amalgam of metal has which other II. Sodium occurs in free state.
element? [SSC Multitasking 2017] III. Copper is very reactive element.
(a) C (b) Au
IV. Silver reacts with hot water.
(c) Ag (d) Hg
Which of the above statements is/are
6. There most abundant metal in the
correct?
earth’s crust is [SSC 2016]
(a) I, II and III (b) Only I
(a) zinc (b) copper
(c) I and II (d) I and III
(c) aluminium (d) iron
7. The important metal used with iron to 14. Which chemical was an important symbol
produce stainless steel is [SSC 2013]
in our struggle for freedom? [CDS 2013]
(a) Glucose
(a) aluminium
(b) Fertilizers
(b) chromium
(c) Medicine
(c) tin
(d) Sodium chloride
(d) carbon
8. Which of the following metal (shown by 15. Which of the following is the chemical
its symbol) is generally used for making name of baking soda? [SSC CGL 2018]
(a) Sodium carbonate
filaments of bulb? [SSC 2017]
(b) Sulphate
(a) Fe (b) An
(c) Sodium hydrogen carbonate
(c) Ag (d) W
(d) Calcium hydroxide
9. Which is the most reactive metal?
16. What is the dominant chemical present
[BPSC (Pre) 2015]
in detergent powder? [SSC CGL 2018]
(a) Sodium
(a) Hydrochloric acid
(b) Calcium
(b) Sodium carbonate
(c) Iron
(c) Calcium carbonate
(d) Potassium
(d) Sodium alkyl sulphate
10. Which one of the following elements is
17. Which one of the following is used for
kept safely in kerosene oil?
water softening? [Asst. Comm. 2019]
[UPPCS (Mains) 2017]
(a) Sodium (b) Copper (a) Mg(HCO 3 )2 (b) Na 3 PO 4
(c) Mercury (d) Silver (c) Na 6 P6 O 18 (d) Na 2 HPO 4
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
114
18. Sodium calcium silicate is called ....... 25. Chalk and marble are different forms of
[SSC CHSL (10+2) 2017] [NDA 2020]
(a) hard glass (a) calcium hydrogen carbonate
(b) borosilicate glass (b) calcium carbonate
(c) soft glass (c) calcium acetate
(d) jena glass (d) sodium carbonate
19. Which of the following elements has the 26. ‘Plaster of Paris’ is made up of
lowest melting point? [Chhattisgarh P.C.S. (Pre) 2019]
[SSC CHSL (10+2) 2017] (a) Marble (b) Cement
(a) Sodium (b) Tin (c) Gypsum (d) Limestone
(c) Radon (d) Radium 27. Tooth enamel is made up of which one
20. Sodium is present in abundant of the following calcium compounds?
quantities in earth’s crust. Why sodium (a) Calcium carbonate [NDA 2019]
never occurs as free element in nature? (b) Calcium sulphate
(a) It is highly reactive element (c) Calcium hydroxide
(b) It is at the bottom of the reactivity (d) Calcium phosphate
series 28. What is the chemical name of slaked
(c) It forms oxide with oxygen present in air lime? [SSC CHSL (10+2) 2019, NDA 2018]
(d) None of the above (a) Calcium nitrate
21. Sodium vapour lamps glow with yellow (b) Sodium chloride
colour. This is due to (c) Calcium chloride
[SSC (10+2) DEO & LDC 2012] (d) Calcium hydroxide
(a) sublimation of sodium to emit yellow 29. Which one of the following is the
colour chemical formula of gypsum? [NDA 2018]
(b) the emission of excess energy (a) CaSO 4 ⋅ 2H 2 O (b) Ca 2 SiO 4
absorbed by sodium atoms, in the (c) 2CaSO 4 ⋅ H 2 O (d) CaSO 4
yellow region of the spectrum
30. Which of the following is slaked lime?
(c) the low ionisation energy of sodium
(a) Ca(OH)2 (b) CaO [SSC 2018]
(d) its ability to absorb all other colours
(c) CaCO 3 (d) CaCl 2
except yellow
31. Which one of the following materials
22. Consider the following statements :
contains calcium? [UPPCS (Pre) 2019]
I. Baking soda is used in fire extinguishers. (a) China clay (b) Corundum
II. Quicklime is used in the manufacture (c) Gypsum (d) Talc
of glass.
32. Calcium sulphate dihydrate is commonly
III. Gypsum is used in the manufacture of known as ......... [SSC CGL 2019]
plaster of Paris.
(a) gypsum (b) glass
Which of the statement(s) given above (c) asbestos (d) limestone
is/are correct? 33. The chemical name of marble which is
(a) I and II (b) II and III
frequently used in house construction
(c) Only I (d) I, II and III
and idols preparations is [SSC 2016]
23 Which one among the following metals (a) calcium carbonate
is used in fireworks to make a brilliant (b) calcium chloride
white light? [CDS 2013] (c) calcium hydroxide
(a) Sodium (d) calcium bicarbonate
(b) Magnesium 34. Which of the following salt is to be
(c) Aluminium found in maximum amount in the
(d) Silver human bones? [UPPCS 2015]
24. Which of the following cannot be beaten (a) Magnesium chloride
into Sheets? [SSC CGL 2017] (b) Calcium carbonate
(a) Gold (b) Silver (c) Calcium phosphate
(c) Potassium (d) Aluminium (d) Sodium chloride
ASSESSMENT
115
35. Which one among the following is the 43. Steel is more elastic than rubber because
chemical formula of gypsum, which is an it [SSC CGL 2013]
ingredient of cement? [NDA/NA 2013] (a) is deformed very easily
(a) Ca 2 SiO 4 (b) is harder than rubber
(b) CaSO 4 ⋅ 2H 2 O (c) required larger deforming force
(c) CaO (d) is never deformed
(d) CaSO 4 ⋅ 3H 2 O 44. Which of the following metal is most
36. Teeth and bones acquire strength and ductile in nature? [SSC 2017]
(a) Copper (b) Silver
rigidity from [SSC CGL 2013]
(c) Gold (d) Aluminum
(a) fluorine (b) chlorine
(c) sodium (d) calcium 45. Iron nails are dipped into blue copper
sulphate solution. After sometime iron
37. Consider the following statements :
nails are [NDA/NA 2011]
I. Marble is a constituent of toothpaste.
(a) dissolved and blue colour is discharged
II. Gypsum is used for the manufacture of
(b) dissolved but blue colour is not
ammonium sulphate.
discharged
Which of the statement(s) given above (c) not dissolved and blue colour is not
is/are correct? discharged
(a) Only I (d) not dissolved but blue colour is
(b) Only II discharged
(c) Both I and II
46. Which is the purest commercial form of
(d) Neither I nor II
iron? [SSC CGL 2018]
38. Which of the following is used in (a) Pig iron (b) Steel
welding broken pieces of iron rails and (c) Stainless steel (d) Wrought iron
machine parts? [SSC FCI 2012] 47. Which one fo the following tains
(a) Aluminium sulphate maximum percentage of carbon
(b) Solder [SSC CHSL DEO & LDC 2014]
(c) Aluminium powder (a) Cast iron (b) Stainless steel
(d) None of the above (c) Wrought iron (d) High speed steel
39. The metal used for making aircrafts and 48. Statement I The blue colour of copper
rockets is [SSC 2014] sulphate crystal disappears when it is
(a) lead (b) aluminium
heated strongly.
(c) nickel (d) copper
Statement II Due to heating, water of
40. Why are stainless steel cooking pans crystallisation of crystal is lost.
fabricated with copper bottom? [NDA/NA 2012]
(a) Copper is cheaper (a) Both the Statements I and II are
(b) Conductivities of copper is more than individually true and Statement II is
the stainless steel the correct explanation of
(c) Copper increases durability of the Statement I.
cooking pan (b) Both the Statements are individually
(d) Cooper is a good reflector of heat true but Statement II is not the
correct explanation of Statement I.
41. Rust needs three components to occur,
(c) Statement I is true, but Statement II
i.e. ......... [SSC CGL 2019]
is false.
(a) Steel, iron and oxygen
(d) Statement I is false, but Statement II
(b) Iron, oxygen and moisture is true.
(c) Iron, nitrogen and moisture.
49. Bronze is often used to make statues
(d) Helium, hydrogen and nitrogen
and medals whereas brass is used in
42. Which one of the following is the making utensils, scientific apparatus
number of water molecules that share and cartridges. Both brass and bronze
with two formula unit in plaster of are copper containing alloys, yet they
Paris? [NDA 2019] differ in their chemical composition for
(a) One (b) Two (c) Five (d) Ten additionally containing. [NDA/NA 2011]
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
116
(a) Zinc in brass and tin in bronze 55. Which one of the following metals is
(b) Chromium in brass and nickel in bronze liquid at ordinary temperature?
(c) Nickel in brass and tin in bronze (a) Lead (b) Nickel
(d) Iron in brass and nickel in bronze (c) Mercury (d) Tin
50. The brass is an alloy whose components 56. Which one of the following is the best
are [BSSC 2016] conductor of heat? [UPPCS (Mains) 2014]
(a) copper and zinc
(a) Water (b) Mercury
(b) zinc and tin
(c) Benzene (d) Leather
(c) copper and tin
(d) copper, tin and zinc 57. Mercury is a [SSC 2016]
51. Which one of the following does not (a) solid metal (b) liquid metal
contain silver? [SSC CGL 2013] (c) solid non-metal (d) liquid non-metal
(a) Lunar caustic (b) German silver 58. Which of the following doesn’t dissolve
(c) Horn silver (d) Ruby silver in water? [SSC 2016]
52. Silver gets corroded due to …… in air. (a) Lead sulphate (b) Zinc sulphate
(a) oxygen [SSC CGL 2016] (c) Potassium (d) Sodium
(b) hydrogen sulphide 59. Which of the following do not react
(c) carbon dioxide with water at all?
(d) nitrogen [Chattisgarh PCS (Pre.) 2015]
53. Which one of the following is called (a) Iron (b) Lead
philosopher’s wool? [SSC Multitasking 2019] (c) Magnesium (d) Aluminium
(a) Zinc chloride (b) Zinc oxide 60. Which of the following mineral is to be
(c) Zinc nitrate (d) Zinc bromide found in the monazite sand?
54. Zinc gives hydrogen gas with sulphuric [RRB NTPC 2016]
acid and hydrochloric acid but not with (a) Potassium (b) Uranium
nitric acid. (c) Thorium (d) Sodium
(a) Zinc act oxidising agent when react 61. Uraninite is the ore/mineral of [SSC 2016]
with nitric acid
(a) zinc (b) uranium
(b) Nitric acid is the weakest acid than
(c) titenium (d) aluminium
sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid
(c) In electrochemical series zinc is 62. From which of the following mineral
below hydrogen radium is obtained? [RRB NTPC 2016]
(d) Nitrate ions (NO −3 ) are reduced in (a) Rectile (b) Haematite
preference to hydronium ion (c) Lime stone (d) Pitchblende

1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (d) 10. (a)
11. (d) 12. (d) 13. (b) 14. (d) 15. (c) 16. (b) 17. (c) 18. (c) 19. (c) 20. (a)
21. (b) 22. (d) 23. (b) 24. (c) 25. (b) 26. (c) 27. (d) 28. (d) 29. (a) 30. (a)
31. (c) 32. (a) 33. (a) 34. (c) 35. (b) 36. (d) 37. (b) 38. (c) 39. (b) 40. (b)
41. (b) 42. (a) 43. (c) 44. (c) 45. (d) 46. (d) 47. (a) 48. (a) 49. (a) 50. (a)
51. (b) 52. (b) 53. (b) 54. (d) 55. (c) 56. (b) 57. (b) 58. (a) 59. (b) 60. (c)
61. (b) 62. (d)
12
Extraction
of Metals
Attainment of pure metal from its compound, is called extraction of metals. Some metals
are found in earth’s crust in free state while some are found in the form of their
compounds. The extraction and isolation of an element from its combined form involve
various principles of chemistry. Still, some general principles are common to all the
extraction processes of metals.

Metallurgy
The entire scientific and technological process used for extraction and isolation of the
metal from its ores, is known as metallurgy. This process can be of three types:
(i) Hydrometallurgy The process of extraction of metal by dissolving in aqueous
solution, is called hydrometallurgy.
(ii) Pyrometallurgy The process of extraction of metal by heating with a suitable
reducing agent, is called pyrometallurgy.
(iii) Electrometallurgy The process of extraction of metal by using electricity, is called
electrometallurgy.

Terms Used in Metallurgy

Some terms used in metallurgy are:

Minerals
The naturally occurring chemical substances in the earth’s ■ Oxygen is the most
crust obtainable by mining, are called minerals, e.g. bauxite abundant element
and kaolinite. (non-metal) in the earth’s
crust while aluminium is the
Ore most abundant metal in the
Minerals from which metals can be extracted through earth’s curst.
various steps conveniently and profitably, are termed as ■ The most abundant
ores. All ores are minerals but all minerals are not ores. element present in human
e.g. Iron pyrite is a mineral of iron but it can not be body is oxygen.
considered as its ore because extraction of iron from it is
very costly.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
118
Ores of Some Important Metals
Elements Composition
Sodium (Na) Chile salt petre (NaNO 3), Common salt or brine (NaCl), Sodium carbonate
(Na2CO 3 ⋅10H2O)
Aluminium (Al) Bauxite (Al2O 3 ⋅ 2H2O), Cryolite (Na 3AlF6), Feldspar (KAlSi 3O 8), Corundum (Al2O 3),
Diaspore ( Al2O 3 ⋅ H2O)
Potassium(K) Nitre or potassium nitrate (KNO 3), Potassium chloride (KCl), Carnallite
(KCl ⋅ MgCl2 ⋅ 6H2O), Potassium carbonate (K2CO 3)
Magnesium (Mg) Magnesite (MgCO 3), Dolomite (MgCO 3 ⋅ CaCO 3), Epsomite (MgSO 4 ⋅ 7H2O)
Calcium (Ca) Calcite (CaCO 3), Fluorspar (CaF2 )
Copper (Cu) Cuprite (Cu2O), Copper glance or chalcocite (Cu2S), Copper pyrite or chalcopyrite
(CuFeS 2 ), Malachite (Cu(OH)2 ⋅ CuCO 3), Azurite (Cu(OH)2 ⋅ 2CuCO 3)
Silver (Ag) Ruby silver (3Ag2S ⋅ Sb2S 3), Horn silver (AgCl), Argentite (Ag2S)
Zinc (Zn) Zinc blende (ZnS), Calamine (ZnCO 3), Zincite (ZnO), Willemite (Zn2SiO 4 )
Mercury (Hg) Cinnabar (HgS)
Gold (Au) Calaverite (AuTe2 ), Auric chloride (AuCl 3)
Lead (Pb) Galena (PbS), Cerrusite (PbCO 3)
Iron (Fe) Haematite (Fe2O 3), Magnetite (Fe 3O 4 ), Siderite (FeCO 3), Limonite (2Fe2O 3 ⋅ 3H2O),
Iron pyrite (FeS 2 )
Uranium (U) Pitchblende (uraninite) (U3O 8)
Thorium (Th) Monazite

Gangue
The earthern impurities like soil, sand, etc., present in the ores, are called gangue or
matrix.

Steps Involved in Metallurgy

It involves the following sequence of steps:

Ores
Concentration of ore

Metals of high Metals of medium Metals of low

reactivity reactivity reactivity

Electrolysis of Carbonate ore Sulphide ore Sulphide

molten ore ores

Calcination Roasting
Pure metal Roasting
Metal oxide
Metal

Reduction (Smelting)
Refining of metal

Purification of metal
EXTRACTION OF METALS
119
Concentration of Ores
Removal of the unwanted materials (gangue or impurities) from ore, is called ore
concentration, dressing or benefaction. It can be done by hand picking but several other
techniques can also be used, description of which are as follows.
(i) Hydraulic Washing This is based on the difference in gravities of the ore and the
gangue particles. It is, therefore, a type of gravity separation. In this process, an
upward stream of running water is used to wash the powdered ore. The lighter
gangue particles are washed away and heavier ores are left behind.
e.g. Ores of iron (Fe 2 O 3 and Fe 3 O 4 ) are concentrated by this process.
(ii) Magnetic Separation It is based on the differences in magnetic properties of the
ore and gangue. e.g. Ores of tungsten from cassiterite (SnO 2 ), Fe 3 O 4 , Cr2 O 3 , etc., are
concentrated by this method.
(iii) Froth Floatation Method It is used for removing gangue from sulphide ores.
Collectors (pine oils) and froth stabilizers (cresols) are added to the suspension of
powdered ore in water.
Ore particles become wet by oils and come with froth which is skimmed off.
(iv) Leaching It is used if the ore is soluble in some suitable solvent. It is recovered from
the solution while impurities are insoluble. e.g. Leaching of bauxite ore is done with
conc. NaOH solution, silver and gold are leached with dilute solution of sodium
cyanide or potassium cyanide.
Extraction of Crude Metals from Concentrated Ores
Isolation of metals from concentrated ores involves two major steps:
1. Conversion to Oxide It is acheived by the following two processes.
(i) Calcination It involves heating of ore with or without the presence of air when
the volatile matter escapes leaving behind the metal oxide. It is done in case of
carbonate, hydroxide and oxide ores of metals. These substances get decomposed
to respective oxides with the evolution of small molecules.
(ii) Roasting It is done only for sulphide ore. The ore is heated in a regular supply of
air at a temperature below the melting point of metal to convert it into oxide ore.
During this process, the impurities of sulphur (S), arsenic, etc., get oxidised and
escape as volatile impurities leaving behing the respective metal oxide.
∆
e.g. CuFeS 2 + 3O 2 → CuO + FeO + 2SO 2
2. Reduction of Oxide to Metal
(i) Smelting It is the reduction by carbon or its oxide, i.e. CO. Metals in the middle of
activity series are reduced by this process. It is the process of heating an ore above
its melting point with coke and flux is added. Oxides of lead iron, tin, zinc, etc., are
reduced by this process.
This process is used to fuse the whole mixture and reduce metal oxide to metal.
High
e.g. PbO + CO → Pb(molten lead) + CO 2 ↑
temperature
Flux is the extra substance added to the ore during the process of smelting.
Infusible materials present in the ore is converted by the flux into a fusible substance.
e.g. In smelting of iron, limestone (CaCO 3 ) is used as flux.
A flux may be acidic or basic. An acidic flux like SiO 2 is used to remove basic
impurities and a basic flux like CaO, FeO, etc., is used to remove acidic impurities.
The acidic or basic impurities present in metal oxide ore are converted into fusible
substance called slag on addition of flux.
Flux + Acidic/Basic Impurities → Slag
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
120
The slag being lighter and fusible floats above the surface of molten metal.
e.g. Ore of Fe contains SiO 2 as impurities which combine with flux CaO
(formed from CaCO 3 at 1000°C) to form CaSiO 3 (slag).
SiO 2 + CaO → CaSiO 3
(ii) Aluminothermic Process Oxides of metals such as chromium and manganese
are reduced by aluminium.
e.g. Cr2 O 3 + 2Al → Al 2 O 3 + 2Cr
(iii) Auto-reduction It is used for metals low in the activity series. The oxides of
these metals such as Cu, Hg, Pb can be reduced to metals by heating alone.
(iv) Electrolytic Method It is used for metals high in the activity series such as
sodium, aluminium, calcium, etc. Their oxides are reduced to metals by this
process. Sodium is obtained by electrolysis of sodium chloride.

Refining
A metal extracted by any method is usually contaminated with some impurities. The
process of extraction of pure metals from their impure or crude form under suitable
conditions, is called refining of metal. It depends upon the nature of element (metal) as
well as the nature of associated impurities. For obtaining metals of high purity, several
techniques are used.
(i) Distillation Purification of Zn, Cd, Hg metals is done by this method as they are low
boiling metals.
(ii) Liquation Metals such as tin, mercury, lead are purified by this method as they have
low melting point.
(iii) Electrolytic Refining Metals such as copper, silver, gold, aluminium and lead are
purified by this method. Impure metal acts as anode, pure metal acts as cathode and
salt of metal acts as an electrolyte.
(iv) Zone Refining This method is useful for producing semiconductor and other metals
of very high purity, e.g. germanium, silicon, boron, gallium and indium. It is based on
the principle that impurities are soluble in the molten than in the solid state of metal.
(v) Vapour Phase Refining In this method, the metal is converted into its volatile
compound and then it is decomposed to give pure metal. e.g.
Mond’s Process It is used for nickel (Ni).
∆
Ni + CO → Ni(CO) 4 → Ni + 4CO
Impure Volatile and Pure
stable
van Arkel Process It is used for zirconium (Zr) and titanium (Ti).
∆
Ti + 2I2 → TiI4 → Ti + 2I2
Impure 1600 ° C Pure
(vi) Chromatographic Method It is based on the principle that different components
of mixture are differently absorbed.
■ Alkali and alkaline earth metals are obtained by the electrolysis of their chlorides, oxides or
hydroxides.
■ Borax or KNO 3 is used as flux in refining of silver.
■ In Hall-Heroult process of electrolysis of aluminium, purified Al2 O 3 is mixed with Na 3 AlF6 or
CaF2 to lowers the melting point and increases the conductivity.
■ Wrought or malleable iron is the purest form of commercial iron.
■ Cast iron is used in the manufacture of wrought iron and steel.
■ A mixture of Fe2 O 3 and Al in 3 :1 is called thermite mixture and is used for welding railway lines.
 Assessment
1. Bauxite is the ore of 7. Consider the following statements :
[UPPCS (Pre) (Re-Exam) 2015] I. All the ores are minerals, but all the
(a) iron (b) aluminium minerals are not ores.
(c) copper (d) gold II. Some minerals may contain a large
2. Highly reactive metals are found in percentage of metal whereas others
combined state in nature. The natural may contain only a small percentage of
substances containing metal in the metals.
combined form are known as minerals. A Which of the above statement(s) is/are
mineral is called ore if correct?
(a) the metal present in the mineral is (a) Only I
costly
(b) Only II
(b) a metal can be extracted from it
(c) I and II
(c) a metal can be profitably extracted
from it (d) None of the above
(d) a metal cannot be extracted from it 8. Consider the following statements :
3. In general the metal obtained by I. In roasting the ores are generally
reduction contains impurities. Presence converted into metal oxides.
of small impurities makes a metal quite II. In roasting ore becomes porous and
hard because the impurities moisture is removed.
(a) change the lattice structure of metals III. An ore is heated below its melting
(b) reduce the number of slide planes point in the roasting process.
(c) reduce the number of mobile electrons Which of the above statements are
(d) reduce the crystal symmetry correct about roasting ?
4. Gravity separation method is based upon (a) I and II (b) II and III
(a) difference in densities of ore (c) I and III (d) I, II and III
particles and impurities 9. Consider the following statements :
(b) difference in chemical properties of
I. Copper metal is extracted by thermal
the particles and impurities
reduction process.
(c) preferential washing of ores and
gangue particles II. The magnetic separation is used for
increasing concentration of the
(d) None of the above
haematite ore.
5. In a process of concentration of ore, an
III. Coke act as the reducing agent for the
upward stream of running water is used
production of steel or iron.
to wash the powdered ore. The lighter
gangue particles are washed away and Which of the above statements are
the heavier ores are left behind. Which correct?
method of concentration of ore is (a) I and II (b) II and III
discussed in the above passage? (c) I and III (d) I, II and III
(a) Hydraulic washing 10. Consider the following statements :
(b) Leaching
I. Cinnabar is an ore of (Hg).
(c) Magnetic separation
II. The ores of more density is separated
(d) Both (a) and (b)
by gravity separation process.
6. The process of extraction of iron from
III. Zincite is an example of oxide ore.
its ore is called [SSC 2016]
(a) oxidation Which of the above statement(s) is/are
(b) fractional distillation correct?
(c) electric decomposition (a) I and II (b) I and III
(d) reduction (c) II and III (d) I, II and III
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
122
11. Statement I Lime, silica magnesium 12. Match items of Column I with the items of
oxide are commonly used as refractory Column II and assign the correct code.
materials in lining of furnace.
Column I Column II
Statement II These can be withstand
A. Cyanide process 1. Ultrapure Ge
very high temperature.
(a) Both the Statements are individually B. Froth floatation process 2. Dressing of ZnS
true and Statement II is the correct C. Electrolytic reduction 3. Extraction of Al
explanation of Statement I.
(b) Both the Statements are individually D. Zone refining 4. Extraction of Au
true but Statement II is not the 5. Purification of Ni
correct explanation of Statement I.
(c) Statement I is true, but Statement II Codes
is false. A B C D A B C D
(d) Statement I is false, but Statement II (a) 4 2 3 1 (b) 2 3 1 5
is true. (c) 1 2 3 4 (d) 3 4 5 1

1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (a) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (d) 9. (d) 10. (d)
11. (a) 12. (a)
13
Non-metals and
Their Compounds
Elements having a tendency to accept electron and form an anion are called non-metals.
In the modern periodic table, there are 22 non-metals and these are placed towards right.

Physical Properties of Non-metals

(i) Non-metals are either solids or gases except bromine which is liquid. 10 non-metals
exist in solid state and 11 in gaseous state.
(ii) They display a variety of colours.
(iii) These are poor conductors of heat and electricity (except graphite).
(iv) These are not lustrous, sonorous or malleable (however, iodine is lustrous).
(v) Non-metals have low melting points, boiling points and densities (except diamond
and graphite, melting and boiling points of which are much higher).

Chemical Properties of Non-metals

(i) Non-metals are electronegative in nature. They form anions by the gain of electrons.
(ii) Non-metals combine with oxygen to form oxides, e.g. when sulphur burns in air
(oxygen), sulphur dioxide is formed.
S + O2 ¾
¾® SO 2 (sulphur dioxide)
Sulphur dioxide, on dissolution in water gives sulphurous acid. The sulphurous acid
turns blue litmus paper red.
Sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) + Water (H2 O) ¾
¾® Sulphurous acid (H2 SO 3 )
(iii) Acidic oxides of non-metals are CO 2 , SO 2 , SO 3 , NO 2 , P2 O 5 whereas neutral oxides of
non-metals are CO, NO, N 2 O, H2 O.
(iv) Generally, non-metals do not react with water though they may be very reactive in
air. Such non-metals are stored in water. e.g. Phosphorus is a very reactive non-metal,
it catches fire if exposed to air, so it is stored in water.
(v) Reactions of non-metals with bases are complex.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
124

Carbon (C)
Carbon is the seventeenth most abundant element by mass in earth’s crust. Its atomic
number is 6 and mass number is 12.
It belongs to group-14 or IV A, 2nd period and p - block of the periodic table. Its electronic
configuration is 1s 2 , 2s 2 2 p 2 .
Occurrence
It is widely distributed in nature in free as well as in ■ Two other isotopes, i.e. 156 C and
combined state. In elemental state, it is available as 16
coal, graphite and diamond. However in combined 6C have been discovered for
state, it is present as metal carbonates, proteins, carbon. Just like 146 C , these are also
carbohydrates, hydrocarbons, CO 2 (0.03%) in air and radioactive in nature.
other complex compounds. ■ Because of its tetravalency and
Carbon exists in following isotopic forms catenation power, the number of
12 13 14 14
6 C, 6 C, 6 C. Third isotope, i.e. 6 C is a radioactive compounds formed by carbon are
isotope (half-life 5770 years) and emits b-rays and 12
6 C more than 5 lakh, however all other
is taken as an international standard of atomic weight elements are known to form only
which is expressed in atomic mass units (amu). 50 thousand compounds.
Properties of Carbon
(i) Carbon is a tetravalent non-metal. It is not affected by water.
(ii) It forms multiple bonds with itself and with other atoms of small size.
e.g. C == C, C ºº C, C == O, C == S and C ºº N.
(iii) Carbon atoms link with one another through covalent bonds to form chains and
rings. This property of self linking is called catenation.
(iv) Due to the property of catenation, carbon is able to exist in allotropic forms.

Allotropes of Carbon
Carbon exhibits many allotropic forms; both crystalline as well as amorphous. Diamond,
graphite and fullerene are crystalline forms of carbon. While carbon black coke, wood
charcoal, coal, etc., are its amorphous forms.
Allotropy is the phenomenon of existence of the same element or compound in two or
more forms that possess similar chemical properties but differ in their physical
properties. These different forms are called allotropes or allotropic modifications.

Diamond
It is a precious gem stone that occurs in nature in the form of kimberlite stone. Its purity is
measured in terms of carat (1 carat = 200 mg). Different varities of diamond are known by
the name cullinan (3032 carat), hope (445 carat), kohinoor (186 carat), pit (136.2 carat), etc.
In diamond, each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms in tetrahedral
fashion forming a rigid three-dimensional structure. In this structure, directional
covalent bonds are present throughout the lattice. It is very difficult to break extended
covalent bonding and, therefore, diamond is the hardest substance on earth.
Properties of Diamond
(i) Pure diamond is a colourless transparent solid.
(ii) Its density and refractive index are 3.67 and 2.44 respectively.
(iii) It is inert and highly poisonous.
NON-METALS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS
125
(iv) It is a bad conductor of electricity because of the ■ Presence of impurities imparts different
absence of free electrons but can conduct heat. colours to diamond. Black diamond
(v) In pure form, it is transparent to X-rays but in (or Boor) is known by the name
impure form, it is not. So, X-rays can be used to carbonado in the commercial market.
distinguish between pure and artificial diamonds. ■ Moissan prepared the first artificial
(vi) On heating with potassium dichromate diamond in 1893.
(K 2 Cr2 O 7 ) and conc. H2 SO 4 at 200°C, it gives ■ Colourless diamonds are used in
carbon dioxide gas. This gas is also evolved making jewellery as diamond sparkles
when diamond is heated in air at about due to total internal reflection.
700-900°C.
Uses
Coloured diamond is used
(i) as an abrasive for sharpening hard tools (i.e. in making rock drilling machines,
glass cutting devices, gem cutters, etc).
(ii) in making dyes.
(iii) in the manufacture of tungsten filaments for electric bulb.

Graphite
In graphite, each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms in the same plane
giving a hexagonal array. The fourth electron of each carbon is free and moves in entire
crystal lattice making graphite a good conductor of electricity. The structure of graphite
is two-dimensional sheet like formed by the hexagonal arrays being placed in layers one
above the other.
Properties of Graphite
(i) Graphite is soft, smooth and slippery due to its layer like structure. It is so soft that it is
used for marking on the paper in the form of lead pencil. Thus, it is also known by the
name black lead.
(ii) It is inert towards most of the chemicals like acids, alkalies, dil. HNO 3 , etc., but gives
carbon dioxide, when heated alone or with a mixture of K2Cr2O7 and conc. H2SO 4.
(iii) On heating a very high pressure and in the presence of suitable catalyst, it gets
converted into diamond. However, conversion of diamond into graphite is not
possible in any circumstances.
Uses
It is used
(i) in making electrodes because it is a good conductor of ■ The lead of lead pencil is
electricity due to the presence of free electrons. made up of graphite,
(ii) as dry lubricant to prevent rusting and viscous friction not of lead. Thus,
in machines running at high temperature. percentage of lead in
(iii) in making refractory crucibles used for melting metals. these pencils or even in
(iv) in making lead pencils as it marks on paper. all pencils is 0.
(v) as a moderator in nuclear reactor.

Graphene
Graphene is a newly discovered allotrope of carbon. Its structure is one-atom-thick with planar
sheets of carbon atoms that are densely packed in a honeycomb crystal lattice. The term graphene
was coined as a combination of graphite and the suffix-ene by Hanns-Peter Boehm, who described
single-layer carbon foils in 1962. It is a two-dimensional substance with good conductivity. It is a
strong substance and used as a conducting material for touch screen, LCD and LED.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
126
Fullerene
It is the only pure form of carbon. It is made by heating graphite in an electric arc
in the presence of inert gases such as helium or argon. These are cage like
molecules. C 60 molecule has a shape like soccer ball and called Buckminster
fullerene. It is so called because it resembles in structure with the dome shaped
structures made by the architect Buckminster Fuller.
Uses (i) As a microscopic ball bearing and light weight batteries.
(ii) In synthesis of new lubricants, new plastics and new drugs.

Lamp Black
It is the purest form of carbon and contains 95% carbon. It is obtained by burning
hydrocarbons in a limited supply of air. It is used as a black pigment in black ink, shoe
polish and as filler in automobile tyres. It is also used as an eye soot.

Charcoal
It is the impure form of carbon because of its porous Coke
structure and large surface area. It has high capacity of It is obtained by
absorbing gases. It can be of the following types: heating coal in the
absence of air at high
(i) Wood Charcoal It is obtained by heating wood in the temperature, by this volatile
absence of air at high temperature. Being highly components get removed
porous, activated charcoal is used in absorbing from the coke. It contains
poisonous gases and in making gas masks which are 80-85% carbon. It is used
used in mines and factories. It is also used in water as a fuel and as a
fillers and in air conditioning system to control odour. It reducing agent in
is a good reductant and exhibits germicidal properties. It metallurgy.
is used in making explosives.
(ii) Bone Charcoal It is obtained by the destructive distillation of bone.
Organic substances are bleached by using this charcoal.
(iii) Sugar Charcoal and Blood Charcoal These are obtained by the destructive
distillation of sugar and blood respectively.
Coal
About 90% coal is found in northern hemisphere. It is obtained by the process of
carbonation from vegetable substances and is considered as a unlimited source of energy.
It is used as fuel, in the production of coal gas and synthetic petrol.
Generally, there are four varities of coal depending upon the percentage of carbon.
These are as follows:
(a) Peat (50-60% C)—It is low quality coal.
(b) Lignite or brown coal (60-70% C).
(c) Bituminous (78-86% C) — It is a general variety of coal. It is soft and used for domestic
purposes.
(d) Anthracite (94-98% C) — It is a good and high quality coal.
■ Fullerenes are discovered by HW Kroto, E Smalley and RF Curl.
■ Graphite is thermodynamically most stable allotrope of carbon.
■ Graphite fibres embedded in plastic material (composites) are used in tennis rackets, fishing
rods and aircrafts, etc.
■ Coconut charcoal is used in the separation of inert gases.
■ Artificial graphite is obtained by Acheson process.
■ Carbon forms a number of hydrides which are known as hydrocarbons. We study them in
organic compounds.
NON-METALS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS
127

Oxides of Carbon
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
It is obtained by the direct oxidation of carbon in the limited supply of oxygen.
¾D® 2CO( g )
2C(s ) + O 2 ( g ) ¾
It is produced as smoke of motor vehicles, so it is the main pollutant of the city.
Properties
(i) It is present in water gas or synthesis gas (CO + H2 ) and in producer gas (CO + N 2 ).
Both are used as an important industrial fuel.
(ii) It is colourless, odourless, tasteless and almost water insoluble gas.
(iii) It burns with a blue flame and forms a poisonous gas phosgene (carbonyl chloride) by
reacting with chlorine in the presence of sunlight.
(iv) Its weight is equal in air and in volatile gas.
(v) It itself is highly poisonous gas. It forms a stable complex with haemoglobin (about
200 times more readily as compared to oxygen) and thus, decreases the oxygen
carrier capacity of blood which disturbs the respiratory activities and ultimately
results in death.
Uses
It is used as a reducing agent in various metallurgical processes, in the preparation of
metal carbonyls, in Mond process (purification of Ni), in the preparation of compounds
like phosgene, methyl alcohol, sodium formate, etc.

Carbon Dioxide (CO 2 )

It is obtained by the complete combustion of carbon and carbon containing fuels in excess
of air. Limestone on heating also gives CO 2 . It is produced in the process of respiration in
plants and animals. It is also produced in the process of fermentation.
Properties
(i) In atmosphere, it is present 0.03% by volume, from where it is removed by the
process of photosynthesis.
(ii) It is a colourless, odourless acidic gas.
(iii) CO 2 is non-poisonous. It is a greenhouse gas but its increased concentration in
atmosphere is responsible for global warming.
(iv) Aqueous solution of carbon dioxide is called carbonic acid (H2 CO 3 ).
(v) If this gas is passed over lime water, lime water turns milky due to the formation of
white coloured calcium carbonate. However, in excess of CO 2 , the milkiness
disappears as soluble calcium bicarbonate is obtained.
Uses
(i) Solid CO 2 (dry ice or drikold) is used as a Everyday Science
refrigerant for ice-cream, etc.
a Carbon dioxide is heavier than air
(ii) Gas CO 2 is used in carbonated soft drinks and non-inflammable. Both these
like soda water, cold drinks, etc., under high properties make it a good fire
pressures. extinguisher as being heavier, it
(iii) It is used as a fire extinguisher. To cuts the supply of air to the fire.
extinguish a fire, it is generated at that time a It is generally advised, not to sleep
by the reaction of sodium bicarbonate with under a tree. This is because at
dilute acid. night the process of
(iv) It is also used in the manufacturing of urea, photosynthesis stops and plants
respire to release carbon dioxide
hard steel, etc.
which is harmful to us and leads to
several respirating problems.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
128
Carbonic Acid (H 2 CO 3 )
When CO 2 is dissolved in water, carbonic acid is formed. It is a dibasic acid.
H2 CO 3 / HCO 3- buffer system helps to maintain pH of blood between 7.42 to 7.26.

Silicon (Si)
Its atomic number is 14 and mass number is 28. It belongs to group-14 or IV A, 3rd period
and p-block of the periodic table. Its electronic configuration is 1s 2, 2s 2 2 p 6, 3s 2 3 p 2 .
Properties
(i) It occurs in nature in the form of silica (sand) and silicates.
(ii) It is the second most abundant (by mass) element on earth’s crust after oxygen (i.e. 26%).
(iii) It is a non-metallic element that exhibits allotropy.
Uses
(i) It is an important component of ceramics, glass, cement.
(ii) Ultra pure Si is used as a semiconductor and in transistors.
(iii) It is used in making polymer silicones, silica gel as a drying agent and in making silica
garden and acid resistant steel.
(iv) It is also used for making computer chips.

Compounds of Silicon
(i) Silicon Carbide It is an artificial diamond, known as carborundum.
(ii) Silica (SiO 2 ) It is used in manufacturing of glass and cement. Crystalline quartz
is SiO 2 .
(iii) Silicones These are polymers used as sealant, greases, electrical insulators and for
waterproofing of fabrics. These are used in surgical and cosmetic plants.
(iv) Silanes These are the hydrides of silicon.

Nitrogen (N 2 )
It was discovered by D Rutherford (1772). Its atomic number is 7 and mass number is 14.
It belongs to group-15 or V A, 2nd period and p-block of the periodic table. Its electronic
configuration is 1s 2 , 2s 2 2 p 3 .
Occurrence
Molecular nitrogen comprises of 78% by volume of the atmosphere.
In the earth’s crust, it occurs as chile salt petre (sodium nitrate) and Indian salt petre
(potassium nitrate). In plants and animals, it is found as proteins. Plants take it from the
soil in the form of nitrates. It is the main component of urea (46% N). It exists in the
following isotopic forms 13 14 15
7 N , 7 N , 7 N.

Preparation
(i) Industrially, it is prepared by the liquefaction and fractional distillation of air.
(ii) In laboratory, it is prepared by treating an aqueous solution of ammonium chloride
with sodium nitrite.
NON-METALS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS
129
Properties
(i) It is a colourless, odourless, tasteless, diatomic, non-polar and non-toxic gas.
(ii) It is inert at room temperature. At high temperature, it reacts with oxygen and
hydrogen to form oxides and hydrides respectively.
(iii) It also reacts with metals (like Mg, Li, etc.) to form nitrides (Mg 3 N 2 , Li 3 N).
Uses
It is used
(i) in the manufacturing of ammonia and Everyday Science
other industrial chemicals containing
a Air bags used for safety of car
nitrogen (e.g. calcium cyanamide). driver have sodium azide (NaN 3).
(ii) to produce inert atmosphere in iron and They inflate during head on impact
steel industry. of the car. The inflation is because
of the pumping of air into the
(iii) liquid N 2 is used as a refrigerant to balloon during the impact.
preserve biological materials, food items
and sperm of bull and in cryosurgery, etc.
(iv) in electric bulb and thermometer of measuring high temperature.

Nitrogen Fixation
Conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into usable forms like nitrates and nitrites, is
called nitrogen fixation. It takes place both by naturally (during lightning and by
nitrogen fixing bacteria like rhizobium) and artificially (fertilizers).
Denitrification
Conversion of nitrogenous compounds into gaseous nitrogen by denitrifying
bacteria, is called denitrification.

Ammonia (NH 3 )
It was first isolated by J Priestley in 1774 by heating ammonium chloride and calcium
carbonate and also called alkaline air. Later in 1785 Berthelot idenfied.
On large scale, it is manufactured by Haber’s process from nitrogen and hydrogen in
which Fe acts as catalyst and molybdenum (Mo) acts as promotor. However, now-a-days
Fe 2 O 3 is used as a catalyst and Al 3 O 3 with K 2 O acts as promoter.

■ Concentrated solution of ammonia in water is called liquor ammonia.

■ Ammonium carbonate [(NH4 )2 CO 3 ] is called smelting salt and a complex obtained by the
reaction of ammonium chloride with conc. chlorostanic acid is called pink salt.

It is a tetrahedral molecule which acquires

pyramidal shape because of the presence of a Everyday Science
lone pair of electrons (i.e. non-bonded a Bad smell in the nearby areas of
electrons). It is a colourless, pungent odour, toilets, horse parking venue, etc.,
highly water soluble gas. is because of ammonia which is
obtained by the decomposition of
It is used to produce various nitrogenous urine (urea).
fertilizers and nitric acid. Liquid ammonia is
a The bottles of liquid ammonia are
used as a refrigerant. cooled before opening because of
the very high vapour pressure of
liquid ammonia.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
130

Oxides of Nitrogen
Nitrogen forms a number of oxides such as dinitrogen oxide (or nitrous oxide) N 2 O,
nitrogen monoxide (or nitric oxide) NO, dinitrogen trioxide N 2 O 3 , nitrogen dioxide NO 2 ,
dinitrogen tetroxide N 2 O 4 and dinitrogen pentoxide N 2 O 5 .
N 2 O and NO are neutral oxide while remaining oxides are acidic in nature. Nitrous oxide
(N 2 O) is also called laughing gas because its inhalation produces excessive laughter. It is
used as an anaesthesia in surgical operations, dental surgery, etc. However, its excess
inhalation may lead to death.

Oxoacids of Nitrogen
Nitrogen forms oxoacids such as hyponitrous acid, nitrous acid and nitric acid. Amongst
them, nitric acid is the most important.

Nitric Acid (HNO 3 )

On large scale, it is prepared by Ostwald’s process by the catalytic oxidation of ammonia
by atmospheric oxygen. It is also prepared by Birkeland Eyde process and Retort process.
It is a colourless liquid. In aqueous solution, it behaves as a strong acid. It is a strong
oxidising agent and attacks most metals except gold and platinum. Iron aluminium and
chromium do not dissolve in concentrated nitric acid because of the formation of a
passive film of oxide on the surface. It is called aqua fortis meaning strong water because
it attacks nearly all the metals.
It is used for the preparation of explosives such as nitroglycerin (dynamite),
trinitrotoluene (TNT), trinitrophenol (TNP), etc., and other organic compounds.

Nitrous Acid (HNO 2 )

It is a very unstable compound. Its salts are known as nitrites. It acts as both oxidising as
well as reducing agent. A mixture of carbon disulphide and nitric oxide placed in the
solution of nitrous acid (HNO 2 ) is used for flash photography.

Ammonium Chloride or Sal Ammoniac (NH 4 Cl)

It is also known by the name nausadar. It is white coloured crystalline powder used in a
dry cell, as a cleaner before welding the metallic surface and as a laboratory reagent. It is
also used in manufacturing of drugs and in electroplating.

Phosphorus (P)
It is a very reactive non-metal with atomic number 15 and mass number 31. It belongs to
group-15 or V A, 3rd period and p-block of the periodic table. Its electronic configuration
is 1s 2 , 2s 2 2 p 6 , 3s 2 3 p 3 .
Occurrence
In nature, it exists in the form of its stable phosphates. It is an essential constituent of
animal and plant matter. It is present in bones (which have 58% calcium phosphate) as
well as in living cells. It is also found in blood and urine of the animals in small amounts.
Phospho-proteins are present in milk and eggs.
NON-METALS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS
131
On an average, an adult human contains 0.7 kg phosphorus. Some of its important
minerals are phosphorite [Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 ], chlorophite [Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 CaCl 2 ] and Redonda
phosphate [AlPO 4 ]. It is extracted mainly from phosphorite ore by modern
electrothermal process however, its small amounts can also be extracted from bone ash
by old process.
31
It exists in the following isotopic forms 15
P, 32
15
P and 33
15
P.
Uses
(i) Phosphorus plays a major role in the synthesis of DNA and RNA.
(ii) As phospher bronze (an alloy of P), it is used for making a special type of container.
(iii) It is essential for exhibiting the phenomenon of photosynthesis and for the colour of
leaves. In its deficiency, plants do not exhibit photosynthesis and leaves loss their
colour and become dry.
(iv) In the form of aluminium phosphide, it is used as a food grains preserver.

Allotropic Forms of Phosphorus

White/Yellow Phosphorus
It consists of tetrahedral (P4 ) molecules, in which each P atom is bonded to other three
atoms by single bond. White phosphorus is highly reactive and catches fire at room
temperature because its ignition temperature is 30°, that’s why it is kept in water. Its
buring is called self ignition.
It dissolves in CS 2 and insoluble in water. It is translucent white waxy solid and
poisonous having characteristic garlic smell. It turns yellow when kept in the light,
that’s why name yellow phosphorus is given to it.
It glows in dark (chemiluminescence). It dissolves in boiling sodium hydroxide in an
inert atmosphere and produces phosphine. Its shape is triangular pyramidal because
of the presence of a lone pair (non-bonded pair) of electrons.
It is used in making fire crackers, fire bomb and smoke bomb.
■ Persons working with phosphorus develop a disease known as phossy jaw in which jaw
bones decay.
Phosphorescence or Chemiluminescence
White phosphorus glows in dark to produce yellowish green light because of its
slow combustion in air. This property is called phosphorescence or
chemiluminescence. The energy of oxidation is not liberated as heat but it is
emitted as light.

Red Phosphorus
Red phosphorus is polymeric in structure with
Everyday Science
P2 molecule and linear shape. It is red
crystalline solid. a Safety matchstick contains a
mixture of antimony
It is obtained by heating white phosphorus at trisulphide and potassium
573 K in an inert atmosphere. However, its chlorate at its one end. Its box
vapours are obtained by heating red side contains a mixture of
powdered glass and red
phosphorus at 523 K in the presence of N 2 , CO 2 ,
phosphorus.
etc gases. These vapours when condensed again
give white phosphorus.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
132
It is odourless and non-poisonous in nature and is insoluble in water as well as in CS 2 .
Chemically, it is much less reactive than white phosphorus. It does not catch fire
because of its high ignition temperature (260°C). It does not glow in dark.
It is used along with other chemicals in the safety matchsticks.

Black Phosphorus
It is prepared by heating white phosphorus at about 200°C under a very high
pressure. It has two forms a-black phosphorus and b-black phosphorus. a-black
phosphorus can sublime in air. It does not oxidise in air.
b-black phosphorus does not burn in air upto 673 K. It is a good conductor of
electricity. Its colour is black and it is immiscible with carbon disulphide. It is inert just
like red phosphorus.

Scarlet Phosphorus
It is obtained when a 10% solution of white
phosphorus in PBr3 is heated for about 10 hours.
It is a red crystalline solid which is immiscible Phosphine (PH3 )
with carbon disulphide (CS 2 ). It is prepared by the hydrolysis
of calcium phosphide with water or
It is a non-poisonous substance. It is more dilute hydrochloric acid. In laboratory, it
reactive as compared to red phosphorus is prepared by heating white phosphorus
but still it does not catch fire in air at with concentrated sodium hydroxide
ordinary temperature. solution in the atmosphere of CO 2 gas.
It is a colourless volatile gas with rotten
Violet Phosphorus fish smell and is highly poisonous. It
It is also known as Hittorf’s phosphorus as burns in air providing a dazzling shiny
it was discovered by Hittorf. It is obtained light. It explodes in contact with
when white phosphorus is heated in a closed traces of oxidising agents
tube at 803 K. As the name implies, its colour is such as chlorine. It is
violet. It is non-inflammable and bad conductor weakly basic.
of electricity.

Oxides of Phosphorus
Phosphorus Trioxide
It exists as a dimer (P4 O 6 ). It is formed when white phosphorus burns in limited supply of air.
Phosphorus Pentoxide (P4 O 10 )
It is an acid anhydride of phosphoric acid. It sublimes on heating. It exists as waxy
white acidic powder which reacts with water vigorously and give orthophosphoric
acid. It possesses a regular tetrahedral structure.
It is used as a dehydrating agent. It dehydrates sulphuric acid to sulphur trioxide,
nitric acid to dinitrogen pentoxide, cellulose to carbon.
Oxoacids of Phosphorus
Name Formula Oxidation State
Hypophosphorus acid H3PO 2 +1
Orthophosphorus acid or phosphorus acid H3PO 3 +3
Orthophosphoric acid or phosphoric acid H3PO 4 +5
Hypophosphoric acid H4P2O 6 +4
Pyrophosphoric acid H4P2O 7 +5
Polymetaphosphoric acid (HPO 3) n +5
NON-METALS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS
133
■ The main component of bone is hydroxyapatite and amorphous form of calcium phosphate.
■ Basicity of orthophosphoric acid, orthophosphorus acid and hypophosphorus acid is 3, 2 and
1 respectively.
■ Hypophoshite compounds are used for making inner body strength (power) promoting drugs.

Oxygen (O2 )
It was first discovered by Sweden scientist Scheele (1772) and the name oxygen was given
by AL Lavoisier in 1977. Its atomic number is 8 and mass number is 16.
It belongs to group-16 or VI A, 2nd period and p-block of the periodic table. Its electronic
configuration is 1s 2 , 2s 2 2 p 4 .

Occurrence
It is the most abundant of all elements on earth. It forms about 46.6% by mass of earth’s
crust. Dry air contains 20.946% oxygen by volume. The main source of atmospheric
oxygen is photosynthesis. In laboratory, it is prepared by heating (at 375°C) potassium
chlorate (KClO 3 ) in the presence of a catalyst manganese dioxide (MnO 2 ). Industrially, it is
obtained from air by fractional distillation. It exists in the following isotopic forms
16 17 18
8 O, 8 O and 8 O.

Properties
(i) Dioxygen is colourless, odourless gas which gets converted into deep blue liquid on cooling.
(ii) It is slightly heavier than air.
(iii) It does not burn itself but is a supporter of combustion.
(iv) Its solubility in water is just sufficient for the vital support of marine and aquatic life.
(v) It is paramagnetic in nature.
(vi) It reacts with nearly all metals (except Au, Pt) and non-metals and some noble metals.
Uses
It is used in oxyacetylene welding and in the manufacturing of many metals such as steel.
Oxygen cylinders (which contain oxygen diluted with helium) are used in hospitals, high
altitude flying and in mountaineering. Liquid oxygen is used in rocket fuel as an oxidiser.
■ If all the vegetation of the earth be destroyed, it will lead to lose of life on the earth because of
the absence of oxygen.

Ozone (O 3 )
It is an allotropic form of oxygen. Chemically, it is triatomic oxygen. At a height of 20 km, it is
formed from atmospheric oxygen in the presence of sunlight. Ozone layer protects the earth’s
surface from UV radiations. Nitric oxide (NO) which emits from exhaust systems of supersonic
jet aeroplanes and chlorofluorocarbons destroys ozone layer.

Properties
It acts as oxidising as well as reducing agent. It combines with unsaturated compounds like
ethene and ethyne to give ozonides. When exposed on silver, it gives an extremely brighter silver
black.
It is used as a germicide, disinfectant and for sterilising water. It is also used for bleaching oils,
ivory, flour, starch, etc., and for making artificial silk.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
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Sulphur (S)
It has atomic number 16 and mass number 32. It belongs to group-16 (VI A), 3rd period and
p-block of the periodic table. Its electronic configuration is 1s 2 , 2s 2 2 p 6 , 3s 2 3 p 4 .
It exists in the following isotopic forms
32
16
S, 33
16
S, 34
16
S, 35
16
S, 36
16
S. 35
16
S are radioactive.

Occurrence and Extraction

In earth’s crust, it is found only 0.03-0.1%. Eggs, ■ At elevated temperature S 2 is
proteins, garlic, onion, mustard, hair and wool all dominant species and
contain sulphur. Elemental sulphur is found near hot paramagnetic in nature like O 2 .
springs and volcanic regions like Italy and Sicily ■ As a result of sublimation of
Islands, Japan, etc. Sulphur occurs naturally in the sulphur, obtained powder is
form of compounds like FeS, HgS, PbS, ZnS, etc. called flower of sulphur.
Commercially, it is produced by Frasch process and ■ If sulphur is boiled and then
Sicilian process. cooled by keeping inside the cold
water, it gets converted into
Allotropic Forms of Sulphur plastic sulphur.
Sulphur forms numerous allotropes, out of which ■ Pungent odour of sulphur is
yellow rhombic and monoclinic forms are most because of the presence of
important. sulphurous compounds.

Crystalline Allotropic Forms

(i) Rhombic Sulphur (Octahedral or a-sulphur) It is the most stable form of sulphur at
room temperature. It is yellow in colour and brittle. It contains ring of 8 S atoms which
forms a puckered ring structure. Its crystals are formed by evaporating the solution of
roll sulphur in CS 2 . It is insoluble in water but readily soluble in CS 2 . It is a bad
conductor of electricity. On heating with iron filings, it forms ferrous sulphide (FeS).
(ii) Monoclinic Sulphur ( b-sulphur) It is stable above 369 K and transforms into
a-sulphur below 369 K. At 369 K, both forms are stable, so this temperature is called
transition temperature.
Non-crystalline Allotropic Forms
(i) Plastic sulphur (ii) White sulphur (iii) Milky sulphur
Uses
(i) It is used in the production of chemicals SO 2 , H2 SO 4 , CS 2 , etc., and in the preparation
of medicines, ointments, bleaching agents, etc.
(ii) It is used in colour and dye industry and as germicide, fungicide.
(iii) Sulphur is used in the vulcanisation of rubber and in organic form, it is found in
vitamins like biotin and thiamine.
(iv) Milky sulphur is used in medicines.
(v) Gun powder is a mixture of sulphur, charcoal and potassium nitrate.
NON-METALS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS
135

Oxides of Sulphur
Sulphur Dioxide (SO 2 )
SO 2 gas is the main gas of volcanic eruption. It is a colourless gas with pungent smell which
causes suffocation. It is toxic and heavier than air. SO 2 is angular in structure. It aqueous
solution is known as sulphurous acid. It is an anhydride of sulphurous acid (H2 SO 3 ).
Uses
It is used as a refrigerant (as it can be liquefied), antichlor, disinfectant and preservative
and bleaching agent for wool and silk. However, its bleaching action is temporary. It is
used in refining petroleum and sugar. Sulphuric acid and other chemicals are prepared
from SO 2 . Liquid SO 2 is used as a solvent to dissolve a number of chemicals.
Like CO2 , sulphur dioxide turns lime water milky due to the formation of calcium
sulphite. Milkiness disappears on passing excess sulphur dioxide due to the formation of
calcium bisulphite.

Sulphur Trioxide (SO 3 )

It is an acidic oxide (anhydride of sulphuric acid) that dissolves in water to form sulphuric
acid with the evolution of heat. It is used in the manufacturing of sulphuric acid and
oleum. It is also used as a drying agent for gases.

Oxoacids of Sulphur
These are sulphurous acid H2 SO 3 , sulphuric acid H2 SO 4 , peroxodisulphuric acid H2 S 2 O 8
and pyrosulphuric acid (oleum) H2 S 2 O 7.

Sulphurous Acid (H 2SO 3 )

It is a strong dibasic acid and forms two series of salts known as sulphites and
bisulphites. It acts as both reducing agent as well as oxidising agent. Bleaching nature
of H2 SO 3 is similar to that as shown by SO 2 due to its reducing property.

Sulphuric Acid (H 2SO 4 )

It is known as oil of vitriol and king of chemicals. H2 SO 4 is produced in laboratory by
lead chamber process and contact process. Both the processes involve conversion of
SO 2 into SO 3 . In contact process, this reaction is catalysed by Pt (platinum), platinised
asbestos, vanedium pentoxide (V2 O 5 ), ferric oxide, etc. However, in lead chamber
process, it is catalysed by oxides of nitrogen.
It is a colourless, dense, oily liquid. It dissolves in water with the evolution of heat. It
forms two series of salts; normal sulphate and acid sulphate. When this acid in its pure
form is decomposed, it gives Marshall’s acid (H2 S 2 O 8 ) at anode.
Uses
It is used
(i) for oil refining, waste water processing and mineral extraction.
(ii) in the manufacturing of explosive (picric acid, TNT, nitroglycerine, gun cotton),
drugs, disinfectants, paints, pigments, fertilizers, detergents, etc.
(iii) as an oxidising and dehydrating agent.
(iv) in the manufacturing of important chemicals such as alums, ethers, metal sulphates, etc.
(v) in storage batteries.
■ If sugar is treated with conc. H2 SO 4, it gets charred, i.e. turns black due to the dehydration of
sugar.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
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Pyrosulphuric Acid (Oleum) (H 2S 2O 7 )
It is also known as fuming sulphuric acid or oleum. When SO 3 is dissolved in conc.
H2 SO 4 , oleum is obtained which on hydrolysis further gives H2 SO 4 .

Hydrogen Sulphide (H 2S)

H2 S is released in volcanic eruption in small amounts. It is a colourless, toxic gas with
an odour of rotten eggs. H2 S in large doses proves fatal. Antidote of H2 S is dilute
chlorine solution.

Halogens
Fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I) and astatine (At) are the members of
group-17 (or VII A), collectively known as the halogens (Greek halo means salt and genes
means born, i.e. salt producers). These are highly reactive non-metallic elements.
Astatine is a radioactive element.
General outer shell electronic configuration of halogens is ns 2 np 5 . Being highly reactive,
these elements always exist in combined form. These all are coloured elements as they
absorb visible light.

Fluorine (F)
Its atomic number is 9 and mass number is 19. Its electronic configuration is 1s 2, 2s 2 2 p 5 .
It was isolated by Moissan (1886). It is a pale yellow gas. It is the most reactive element
among halogens. It reacts with water and oxidises it to O 2 .
On reaction with oxygen, it forms two types of fluorides, i.e. O 2 F2 and OF2 . Fluorine reacts
with most of the metals to form fluorides and also reacts directly with non-metals (except
nitrogen). Fluorine is the most electronegative element.
Uses
Its compounds O 2 F2 and OF2 are strong fluorinating agents. O 2 F2 oxidises plutonium to
PuF6 . This reaction is used to remove plutonium as PuF6 from spent nuclear fuel.

Chlorine (Cl)
It is also called oxymuriatic acid and was discovered by ■ Chlorine dioxide (ClO 2 ) is used
Scheele (1774). Its atomic number is 17 and mass as a bleaching agent for paper
number is 35.45. It is a p-block element with electronic pulp and textiles and in water
configuration 1s 2 , 2s 2 2p 6 , 3s 2 3p 5 . treatment. A mixture of ClO 2
It is manufactured by Deacon’s process or by and Cl 2 is called euchlorine.
electrolysis of brine in Nelson cell. It is greenish yellow ■ Hydrogen chloride is used in the
gas with pungent and suffocating odour. It is about 2.5 manufacturing of chlorine,
times heavier than air. It is soluble in water. It reacts ammonium chloride and
with metals and non-metals to form chlorides. Its glucose, for extracting glue from
oxidising and bleaching action is due to the generation bones and purifying bone black
of nascent oxygen. It exhibits bleaching action only in and in medicines.
the presence of moisture, thus its action is permanent. ■ HClO 4 is the strongest oxoacid of
It reacts with lime to give bleaching powder (CaOCl 2 ). chlorine.
Uses
It is uesd
(i) for bleaching wood, pulp (paper industry and rayon), cotton and textiles.
(ii) in the extraction of gold and platinum.
NON-METALS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS
137
(iii) in the manufacturing of dyes, drugs, organic compounds such as CCl 4 , CHCl 3 , DDT
and refrigerants.
(iv) in sterilising drinking water.
(v) in the preparation of poisonous gases such as phosgene, tear gas, mustard gas etc.

Bromine (Br)
It was first prepared by Ballard (in 1826). Its atomic number is 35 and mass number is 79.9.
Its electronic configuration is [Ar] 3 d 10,4s 2 4p 5 . It is reddish brown liquid. In sea water, its
amount is about 0.068%.
It is extracted mainly from carnallite ore. In India, it occurs abundantly at Rann of Kutch
in the form of brine. It colours starch paper yellow. It acts as an oxidising and bleaching
agent due to the evolution of nascent oxygen.
Uses
It is used in the production of salts of bromine like bromide, bromate, hypobromides, etc.
AgBr is used in photography, KBr is used in sleeping drugs and pain reliever. It is also used
in the manufacturing of toxic and tear gases.

Iodine (I)
It was first discovered from the ashes of seaweeds by Courtois ■ Iodine oxide ( I 2 O 5 ) is
(in 1811). Its atomic number is 53 and mass number is 126.9. Its used as an oxidising
electronic configuration is [Kr] 4d 10 , 5s 2 5 p 5. It is found in agent and in the
compound form in sea water and seaweeds as iodides. It is a estimation of carbon
non-metallic shining solid (i.e. possesses metallic lustre) with monoxide.
dark colour. ■ Iodex is used as an
Its vapours are of violet colour. In human body, it exists in the external application of
form of thyroxin, an organic compound secreted from thyroid pain reliever ointment of
gland. Its deficiency in the human body disturbs the working bone injuries. It contains
of thyroid gland and leads to goitre. dichlorophenol. It does
not contain iodine.
Uses
It is used as a laboratory reagent, as disinfectant and in medicines (as antiseptic and
analgesic). It is used in treatment of goitre. Iodine is also used to increase the production
of eggs. Its salts are also used in photographic films and plates.

Inert Gases or Noble Gases

These are helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe) and radon (Rn).
These are placed in group-18 (or zero) of the periodic table. These are called inert gases
because they are chemically inert. These are named as noble gases because some
members of this family like Xe form compound with oxygen and fluorine, i.e. these are
not completely inert.
All the noble gases except radon occur in the atmosphere. These are obtained as
by-products of liquefaction of air followed by fractional distillation. Radon is obtained as
a decay product of Ra (226). All these gases are monoatomic elements.
Noble gases form a number of combinations in which gases are trapped into the cavities
of crystal lattices of some inorganic and organic compounds. These are called clathrate or
cage compounds.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
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Helium (He)
Its atomic number is 2 and mass number is 4. It was discovered by Lockyer and Janssen. It
is the second largest element found in the universe.
The main source of He is natural gas. Helium and sometimes neon are also found in
minerals of radioactive origin, e.g. pitch blende, monazite, cleveite. It is diffused through
rubber, glass and plastic, etc.
Uses
It is non-inflammable, non-volatile light gas, so it is used in filling balloons for
meteorological observations (i.e. weather related information and tyres of the aircraft). It
is used in gas cooled nuclear reactor. Liquid He is used to maintain very low temperature
in research (cryogenics).
Mixture of helium and O 2 is used by deep sea divers for respiration as helium is less
soluble in blood even at very high pressure. This mixture is also used in artificial
breathing in case of asthma patients. It is used to produce powerful superconducting
magnets which are used in NMR spectrometers and MRI system.

Neon (Ne)
Its atomic number is 10 and mass number is 20. It was discovered by Ramsay and Travers.
It is obtained from the volatile part of liquid argon.
Uses
It is used in discharge tubes and fluorescent bulbs for advertisement display purposes.
Neon bulbs are used in green houses. It is also used in neon lamp which are used to give
symbolic indication to the aircrafts pilot at the aerodrome or airpart. These lamps also
shine even in the fog.

Argon (Ar)
Its atomic number is 18 and mass number is 40. It was discovered by L Rayleigh and
Ramsay, in 1892 from air.
It is used mainly to provide inert atmosphere in high temperature metallurgical process,
arc welding of the alloys and for filling electric bulbs.

Krypton (Kr)
Its atomic number is 36 and mass number is 84. It was discovered by Ramsay and Travers,
in 1898. It produces characteristic lines in the yellow and green region of the spectrum.
It is used at airport runway and approach light.

Xenon (Xe)
Its atomic number is 54 and mass number is 131. It was discovered by Ramsay and
Travers. First inert gas compound XePtF6 was made by Neil Bartlett (1962). After this
discovery, a number of xenon compounds with fluorine and oxygen have been
synthesised.
Xe-Kr is used in high intensity photographic flash tubes.
NON-METALS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS
139

Radon (Ra)
It was discovered by Dorn. It is used for the treatment of cancer (radiotherapy).

Metalloids
There are 7 metalloids (i.e. elements possessing properties of metals as well as
non-metals). In the periodic table, these are placed in between metals and non-metals.
These are boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, telurium and polonium (B, Si, Ge,
As, Sb, Te and Po respectively).
Boron is obtained by cosmic ray spallation and is used as controlling rods in nuclear
reactor in making bulletproof jackets and as a semiconductor in many electrical devices.
Borax is used as a flux, in borax bead test, in water softening, as an antiseptic and in
making glass and pottery.
Orthoboric acid is used as an antiseptic and eye lotion under the name boric lotion and as
a food preservative. It is also used in powders that are sprinkled on the carrom board to
make it slippery. Boron carbide is one of the hardest known artificial substance and it is
called Norbide. Triborine triammine ( B3 N 3 H6 ) is called inorganic benzene or borazole or
borazine. Silicon is used in alloys of iron and aluminium. Germanium and gallium
arsenide are used as a semiconductor, in solar cells, photodiode, transistor, etc. Computer
chips of GaAs have been designed and fabricated and at present such chips are frequency
operationalised.

Assessment
1. Which of the following is made up of 6. Which one of the following is called dry
carbon only? [UPPCS (Mains) 2015] ice? [UPPCS (Mains) 2014]
(a) Kevlar (b) Lexan (a) Dehydrated ice
(c) Graphene (d) Spider silk (b) Solid hydrogen peroxide
2. Which of the following is also used as a (c) Solid water
lubricant? [MPPCS (Pre) 2017] (d) Solid carbon dioxide
(a) Cuprite (b) Graphite
7. Which one of the following is the purest
(c) Haematite (d) Cryolite
form of carbon? [NDA 2018]
3. Which one of the following materials is (a) Charcoal
strongest? [UPPCS (Mains) 2015] (b) Coke
(a) German silver (b) Brass (c) Fullerene
(c) Steel (d) Graphene (d) Carbon black
4. Which one of the following elements 8. Incomplete combustion of a fuel gives
forms the maximum number of poisonous ……… gas. [SSC 2018]
compounds? [UPPCS (Mains) 2015] (a) carbon dioxide
(a) Hydrogen (b) Carbon (b) isocynate
(c) Nitrogen (d) Oxygen (c) carbon monoxide
5. The highest amount of carbon is in (d) nitrogen
[UPPCS (Mains) 2014]
9. What is the bond order of CO group?
(a) pig iron
[BPSC (Pre) 2019]
(b) wrought iron
(a) 1 (b) 2.5
(c) steel
(c) 3.5 (d) 3
(d) alloy steel
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
140
10. Water gas is [Chhattisgarh PCS (Pre) 2016] 16. Silicon is a polymer of [SSC CGL 2013]
(a) CO + H 2 (a) silicon tetrachloride
(b) CO + H 2 O (b) dialkyl dichloro silane
(c) CO 2 + H 2 O (c) silane
(d) None of the above (d) tetraalkyl silane
11. Which one of the following pairs is 17. The percentage of lead in lead pencil is
incorrectly matched? [SSC Multitasking 2014]
[UPPCS (Mains) 2016] (a) 0 (b) 100
(a) Pyrene - Fire extinguisher (c) 77 (d) 65
(b) Sulphur dioxide - Acid rain 18. Match the following Columns.
(c) Freon - Refrigerant Column I Column II
(d) Fullerene - Fluorine containing A. Diamond 1. Calcium
polymer
B. Marble 2. Silicon
12. Which one of the following pair is not C. Sand 3. Aluminium
correctly matched? [UPPCS (Mains) 2019]
D. Ruby 4. Carbon
(a) Dry ice : Solid carbon dioxide
(b) Sevin : Insecticide Codes
(c) Teflon : Polymer containing flourine A B C D A B C D
(d) Fullerene : Organic compound (a) 3 1 2 4 (b) 4 2 1 3
containing fluorine (c) 2 1 3 4 (d) 4 1 2 3

13. How is carbon black obtained? 19. Which of the following are the two main
[NDA 2018] constituents of granite?
(a) By heating wood at high temperature (a) Iron and silica
in absence of air. (b) Iron and silver
(b) By heating coal at high temperature in (c) Silica and aluminium
absence of air. (d) Iron oxide and potassium
(c) By burning hydrocarbons in a limited 20. Consider the following statements :
supply of air. I. Diamond is hard and graphite is soft.
(d) By heating coal at high temperature in II. Diamond is soft and graphite is hard.
presence of air.
III. Diamond is a bad conductor, but
14. Which one of following is water gas? graphite is a good conductor.
[NDA 2016] IV. Diamond is a good conductor, but
(a) Mixture of carbon monoxide and graphite is a bad conductor.
hydrogen
Which of the statement(s) given above
(b) Mixture of carbon monoxide and
is/are correct? [NDA/NA 2012]
nitrogen
(a) I and III (b) Only I
(c) Mixture of carbon dioxide and water
(c) II and III (d) I and IV
vapour
(d) Mixture of carbon monoxide and 21. Consider the following statements about
water vapour diamond.
15. Arrange the following substances in I. It is used as a gem in jewellery
chronological order of their first because of its ability to reflect light.
synthesis in lab : [UPPCS (Pre) 2019] II. It is good conductor of electricity.
1. Black gold 2. Fullerene III. It is used for cutting glass, marble
stones and other hard materials.
3. Graphene 4. Kevlar
IV. It is used for drilling of rocks.
Select correct answer from the codes
given below : Which of the statements given above are
correct? [NDA/NA 2014]
Codes
(a) I, III and IV (b) II, III and IV
(a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 4 2 3 1
(c) I, II and III (d) II and IV
(c) 2 4 3 1 (d) 4 1 2 3
ASSESSMENT
141
22. Which of the following statements is 30. Consider the following statements :
correct? [NDA/NA 2014] I. Phosphorus occurs as free element on
(a) Fullerenes have only six-membered earth.
carbon rings. II. Vast majority of phosphorus compounds
(b) Fullerenes are cage-like molecules. are consumed as fertilizers.
(c) Diamond is thermodynamically the III. Phosphorus is used in safety matches.
most stable allotrope of carbon. Which of the above statements are
(d) Graphite is slippery and hard and is correct?
therefore used as a dry lubricant in
(a) I, II and III (b) II and III
machines.
(c) I and III (d) I only
23. Which one of the following is used as a
31. Statement I Metals placed below
sowing agent in the preparation of soft
hydrogen in electrochemical series does
drinks?
not react with conc. HNO3 .
(a) Phosphoric acid (b) Salicylic acid
(c) Phosphorus acid (d) Boric acid Statement II HNO3 is a strong oxidising
agent. It oxidises these metals.
24. Phosphorus exist in different allotropic (a) Both the Statements I and II are
forms. Which of the following is not an individually true and Statement II is
allotrope of phosphorus? the correct explanation of Statement I.
(a) Yellow phosphorus (b) Both the Statements are individually
(b) Black phosphorus true but Statement II is not the
(c) Red phosphorus correct explanation of Statement I.
(d) Blue phosphorus (c) Statement I is true, but Statement II
is false.
25. Which of the following is also known as
(d) Statement I is false, but Statement II
laughing gas?
is true.
[BPSC (Pre) 2019, MPPCS (Pre) 2011]
(a) Nitric oxide 32. Which of the following is not a method
(b) Nitrous oxide of preparing oxygen?
(c) Nitrogen pentoxide [SSC (10+2) DEO & LDC 2011]
(d) Nitrogen (a) Electrolysis of water
(b) Fractional distillation of liquid air
26. Which among the following is a cation?
[SSC CGL 2019] (c) Decomposition of potassium
permanganate
(a) Ammonium (b) Iodide
(d) Decomposition of manganese dioxide
(c) Fluoride (d) Chloride
27. Which one of the following is not used a 33. In terms of magnetic properties, oxygen
fertilizer? [NDA 2018]
belongs to [CDS 2013]
(a) magnetic materials
(a) Ammonium nitrate
(b) ferromagnetic materials
(b) Ammonium sulphide
(c) paramagnetic materials
(c) Ammonium phosphate
(d) diamagnetic materials
(d) Ammonium sulphate
34. A group of students in a school
28. Which of the following is used as
laboratory burnt a magnesium ribbon
anesthetic?
during an experiment. They observed
(a) NH 3 (b) NO
that magnesium burns to form
(c) NO 2 (d) N 2 O
magnesium oxide and produces heat and
29. The highest volume of gases in lower light. This experiment is an example of
atmosphere is comprised of (a) combustion (b) chemical reaction
[SSC Multitasking 2014] (c) burning (d) reduction
(a) hydrogen 35. Sulphur dioxide bleaches colouring
(b) carbon dioxide
matter by [SSC CPO 2013]
(c) oxygen
(a) decomposition (b) oxidation
(d) nitrogen
(c) reduction (d) dehydration
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
142
36. Which one among the following is 41. Statement I Liquid hydrogen fluoride
responsible for the expansion of water used as non-aqueous solvent, is
in the ocean? [CDS 2013] corrosive, etches glass and also causes
(a) Carbon dioxide painful skin wounds.
(b) Nitrogen dioxide Statement II Hydrogen fluoride reacts
(c) Carbon monoxide
with silica and dehydrates tissue as well
(d) Sulphur dioxide
as acidic action of HF on tissue give rise
37. Consider the following statements : to painful wounds.
I. Oxygen promotes rapid combustion. (a) Both the Statements I and II are
II. Oxygen can be toxic at elevated partial individually true and Statement II is
pressures. the correct explanation of Statement I.
III. Rockets use liquid oxygen as their (b) Both the Statements are individually
oxidiser. true but Statement II is not the
IV. Oxygen is colourless and odourless gas. correct explanation of Statement I.
(c) Statement I is true, but Statement II
Which of the above statements are
is false.
correct?
(d) Statement I is false, but Statement II
(a) I, II, III and IV (b) I and II
is true.
(c) I, II and III (d) I, II and IV
42. A potato tuber has been cut into two
38. Consider the following statements :
halves. A few drops of iodine solution
I. Sulphur occurs as free element in are placed on the cut surface of one of
nature.
the halves. What colour change will be
II. Sulphur in the form of sulphides is noticed?
present in many types of meteorites. (a) From brown to blue-black
III. Sulphur is used to produce sulphuric (b) From brown to orange-red
acid. (c) From blue to pink
IV. Sulphur is used as fungicide and (d) From pink to blue-green
pesticide. 43. In deep-sea diving, divers use a mixture
Which of the above statements are of gases consisting of oxygen and
correct? [SSC Multitasking 2014]
(a) I, II and III (b) III and IV (a) hydrogen
(c) II and III (d) I, II, III and IV (b) nitrogen
39. The most active ingredient of the (c) argon
bleaching powder is (d) helium
(a) iodine
44. Consider the following :
(b) calcium hypochlorite
(c) nitric acid
I. Argon II. Xenon
(d) ammonium sulphate III. Nitrogen IV. Fluorine
40. Which gas is used in the preparation of Which of the above statement(s) is/are
bleaching powder? [SSC 2016] correct?
(a) Oxygen (b) Hydrogen (a) I, II and III (b) I, II and IV
(c) Nitrogen (d) Chlorine (c) II, III and IV (d) I, II, III and IV

1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (d) 10. (a)
11. (d) 12. (d) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (b) 16. (b) 17. (a) 18. (d) 19. (c) 20. (a)
21. (a) 22. (d) 23. (a) 24. (d) 25. (b) 26. (a) 27. (b) 28. (d) 29. (d) 30. (b)
31. (a) 32. (d) 33. (c) 34. (a) 35. (b) 36. (a) 37. (a) 38. (b) 39. (b) 40. (d)
41. (a) 42. (a) 43. (d) 44. (a)
14
Fuels, Combustion
and Flames
Fuels
We use various materials as a source of heat energy for domestic and industrial purposes.
These are mainly wood, charcoal, petrol, kerosene, LPG, coal gas, etc. These substances
are called fuels. Almost all fuels have some amount of carbon which is responsible for
generating heat energy on burning the fuel in air.
Characteristics of a good fuel are:
(i) It must be readily available and cheap.
(ii) It must burn easily in air at a moderate rate.
(iii) It must produce a large amount of heat.
(iv) It does not leave behind any undesirable substances.
(v) It does not have volatile substances.
(vi) It must be easily storable and conveniently transportable.
(vii) Its calorific value must be high and specific.

Types of Fuels
There are three types of fuels depending upon their physical ■ There is probably no fuel
state: that could be considered as
(i) Solid Fuels, e.g. coal, coke, wood, cow dung cakes, etc. an ideal fuel.
■ Gaseous fuels are the most
(ii) Liquid Fuels, e.g. petrol, kerosene, diesel, fuel oil, etc.
suitable and preferable
(iii) Gaseous Fuels, e.g. LPG, CNG, bio gas, coal gas, producer than solid or liquid fuels.
gas, hydrogen gas, oil gas, water gas, etc.

Calorific or Fuel Value

It is defined as the heat obtained when 1 g of a fuel is burned in excess of oxygen and is
generally expressed in kcal/g.
Calorific Value of Some Important Fuels
Fuel Calorific Value (kJ/g) Fuel Calorific Value (kJ/g)
Coke or coal or charcoal 25-32 Wood 17
Kerosene oil or gasoline 48 Cow dung 6-8
Petrol 50 Ethanol 30
Diesel 45 Methane 55
Bio gas 35-40 Hydrogen 150
LPG 50 Natural gas 35-50
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
144
Calorific value of water gas is higher than that of producer gas (calorific value of which is
lowest among all fuels).
Although calorific value of hydrogen is maximum but it is not used as a fuel because of its
inflammable nature and difficulty of storage. However, some light vehicles working on
sophisticated technology are running on it.
Fats have more calorific value than protein and carbohydrates.

Fossil Fuels
Fuels generated from the residues of living organisms (which remained buried under the
earth since million of years) are called fossil fuels. Coal, petroleum and natural gas are the
examples of fossil fuels. Since, these sources are present in limited quantity, so they are
called non-renewable natural resources.

Coal
It was formed from the remains of vegetation. Due to natural processes like flooding,
dense forests got buried under the soil. Over millions of years, absence of air, high
temperature and high pressure transformed the dead vegetation into coal (carbonisation).
Coal contains about 60-90% carbon or its compounds, while compounds of nitrogen,
sulphur, etc., present in small quantities.

Types of Coal
It generally occurs in following four varities:
(i) Peat coal (50-60% C) is obtained in the first phase of extraction.
(ii) Lignite coal (60-70% C) is also called brown coal.
(iii) Bituminous coal (78-86% C) is most common very soft and is used for domestic purpose.
(iv) Anthracite coal (94-98% C) [best coal, produce high heat with no smoke] is obtained in last
phase of coal extraction.

Uses of Coal
(i) Coal is processed in industry to get useful products such as coke, coal gas and coaltar by
the process of destructive distillation.
(ii) It is used as a fuel in boilers, engines and furnaces.

Coaltar
It is a black, thick liquid obtained by the destructive distillation of coal. It is a
mixture of about 200 substances. These substances are used for manufacturing
synthetic dyes, drugs, explosives, paints, naphthalene balls, etc.

Petroleum
It is a dark oily liquid also called black gold or crude oil or rock oil. It has an unpleasant
odour. It is, infact, a mixture of several hydrocarbons and sulphur, calorific value of
which is very high. It was formed from living organisms in the sea. As these organisms
died, their bodies settled at the bottom of the sea and got covered with layers of sand and
clay. Over millions of years, absence of air, high temperature and high pressure
transformed the dead organisms into petroleum and natural gas.
FUELS, COMBUSTION AND FLAMES
145
When subjected to fractional distillation, it gives different products at different
temperatures which are tabulated below.
Fraction Boiling Range Uses
Uncondensed gases Room temperature Fuel gases, refrigerants, production of carbon black,
hydrogen
Crude naphtha 30-150°C
[It on refractionation gives
(i) petroleum ether 30-70°C Solvent
(ii) petrol or gasoline 70-120°C Motor fuel, dry cleaning, petrol gas
(iii) benzene derivatives] 120-150°C solvent, dry cleaning
Kerosene 150 -250° C  Fuel, illuminant, oil gas
Gas oil  As a fuel for diesel engines converted to gasoline by
250 -350° C 
cracking
Fuel oil 250-350°C
Diesel oil 250-350°C
Lubricating oil 350-450°C Lubrication
Paraffin wax > 500°C Candles, boot polish, wax paper
Vaseline > 500°C Ointments, lubrication paints, road surfacing as fuel

Thus, petrol, kerosene oil, diesel, petroleum gas, etc., are obtained by the fractional
distillation of petroleum.

Composition and Uses of Some Fuels

Some important fuels and their compositions are as follows:

Coke
It is obtained by the destructive distillation of coal (strong heating of coal in the absence of
air) as a residual substance. Coke contains 80-85% carbon. Coke is used in the extraction
of metals as reducing agent, as fuels in electrodes.

Coal Gas
It contains 55% hydrogen, 30% methane, 4% carbon monoxide (CO), 3% unsaturated
hydrocarbon and 8% non-volatile impurities.
It is used as a fuel in many industries situated near the coal processing plants and in the
metallurgical reduction. It is also used in Bunsen burner.
■ In coal gas H2 , CO and CH 4 provide heat but unsaturated hydrocarbon is light emitter.
■ Coal gas was used for street lighting for the first time in London in 1810 and in New York in
1820.
■ Now-a-days, it is used as a source of heat rather than light.

Water Gas
It is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen in which nitrogen and water vapours
are remained as impurities. It as produced by passing steam over superheated coke.
Water gas mixed with coal gas is a good fuel.
It is used in industrial production of hydrogen, ammonia and methyl alcohol.

Producer Gas
It is a mixture of nitrogen and carbon monoxide (in 2 : 1 ratio). It is used in the
manufacture of glass and for metallurgy.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
146
Oil Gas
It is a mixture of simple saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons such as methane,
ethylene, acetylene, etc. It is obtained by the fractional distillation of kerosene oil or
another petroleum substance. It is used in burners in the laboratory.

Natural Gas
It is a mixture of 83% methane and 16% ethane. It is generally present at the exporation
sites of the petroleum substance. Because of the inflammable nature of its constituents,
natural gas is considered as a best fuel.
It is used in the production of artificial chemical fertilizers.

Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)

It is a mixture of butane (C 4 H10 ), iso-butane (C 4 H10 ) and some propane (C 3 H8 ). Its major
sources are oil wells. A strong foul smelling substance ethyl mercaptan or thioethanol
(C 2 H5 SH) is also added to LPG to detect its leakage because LPG is a colourless and
odourless gas.
It is used in cylinders for domestic purposes. The liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) cylinder
that we get in our home for cooking (under the name of various agencies like Bharat gas,
Indane gas, etc.) or the oxygen supplied to hospitals in iron cylinders is compressed gas
(under pressure).

Bio Gas or Gobar Gas

It is a mixture of 75% methane, hydrogen, hydrogen sulphide ■ After the use of bio gas,
and carbon dioxide. It is obtained by the anaerobic the spent slurry left
decomposition of bio mass like cow dung, sewage, vegetable behind in the tank is used
wastes, etc. This gas burns smoothly and provides sufficient as excellent manure (i.e.
heat without any smoke. That’s why it is generally used for used to improve the
domestic purposes. It is used for cooking the food. fertility of soil), rich in
nitrogen and phosphorus.
Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)
CNG mainly consists of methane and some ethane is used as a fuel in vehicles
now-a-days because it produces less pollutants such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide,
etc., in comparison to petrol and diesel.

Petrol
Petrol is used as a fuel in light automobiles such as scooters and cars, etc.

Quality of Petrol or Gasoline

It is measured in terms of octane number. Octane number is defined as the
percentage by volume of iso-octane in the mixture of iso-octane and n-heptane
which has the same anti-knock qualities as the fuel under consideration. A metallic
sound or rattle known as knocking is produced due to preignition of fuel in the
cylinder (engine).
Knocking damages the engine, so anti-knock compound such as tetra ethyl lead
(TEL) or benzene toluene xylene (BTX), etc., is mixed with petrol.
In general, 0.15 mL TEL is mixed with ethyl bromide in each litre petrol. Fuel having
high octane value is rich in lead content.
FUELS, COMBUSTION AND FLAMES
147
Diesel ■ Diesel, coal and kerosene have high carbon
percentage and on burning form oxides of
Diesel is used as a fuel in heavy motor vehicles
carbon (like CO, CO2 ) but hydrogen
such as trucks, tractors, submarines, etc.,
produces only water on combustion. So, it is
because of its high power and lower cost.
called pollution-free fuel.
Quality of diesel is measured in cetane number.
■ LNG is principally used for transporting
Biodiesel natural gas to markets, where it is
It is made from vegetable oils, animal fats or regasified and distributed as pipeline
recycled greases. It is safe, biodegradable and natural gas. It can be used in natural gas
produces less air pollutants than vehicles, although it is more common to
design vehicles to use compressed natural
petroleum-based diesel but currently, is more
gas. Its relatively high cost of production
expensive.
and the need to store it in expensive
Biodiesel can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its cryogenic tanks have hindered
pure form (B100), but it is usually used as a widespread commercial use.
diesel additive to reduce levels of particulates, ■ Dahej is the first regasification project in
carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons from India. It is promoted by four of India’s
diesel-powered vehicles. It is produced from Navratans BPCL, GAIL, IOCL and ONGC.
oils or fats using trans-esterification. ■ Green diesel is the best diesel in quality
Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) because on combustion, it produces very
low pollutants.
It is, infact, natural gas (predominantly
methane) in liquefied form. Natural gas is ■ Ultra low sulphur diesel or city diesel is
liquefied at a pressure of 25 kPa and the purest form of diesel. It also produces
temperature of –162°C. It is odourless, very low pollutants because of the presence
colourless, non-toxic and non-corrosive in of low sulphur.
nature.
Its energy density is 2.4 times greater as compared to that of CNG and 60% of diesel.
That’s why it is highly cost efficient for transportation purposes. Specially, designed
cryogenic sea vessels or cryogenic road tankers are used for its transportation.

Brent Crude Oil

It is light crude oil with approximately 0.37% sulphur. It is also called sweet crude and is
suitable for the production of petrol and middle distillates. Its specific gravity is 0.835. It is
typically sourced from North-West Europe.

Cracking
It is the process in which high boiling hydrocarbons are converted into a mixture of low
boiling hydrocarbons.
Pt| Pd |Ni
e.g. C 12 H26 → C 7 H16 + C 5 H10 + Other products
Dodecane 973 K Heptane Pentene

To meet the increasing demands and for further improving the quality of petrol, this
technique is used.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
148

Advancement in the Direction of Fuels

(i) A process, in which microbes has been used to glean ethanol from glycerol and gave
benefit of cleaning up the waste water, will allow the reincorporation of ethanol and
water into the fuel-making process.
(ii) In order to store hydrogen, a new solid stable material has been developed which can pack
in a large amount of hydrogen. The noble crystal phase of the material contains lithium
boron and the key ingredient hydrogen. On heating, this material releases hydrogen
(which is considered as a best fuel) easily, quickly and with only traces of unwanted by
products.
(iii) A new study indicates that the use of E-20 fuel, which blends 20% ethanol with gasoline,
reduces the tailpipe emissions of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide, compared with
traditional gasoline or E-10 blends. In addition, the research team found no measurable
impact to vehicle drivability or maintenance in conventional internal combustion engines.
(iv) Cars on streets and highways in the US run on a mixture of 90% unleaded gasoline and
10% ethanol. Race cars in the Indianapolis 500 burn mostly fuel-grade ethanol. This year
the landy 500 switched to a fuel containing 85% ethanol as opposed to 100% fuel ethanol.
This makes the landy fuel close to the real-life E-85 fuel sold at some US gas stations.
The landy fuel blend of E-85 sets, a good example of the use of an alternative fuel, use
under very demanding engine conditions. It is a fertile ground for engineers to perfect the
E-85 vehicle technology that can be leveraged into street vehicles. Using fuels composed
of more than 85% ethanol reduce a variety of air pollutants. These include sulphur
emissions (80% lower), carbon monoxide (40%), particulate matter (20%), Volatile Organic
Compounds (VOCs) (15%) and nitrogen oxides (10%).

Combustion
A chemical process in which a substance reacts with oxygen to give off energy in the
form of heat or light, is called combustion and the substance that undergoes combustion,
is called a fuel. Burning of magnesium ribbon to form magnesium oxide with heat and
light is an example of combustion. Actually combustion is an oxidation process.

Combustible and Non-Combustible Substances

The substances which burn in the presence of air (or oxygen), are called combustible
substances, e.g. wood, paper, kerosene, charcoal, sulphur, magnesium, etc.
The substances which can not burn in the presence of air, are called incombustible
substances, e.g. stone piece, sand soil, bricks, etc.

Conditions Required for Combustion

(i) Air (oxygen) It is a supporter of combustion.
(ii) Ignition Temperature The lowest temperature at Everyday Science
which a substance catches fire, is called its a During extreme heat of
ignition temperature. Inflammable substances summer, dry grass catch fire
have very low ignition temperature and can easily easily than that of green
catch fire with a flame, e.g. LPG, petrol, alcohol, grass because of the low
etc. ignition temperature of dry
grass.
(iii) Fuel It is also required for combustion.
FUELS, COMBUSTION AND FLAMES
149

Types of Combustion Everyday Science

There are four types of combustion: a When a cracker is ignited, a
(i) Rapid Combustion The process of sudden reaction takes place with
combustion in which fuels like hydrocarbons the evolution of heat, light and
sound. A large amount of gas
burn rapidly (in a very small interval of time) to
formed in the reaction is
produce heat and light, is called rapid
liberated. Such a reaction is
combustion, e.g. burning of matchstick, called explosion.
explosion of fire cracker, etc.
a We should never sleep in a room
(ii) Slow Combustion When the rate of with burning or smouldering coal
combustion of any substance is slow, it is called fire in it because such a fire
slow combustion. Here, light is not produced produces carbon monoxide gas
and heat can not increase the temperature of which hindered the supply of
oxygen in the body parts and
the reaction, e.g. inhalation (sucking oxygen).
hence leads to death.
(iii) Spontaneous Combustion When a Charcoal does not vaporise, so it
combustion of substance takes place at room does not produce a flame.
temperature without the supply of heat, it is
a Gasohol is a mixture of petrol
called spontaneous combustion (10%) and alcohol (90%). The
(auto-combustion). addition of gasohol in the fuel of
e.g. white phosphorus undergoes combustion at vehicles minimises the pollutants
room temperature, combustion of coal dust in like CO 2 and SO 2 .
coal mines and forest fires. In this case, ignition
temperature of substance is lower than room temperature.
(iv) Incomplete Combustion When the combustion of fuel takes place in insufficient
supply of oxygen, it is called incomplete combustion.
Here, monoxides of substances are formed.
e.g. CH4 + O 2 → CO + H2 O (insufficient supply of O 2 )

Propellants (Rocket Fuels)

These are those combustible substances calorific value of which is very high and which
upon ignition undergo rapid combustion to release large amount of energy along with
gases. Combustion of a propellant produces tremendous amount of energy (heat) which
results in increased internal pressure and temperature.
Because of the increased internal pressure, gases like carbon monoxide, steam, etc., are
departured from the orifice in the back with a very high velocity stream, called the jet.
The momentum lost by the jet of the propellant is gained by the rocket, thus jet moving in
the backward direction, forces or propelled the rocket in forward direction.

Types of Propellants
There are three types of propellants:

1. Solid Propellants
Here, fuel and oxidiser are placed together. They are divided into two groups:
(i) Composite Propellants They consist of a mixture of fuel and an oxidiser.
e.g. Polyurethane or polybutadiene (fuel) + ammonium perchlorate (oxidiser).
(ii) Double Base Propellants They mainly consist of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine
(gun powder).
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
150
2. Liquid Propellants
They require an oxidiser that is placed in a separate chamber in which propellant is burnt
out. They are divided into two groups:
(i) Monoliquid Propellants Single compound such as nitro methane, methyl nitrite
contains both the oxidiser and the fuel.
(ii) Biliquid Propellants These are the combination of an oxidiser such as liquid oxygen
and a fuel such as kerosene, liquid hydrogen, liquid paraffin, liquid ammonia, alcohol, etc.

3. Hybrid Propellants
They consist of a solid fuel and liquid oxidiser, e.g. a mixture of acrylic rubber (fuel) and
liquid N 2 O 4 (oxidiser).

Flame
The substances which vaporise during burning, give flames, e.g. kerosene oil, molten
wax, etc. Flame is actually the hot part of fire and has three parts.
(i) Innermost Region of Flame It is black because of the presence of unburnt carbon
particles. It has the lowest temperature.
(ii) Middle Region It is yellow, luminous due to the partial combustion of fuel.
(iii) Outermost Region It is blue, non-luminous due to the complete combustion of fuel. It is
the hottest part of flame and is used by the Goldsmith for melting gold and silver.

Everyday Science
a Water is a common fire extinguisher. In case of electric fires and oil fires, water can not
be used as an extinguisher as it is a conductor of electricity and oil being lighter comes
above the water. Such fires are extinguished by carbon dioxide. However, petroleum fires
are extinguished by foam type extinguisher.
a When the clothes of a person catch fire, the person is covered with a blanket to
extinguish fire by cutting the supply of air.
a Fire can be controlled by removing fuel or air or both or by bringing down the
temperature of the fuel.

Solar Jet
A new solar reactor technology has been pioneered to produce liquid hydrocarbon fuels
suitable for more sustainable transportation. With this first-ever proof-of-concept for
solar kerosene, the Solar Jet project has made a major step towards truly sustainable fuels
with virtually unlimited feedstocks in the future.
The Solar Jet project demonstrated an innovative process technology using concentrated
sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water to a so-called synthesis gas (syn gas). The
syn gas, a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, is finally converted into kerosene
by using commercial Fischer Tropsch technology.
Solar Jet (Solar chemical reactor demonstration and Optimization for Long-term
Availability of Renewable Jet fuel) was launched in June 2011 and is receiving financial
support from the European Union within the 7th Framework Programme for a duration
of four years. The outcomes of Solar Jet will put Europe to the forefront of research,
innovation and production of sustainable fuels directly from concentrated solar energy.
 Assessment
1. Usually fuels on burning causes 8. To prevent from knocking the substance
pollution. Which one of the following fuel employed in the car engine is
causes minimum environmental pollution? (a) ethyl alcohol (b) butane
(a) Diesel (b) Coal (c) lead tetraethyl (d) white petrol
(c) Hydrogen (d) Kerosene 9. Higher cetane number but lower octane
2. Addition of ethylene dibromide to petrol number fuel is ideal for which of the
[CDS 2014] following engines?
(a) increases the octane number of fuel (a) Petrol engine
(b) helps elimination of lead oxide (b) Diesel engine
(c) removes the sulphur compound in (c) Steam engine
petrol (d) Heat engine
(d) serves as a substitute of tetraethyl 10. Which of the following fuels has
lead calorific value equal to petrol?
3. Why is water not suitable for putting [SSC CHSL (10+2) 2019]
out a petrol fire? (a) Methane (b) Kerosene
[SSC (10+2) DEO & LDC 2011] (c) CNG (d) LPG
(a) The oxygen content of water is isolated 11. The stench due to leakage from LPG
by petrol and thus it helps in burning. cylinder is because of [UPPCS (Pre) 2017]
(b) Petrol is too inflammable to be (a) methane
extinguished by water. (b) propane
(c) The heat required for combustion of (c) butane
petrol is very low. (d) ethyl mercaptan
(d) Water, being heavy, slips below petrol 12. LPG is a mixture of ……… .
which thus remains in contact with [SSC (10+2) 2017]
air and burns. (a) methane and butane
4. In the context of alternative sources of (b) butane and propane
energy, ethanol as a viable bio fuel can (c) methane and propane
be otained from [SSC 2017] (d) ethane and propane
(a) sugarcane (b) potato
(c) rice (d) wheat 13. How CNG is a cleaner fuel?
I. It produces oxides of sulphur and
5. Which of the following fuels causes Nitrogen in very smal amounts.
minimum environmental pollution? II. It makes environment less polluted.
[SSC 2016] III. It emits less greenhouse gases.
(a) Diesel (b) Kerosene [SSC CHSL (10+2) 2018]
(c) Hydrogen (d) Coal (a) Only I and II
6. Which of the following processes, the (b) Only II and III
crude petroleum substances undergo to (c) Only I and III
obtain various hydrocarbons? (d) All I, II and III
(a) Sublimation 14. Biogas is formed through [SSC 2017]
(b) Fractional distillation (a) fermentation
(c) Distillation (b) oxidation
(d) Evaporation (c) aerobic respiration
7. The quality of petrol is expressed in (d) reduction
terms of [SSC Multitasking 2014] 15. In the context of alternative sources of
(a) cetane number energy, ethanol as a viable bio-fuel can
(b) gold number be obtained from [SSC 2017]
(c) octane number (a) sugarcane (b) potato
(d) added unleaded compounds (c) rice (d) wheat
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
152
16. Air pollution is caused by smoke. Which 21. Which of the following statements are
of the following types of coal produces correct about chloroform?
no smoke on burning? [SSC (10+2) DEO & LDC 2011]
(a) Peat (b) Lignite I. Liquid fuel.
(c) Bituminous (d) Anthracite II. Anaesthetic in nature.
17. The open ‘sigrees’ or coal stoves often III. Produces phosgene.
require fanning to sustain burning IV. Fire extinguisher.
because of [SSC Multitasking 2014] (a) I and II (b) I and III
(a) tendency of carbon dioxide to form a (c) II and III (d) IV and I
layer along with dust smoke 22. Consider the following statements :
(b) lack of oxygen in the surroundings I. Liquified Natural Gas (LNG) is liquified
of sigrees under extremely cold temperatures and
(c) accumulation of smoke and dust over high pressure to facilitate storage of
the sigrees transportation in specially designed
(d) interrupted release of moisture from vessels.
the material II. First LNG terminal in India was built in
18. Mixture of which one of the following Hassan.
pairs of gases is the cause of occurrence III. Natural Gas Liquids (NGL) are separated
of most of the explosions in mines? from LPG and these include ethane,
(a) Hydrogen and oxygen [IAS 2008] propane, butane and natural gasoline.
(b) Oxygen and acetylene Which of the above statement(s) is/are
(c) Methane and air correct?
(d) Carbon dioxide and methane (a) Only I (b) I and III
19. Match the following Columns. (c) II and III (d) I, II and III
Column I Column II 23. Statement I The main constituent of
(Fuel gas) (Major constituent) the liquefied petroleum gas is methane.
A. CNG 1. Carbon monoxide, hydrogen Statement II Methane can be used
B. Coal gas 2. Butane, propane directly for burning in homes and
C. LPG 3. Methane, ethane factories where it can be supplied
D. Water gas 4. Hydrogen, methane, carbon through pipelines.
monoxide (a) Both the Statements I and II are
individually true and Statement II is
Codes the correct explanation of Statement I.
A B C D A B C D (b) Both the Statements are individually
(a) 2 1 3 4 (b) 3 4 2 1 true but Statement II is not the
(c) 2 4 2 1 (d) 3 1 2 4 correct explanation of Statement I.
20. Statement I Inflammable substances are (c) Statement I is true, but Statement II
petrol, alcohol, LPG etc. is false.
Statement II These substances have low (d) Statement I is false, but Statement II
is true.
ignition temperature.
(a) Both the Statements I and II are 24. During an experiment, a clean glass
individually true and Statement II is plate was introduced in the candle flame
the correct explanation of Statement I. for 10-12s. They were observed that a
(b) Both the Statements are individually circular ring was formed on the glass
true but Statement II is not the plate. This is due to
correct explanation of Statement I. (a) the deposition of unburnt carbon
(c) Statement I is true, but Statement II particles
is false. (b) the evolution of CO 2 gas
(d) Statement I is false, but Statement II (c) the evolution of heat and light
is true. (d) data is insufficient
ASSESSMENT
153
25. Which among the following is not a (a) Both the Statements I and II are
necessary condition for combustion? individually true and Statement II is
(a) Fuel the correct explanation of Statement I.
(b) Air (b) Both the Statements are individually
(c) Ignition temperature true but Statement II is not the
(d) Candle correct explanation of Statement I.
(c) Statement I is true, but Statement II
26. Combustion of a candle is a/an
is false.
[SSC Multitasking 2014]
(a) photochemical reaction (d) Statement I is false, but Statement II
(b) physical change is true
(c) endothermic reaction 30. Which of the following gas is used in
(d) exothermic reaction the fire extinguisher?
27. Consider the following statements : (a) CO 2 (b) NO 2 (c) CO (d) SO 2
I. Non-combustible substances cannot 31. Water is a fire extinguisher as
burn in the presence of oxygen. (a) it cools the combustible substance in
II. Combustible substances can undergo order to bring the temperature
the process of combustion. below its ignition point
Which of the above statement(s) is/are (b) it prevent the supply of air
correct? (c) Both (a) and (b)
(a) Only I (d) Data is not given
(b) Only II 32. Kerosene oil do not catch fire on their
(c) I and II own at room temperature. But, if it is
(d) None of these heated for a while, it will catch fire.
This is because
28. Statement I Ignition of a fire cracker is
(a) the ignition temperature of kerosene
an example of explosion.
oil is not reached
Statement II Explosion reaction is a (b) the ignition temperature of kerosene
combustion takes place suddenly with oil is reached
the evolution of heat, light and sound. (c) kerosene oil is combustible substance
(a) Both the Statements I and II are (d) Data is insufficient
individually true and Statement II is 33. Statement I Kerosene oil and molten
the correct explanation of Statement I. wax vaporised during burning and form
(b) Both the Statements are individually flames.
true but Statement II is not the Statement II The substances which
correct explanation of Statement I. vaporise during burning give flames.
(c) Statement I is true, but Statement II is (a) Both the Statements I and II are
false. individually true and Statement II is
(d) Statement I is false, but Statement II the correct explanation of Statement I.
is true. (b) Both the Statements are individually
29. Statement I Carbon, sulphur, true but Statement II is not the
magnesium etc., are combustible correct explanation of Statement I.
substances. (c) Statement I is true, but Statement II
Statement II Those substances which is false.
burn in the presence of oxygen are (d) Statement I is false, but Statement II
known as combustible substances. is true.

1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (c) 6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (b)
11. (d) 12. (b) 13. (d) 14. (a) 15. (a) 16. (c) 17. (b) 18. (c) 19. (b) 20. (a)
21. (c) 22. (b) 23. (d) 24. (a) 25. (d) 26. (d) 27. (d) 28. (c) 29. (a) 30. (a)
31. (c) 32. (b) 33. (a)
15
Organic
Compounds
Hydrocarbons and their derivatives, i.e. carbon compounds with the exception of
CO, CO 2 , carbonates and bicarbonates are called organic compounds. Around the year
1780, it was thought that organic compounds can not be synthesised in laboratory but
can be synthesised by living organisms only. That’s why the term organic was used to
represent these compounds. Organic is an Anglo word which means bio (or living).
Berzilius, a Swedish chemist, proposed that a vital force was responsible for the
formation of organic compounds (vital force theory).
Wöhler synthesised the first organic compound ‘urea’ accidentally from the inorganic
compounds ammonium sulphate and potassium cyanate, when he was trying to prepare
ammonium cyanate from these compounds.
Later, the synthesis of acetic acid by Kolbe (in 1844) from its constituent elements,
methane by Berthelot (in 1856) showed that organic compounds could be synthesised
from inorganic sources in a laboratory.

Petroleum as a Source of Organic Compounds

Petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons mainly aliphatic with lesser amounts of aromatic
hydrocarbons. It also contains a small amount of organic compounds of sulphur and
nitrogen.
Various Constituents of Petroleum and their Uses
Constituents of Petroleum Uses
Petroleum gas in liquid form (LPG) Fuel for home and industry
Petrol Motor fuel, aviation fuel, solvent for dry cleaning
Kerosene Fuel for stoves, lamps and for jet aircrafts
Diesel Fuel for heavy motor vehicles, electric generators
Lubricating oil Lubrication
Greases, vaseline, petroleum jelly Pharmaceutical preparations
Paraffin wax Ointments, candles, waxed papers
Asphalt or tar (bitumen) Paints, road surfacing

■ Petroleum is also called rock oil (petra = rock, oleum = oil), black gold or liquid gold.
■ Now-a-days bitumen, a petroleum products, is used in place of coaltar for metalling the roads.
■ The World’s first oil well was drilled in Pennsylvania, USA in 1859.
■ Stagnation of water damages the tar roads.
■ Biodiesel is obtained by the process of transesterification.
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
155
Petrochemicals
Many useful substances are obtained from petroleum and natural gas. These are known as
‘petrochemicals’. Some petrochemicals are saturated hydrocarbons (methane, ethane,
propane, etc.), unsaturated hydrocarbons (ethylene, propylene, butylene, etc.), aromatic
hydrocarbons (benzene, toluene), alcohols, formaldehyde, acetone, acetic acid,
vaseline, etc.
Petrochemicals are used in the manufacture of detergents, fibres, polythene and other
man-made plastics. Hydrogen gas obtained from natural gas is used in the production of
fertilizers (urea). Due to its commercial importance, it is also called black gold.

Classification of Organic Compounds

Organic compounds can be classified in the following manner:

Organic Compounds

Acyclic or open chain compounds Cyclic or closed chain or ring compounds

Homocyclic or carbocyclic compounds Heterocyclic compounds

Alicyclic compounds Aromatic compounds

Benzenoid compounds Non-benzenoid compounds

Acyclic or Open Chain Compounds

These compounds are also called aliphatic compounds. They consist of straight or
branched open chains.
e.g. CH4 H3 C  CH3 CH3  CH  CH3
Methane Ethane 
CH3
Iso -butane
Methane is the simplest aliphatic compound while benzene is the simplest aromatic
compound. So, these are considered as the father or parent compound of their respective
classes.

Alicyclic or Closed Chain Compounds

They contain carbon atoms joined in the form of a ring (homocyclic). Sometimes, atoms
other than carbon are also present in the ring (heterocyclic).
e.g.

O
Cyclopropane Cyclohexane Cyclohexene Tetrahydro furan
(heterocyclic)
Homocyclic
They resemble more with acyclic compounds as compared to aromatic compounds.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
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Aromatic Compounds
This word was taken from the word ‘aroma’ means fragrance. These compounds include
benzene (six carbon ring compound with alternate single and double bonds) and other
related ring compounds (benzenoid). Like alicyclic compounds, aromatic compounds may
also have hetero atom in the ring (heterocyclic aromatic compounds).
e.g.
Benzenoid Aromatic Compounds Non-Benzenoid Aromatic Compound
NH2

O
Tropolone
Benzene Aniline Naphthalene

Heterocyclic Aromatic Compounds

N O S
Pyrrole Furan Thiophene

Functional Group
Functional group is an atom or group of atoms present in the organic compounds. This
group is responsible for the characteristic chemical properties of an organic compound.

Some Classes of Compounds with Their Functional

Group, Prefix, Suffix and Examples
Class of
Functional Group Prefix Suffix Example
Compounds
Alkanes alkyl (R) ane H
C C H H
C C C
H H
H H H
(Propane)
Alkenes alkenyl ene H H
C C C C
H H
(Ethylene)
Alkynes  C ≡≡ C  alkynyl yne H  C ≡≡C H
(Acetylene)
Nitriles  C ≡≡ N cyano nitrile CH3CH2CH2CN
(Pentane nitrile)
Ethers R O  R alkoxy  CH3OCH3
(Methoxy methane)
Carboxylic acids COOH carboxy oic acid CH2CH2COOH
(Propanoic acid)
Carboxylate ions  COO − — oate CH3COONa
(Sodium ethanoate)
Esters COOR alkoxycarbonyl oate CH3CH2COOCH3
(Methyl propanoate)
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
157
Class of
Functional Group Prefix Suffix Example
Compounds
Acyl halides  COX halocarbonyl oyl halide CH3COCl
(X = F,Cl,Br,l) (Methanoyl chloride)
Arenes   

Benzene
Halides X [X = F,Cl,Br,l] halo  CH3CH2Cl
(Chloroethane)
Alcohols OH hydroxy ol CH3CH2OH
(Ethanol)
Aldehydes CHO formly or oxo al CH3CHO
Ethanal
Ketone oxo one CH3COCH3
C O (Propanone)

Amines  NH2 > NH, > N  amino amine CH3 NH2

(Methanamine)
Amides  CONH 2 ,  CONHR, carbamoyl amide CH3CH2CH2CONH2
CONR2 (Butanamide)
Nitro NO 2 nitro  CH3CH2 NO 2
compounds (Nitroethane)
Sulphonic acids SO 3 H sulpho sulphonic CH3 SO3 H
acid (Methyl sulphonic acid)

Anhydride COOCOR — anoxhydride (CH3 CO)2 O

(Acetic anhydride)
Isocyanide NC — isonitrile CH3NC
(Methyl isonitrile)
Phenyl  C 6H5 phenyl — C 6 H5 CH2 CH3
(1-Phenyl ethane)

Homologous Series
Homologous series is a series of compounds in which the same functional group
substitutes for hydrogen in a carbon chain.
Members of a homologous series are called homologues. e.g. Methane (CH4 ),
ethane (C 2 H6 ), propane ( C 3 H8 ), butane (C 4 H10 ) belong to straight chain alkanes.
Similarly, methyl alcohol (CH3 OH), ethyl alcohol (C 2 H5 OH), propyl alcohol (C 3 H7 OH),
butyl alcohol (C 4 H9 OH) and amyl alcohol (C 5 H11OH) are the homologues of alcohol series.
This phenomenon is called homology.

Characteristics of Homologous Series

(i) Homologues can be represented by the same general molecular formula.
e.g. C n H2 n + 1OH or C n H2 n + 2 O is the general formula for alcohols.
(ii) Successive members differ from each other in molecular formula by a CH2 unit.
(iii) Molecular weights of any two adjacent members differ by 14 u.
(iv) All the members of a homologous series are prepared by same general methods.
(v) As the molecular mass increases in any homologous series, a gradation in physical
properties (like melting point, boiling point, density, etc.) is seen.
(vi) The chemical properties which are determined solely by the functional group,
remain similar in a homologous series.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
158

Isomerism
Organic compounds with identical molecular formula but different configuration or
properties are called isomers and this phenomenon is called isomerism.
There are two types of isomerism:

1. Structural Isomerism
Compounds having the same molecular formula but different structures are classified as
structural isomers.
e.g. n-pentane, iso-pentane and neo-pentane have same molecular formula C 5 H12 but
they have different structures as shown below.
CH3 CH3
| |
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3 CH3  CH  CH2  CH3 → H3 C  C  CH3
n-pentane Iso -pentane |
or or
Normal pentane
CH 3
2-methyl butane Neo -pentane
or
2, 2-dimethyl propane
Structural isomerism is of four types ; chain isomerism, position isomerism, functional
group isomerism and metamerism.

2. Stereoisomerism
This isomerism is due to the difference in relative position of their atoms or molecules in
space. Stereoisomerism is of two types; geometrical and optical isomerism.

Hydrocarbon
The term ‘hydrocarbon’ means compounds of hydrogen and carbon only. Their natural
source is petroleum or crude oil. Hydrocarbons are of different types.
Depending upon the types of carbon-carbon bonds present, they can be classified into three
main categories:

1. Saturated Hydrocarbons
They contain carbon-carbon and carbon-hydrogen single bonds.
These are of two types:
(i) Alkanes or Paraffin Paraffin is a Latin word meaning less affinity, thus, these are
chemically inert (or unreactive) towards most of the chemicals. In these compounds,
different carbon atoms are joined together to form open chain of carbon atoms with
single bonds, General formula for alkanes is C n H 2 n + 2 (where, n = 1, 2, 3…). Methane is
the first member of this family.
Other members of this family with increasing order of molecular mass is
ethane (C 2 H6 ) < propane (C 3 H8 ) < butane (C 4 H10 ) < pentane (C 5 H12 )
< hexane (C 6 H14 ) < heptane (C 7 H16 ).
Methane or Marsh Gas (CH4 ) It is generally released through the septic tank. Wet
and marshy land is also a major source of methane. Decomposition of vegetable
generates methane.
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
159
In laboratory, it is prepared by heating the mixture of sodium acetate and sodalime.
Commercially, it is prepared by the reaction of aluminium carbide on water.
Its mixture with air is explosive and sometimes, it is responsible for explosion in coal
mines. Its shape is tetrahedral with 109 °28′ angle and it is black in colour.
It is mainly used as a fuel to produce light and energy, in the preparation of important
organic compounds like methyl alcohol, chloroform, etc, carbon black (printing ink),
hydrogen (at industrial level) and in making motor tyre.
(ii) Cycloalkanes In cycloalkanes, carbon atoms form a closed chain or a ring. General
formula for cycloalkanes is C n H2 n . Cyclopropane (C 3 H6 ) is the first member of this
family. Distance between two carbon atoms bonded through a single bond is always
larger than that present between two carbon atoms joined together through multiple
bonds (double or triple bond). Thus, C  C bond length in ethane is greater than that
of ethyne, ethene and benzyne.

2. Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
They contain carbon-carbon multiple bonds, i.e. double bonds, triple bonds or both. These
are of two types:
(i) Alkenes They contain atleast one carbon-carbon double bond. These are also
known as olefins (oil forming), since the first member ethylene or ethene (C 2 H 4 )
was found to form an oily liquid on reaction with chlorine. General formula for
alkenes is C n H 2 n .
Ethylene (C 2 H4 ) It is prepared by heating ethyl alcohol with conc. H2 SO 4 at 170°C. It is
used in making mustard gas, in ripening fruits artificially, in oxyethylene flame, in
fruit preservation and as an anaesthesia. Trichloroethylene is also used for dry
cleaning purposes.
Butene (CH3 CH2 CH== CH2 ) It is a constituent of liquified petroleum gas and used as a
fuel.
(ii) Alkynes or Acetylenic Hydrocarbon They contain atleast one carbon-carbon
triple bond. Their general formula is C n H 2 n− 2 . Ethyne, C 2 H2 (acetylene) is the first
member of this family. Reaction of acetylene with silver nitrate shows its acidic
property.
Acetylene (C 2 H2 ) It was prepared for the first time by American scientist Wilson. It
is prepared by the reaction of calcium carbide on water. It is used in the synthesis of
benzene, in oxy-acetylene welding and cutting (flame temperature −3200 ° C) as a raw
material for plastics, in making camphor, in making neoprine (artificial rubber) and in
the form of anaesthesia.

3. Aromatic Hydrocarbons
These are also known as arenes. Most of them possess pleasant odour (Greek aroma means
pleasant smelling). Most of these compounds contain benzene ring, e.g. benzene, toluene,
naphthalene, anthracene, etc. General formula for arenes is C n H 2 n − 6 .
Benzene (C 6 H6 ) It was first isolated by Faraday in 1825 from the cylinders of compressed
illuminating gas obtained by the pyrolysis of whale oil. Hofmann obtained benzene by
fractional distillation of coaltar.
It was first synthesised by Berthelot by passing acetylene through red hot tube. It is used
in the production of various organic compounds, manufacturing of explosives, dry
cleaning of clothes (woolen), as a solvent and fuel in motor vehicle when mixed with
petrol.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
160
Toluene (C 6 H5 CH3 ) It was first extracted from tolu balsam, a resin. It is used in the
manufacturing of TNT explosives, as antifreezer, as solvent, in making chloramine-T
drug in artificial sweetener saccharin and in day leaving.

Organic Compounds Containing Carbon,

Hydrogen and Oxygen
These are alcohols, phenols, ethers, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, acid anhydrides
and esters.

1. Alcohols
These are formed when a hydrogen atom of aliphatic hydrocarbon is replaced by OH
group (alcoholic group). General formula for alcohol is C n H 2 n+ 1 OH. Alcohols may be
classified as mono-, di-, tri- or polyhydric compounds depending on whether they contain
one, two, three or more hydroxyl groups respectively. e.g.
Monohydric alcohol—methanol, ethanol.
Dihydric alcohol — glycol.
Trihydric alcohol — glycerol.
Presence of this group is identified by esterification test. Formation of pleasant smelling
compound with carboxylic acid shows the presence of alcohol.

(i) Methyl Alcohol or Methanol (CH 3 OH)

It is produced by the destructive distillation of wood, so also called wood spirit. It is also
obtained by heating formaldehyde with potassium or sodium hydroxide. Sodium or
potassium formate is also formed during the reaction. It is a colourless poisonous liquid
with wine like odour.
Its ingestion in small amount causes blindness (because it affects optic nerve) and in large
amount causes death. In liver, methanol is oxidised to methanal which reacts rapidly with
the cells causes coagulation of protoplasm.
It is used as a solvent in paints and varnishes and in the production of artificial colours,
formaldehyde and denatured alcohol as a fuel by mixing petrol in it.

(ii) Ethyl Alcohol or Ethanol (C 2 H 5 OH)

Industrially, it is prepared by the fermentation
of molasses (by-product of sugar industry) or Everyday Science
starched food grains. It is also prepared by
a The flavour of apple is mainly
treating ethene with water (steam) in the because of the presence of
presence of phosphoric acid. ethanol in it.
H PO a In order to check alcohol level in
CH2 == CH2 + H2 O →
3 4
CH3 CH2 OH the blood of a person, the law
Ethene Ethanol enforcement used a chemical
It is a colourless volatile liquid. It is used as a test, in which the person
undergoing the test blows into the
solvent in varnishes, paints, etc. It is used in mouthpiece of a bag containing
making transparent soaps, perfumes, iodine sodium dichromate solution in
tincture, polish, in the production of wine acidic medium. On reaction with
and a number of carbon compounds. It is also ethanol, the colour of the solution
used as fuel in spirit lamp, stones and for converts from orange to green.
cleaning wound.
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
161
When ethanol is ingested in large quantities, it slows down the metabolic processes and
depresses the central nervous system. The individual may feel relaxed but does not
realise that his sense of judgement, sense of timing and muscular coordination have been
seriously impaired.

(iii) Ethylene Glycol (CH 2 OH  CH 2 OH)

It is a dihydric alcohol with swell taste and used as antifreezer (to depress the freezing
point of water and petrol) in radiator of cars in cold regions.

(iv) Glycerol or Glycerine (CH 2 OHCHOHCH 2 OH)

It is an extremely hygroscopic substance which is used in making explosives such as
trinitroglycerine by the treatment with conc. HNO 3 in the presence of concentrated
sulphuric acid and dynamite, etc.
It is also used in making stamp ink, boot polish, medicines, cosmetics, lubricants,
antifreezer wine, transparent soaps, etc. Parts of watches are cleaned by it. It also acts as
fruits preservator, etc.
Glycerol is found in fats and vegetable oils in the form of esters. In the free state, it is
found in fermented sugar solution and in the human blood.

Alcoholic Beverages
Alcoholic beverages are beverages like tea or coffee which are produced by the
fermentation of grapes, maize, sugarcane, etc., and the amount of alcohol is different for
different beverages. These beverages contain ethanol as their prime constituent. Yeast
contains rymase enzyme which converts glucose into ethyl alcohol.
Types of Alcoholic Beverages
Alcoholic beverages can be of the following types:
(i) Distilled Beverages These beverages are prepared by distillation. Amount of
alcohol in them may vary from 40-55%.
Distilled Beverages, Percentage of Alcohol and their Sources
Distilled Beverage Percentage of Alcohol Sources
Brandy (40-50)% Grapes (fermented juice)
Gin (35-40)% Maize
Rum (45-55)% Sugarcane
Vodka (30-40)% Corn, wheat
Whisky (40-50)% Molasses

Spirit Spirit is an alcoholic beverage containing ethanol. It is produced by the

distillation of ethanol which is obtained by the means of fermentation of grain,
vegetables and fruits.
Wine Wine is an alcoholic beverage made from fermented grapes, apples, berries,
etc. It contains 9-16% ethanol by volume.
■ Oenology It is the branch of chemistry which deals with the study of all aspects of wine and
wine making.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
162
(ii) Undistilled Beverages These are prepared by the addition of substances for
flavour, perfume and colour. In them, amount of alcohol vary from 3-15%.
Undistilled Beverages, Percentage of Alcohol and their Sources
Undistilled Beverage Percentage of Alcohol Sources
Beer (4-6)% Barley
Cider (2-6)% Apples
Champagne (10-15)% Grapes
Port and sherry (15-25)% Grapes

Some Terms Related to Alcohol

■ Denatured Alcohol Some substances like pyridine, acetone, methyl alcohol are added to
ethyl alcohol (ethanol) to make it poisonous and unfit for drinking. This alcohol is termed as
denatured alcohol.
■ Grain Alcohol Ethyl alcohol is called grain alcohol because it is obtained by the
fermentation of starched food grains.
■ Absolute Alcohol It is also called grain alcohol. It is a pure ethyl alcohol which is volatile
and colourless liquid.
■ Power Alcohol Mixture of purified spirit, benzene and petrol is used in propelling engine,
thus termed as power alcohol.
■ Rectified Spirit It contains 95.6% (≈ 95%) of ethanol and 4.4% ( ≈ 5%) of H2 O. It is purified
by the means of repeated distillation called rectification, thus termed as rectified spirit.
■ Wood Spirit It is produced by the destructive distillation of wood and contains methyl
alcohol (methanol).

2. Phenols (C 6H 5 OH)
These are formed when a hydrogen atom in an aromatic hydrocarbon is replaced by
OH group (alcoholic group). Phenol is the simplest hydroxy derivative of benzene.
Ferric chloride test is used to indicate presence of phenols.
It is commonly known as carbolic acid and was prepared by Runge in 1834. It is used to
prepare many compounds like salol, bakelite, phenolphthalein, aspirin, salicylic acid,
phenyl (a household germicide) and in explosives like picric acid.

3. Ethers
These are formed when a hydrogen atom in a hydrocarbon is replaced by alkoxy or
aryloxy ( R  O / Ar  O ) group, e.g. dimethyl ether, diethyl ether, ethyl methyl ether, etc.
General formula for ethers is C n H 2 n+ 2 O.
Diethyl Ether (C 2 H5 OC 2 H5 ) It is commonly called ether also. It is obtained by heating
ethanol with conc. H 2 SO 4 at 140°C. Other method for its synthesis is Williamson
synthesis. It is used as an anaesthesia as it is better than chloroform.
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
163

4. Aldehydes
These organic compounds contain CHO functional group (aldehyde group). General
formula for aldehydes is C n H 2 n O, e.g. formaldehyde (HCHO), acetaldehyde (CH3 CHO),
etc. These are identified by Tollen’s reagent, Fehling solution and Schiff’s reagent.
Formaldehyde (HCHO) It is used as a tissue fixative and embalming agent. It is used as
a disinfectant and its 40% aqueous solution (in solution water,) called formalin, is used as
preservative of biological specimens i.e., in embalmin biological materials.

5. Ketones
These organic compounds contain C == O Everyday Science
functional group (ketonic group). General
a Now-a-days, acetone-free nail
formula for ketones is C n H 2 n O or polish removers are available in
(C n H2 n+ 1 ) 2 CO, e.g. acetone or dimethyl ketone, market as acetone is somewhat
ethyl methyl ketone, etc. harmful for our skin, it weakens
our nail extensions and causes
Acetone (CH3 COCH3 ) It is a common them to separate from our natural
industrial solvent. It is used in cosmetics. It is nail. The main ingredient of these
also used in making artificial silk, synthetic removers is ethyl acetate or butyl
rubber, nail polish remover and medicines. acetate.

6. Carboxylic Acids
Carbon compounds containing a COOH functional group (carboxyl group), are called
carboxylic acids. General formula for carboxylic acid is C n H2 n O 2 , e.g. formic acid
(HCOOH), acetic acid (CH3 COOH), propionic acid (C 2 H5 COOH), etc.
Formic Acid (HCOOH) It was prepared firstly by the distillation of water with red ants
so named as formic acid (Latin formicus means red ants).
It is used in rubber, leather textile, dyeing and electroplating industry, in the production
of medicines of artherites and various compounds. It is also used as insecticide and fruit
juice preservative.
Acetic Acid (CH3 COOH) On commercial scale, it is ■ The tracking of people by trained
obtained from pyroligneous acid. It is a common dogs is based on the
laboratory reagent and is used to form various organic recognisation of carboxylic acid in
compounds like alcohol, acid as a solvent and as the sweat from feet.
vinegar in food. ■ Some calcium oxalate is also
Its 4-6% aqueous solution is called vinegar. It is also present in human urine.
used in making photographic film, rayon (as cellulose Sometimes, this compound
deposites in the kidney and
acetate) and sources and jelly.
appeared as kidney or prostate
Oxalic Acid (C 2 H2 O 4 ) It is a dicarboxylic acid which, stone.
in the form of potassium-hydrogen salt, is present in ■ In plant cells, oxalic acid occurs in
the family of plants as oxalis and rumex. It is used in the form of calcium oxalate.
metallurgy, in colouration and printing of clothes.
It is used in cleaning the spot of ink (10% solution) and bleaching of leather. It is also used
in photography in the form of ferrous oxalate.
It is also used for making ink and coaltar, for colouring and printing clothes.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
164
Lactic Acid [CH3 CH(OH) COOH] It is a ■ Alkanes are inert under normal
monohydroxy carboxylic acid. It is present in conditions as they do not react with
milk and provides it sour taste. It is also acids, bases and other reagents. Hence,
produced in muscles during exercise. So, human they are also known as paraffins (Latin
beings feel tired due to its accumulation. parum means little and affinis means
affinity).
Its more solubility in water as compared to
organic solvents is because of the formation of
■ Unsaturated hydrocarbons i.e., alkenes
hydrogen bonding. It is used in food products to and alkynes are chemically very
produce yogurts. It is also used in detergents, reactive due to the presence of double
pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. bond or triple bonds.
■ Saturated and unsaturated
Salicylic Acid [C 6 H5 (OH)COOH] It is a white hydrocarbons are collectively called
crystalline aromatic acid used in the medicines
aliphatic hydrocarbons.
(pain killers and skin ointment). ■ General formula for alkyl halide is
Citric Acid It is a monohydroxy tricarboxylic C n H2n +1X (where X = Cl, Br, I) and
acid. It occurs in all citrus fruits such as lemon, general formula of primary aliphatic
orange, etc. amine is C n H2n +1NH2 .

7. Esters
These organic compounds contain COOR functional group and fruity smell. General
formula of this class is C n H2 n O 2 or C n H2 n + 1COOR, e.g. methyl format (HCOOCH3 ),
methyl acetate (CH3 COOCH3 ), ethyl acetate (C 2 H5 COOCH3 ), etc. Ethyl acetate is used for
making artificial perfumes, scented colour, dyes, etc.

Some Other Important

Organic Compounds
Chloroform (CHCl 3 )
It was discovered by Liebig in 1831. It is stored in closed dark coloured bottles
completely filled because it is oxidised in air slowly to produce a poisonous gas,
phosgene (carbonyl chloride).
It was used as anaesthesia for the first time by Simpson who later used it in surgical
operations. It is used as solvent for fats, alkaloids, iodine, rubber, etc. It is also used as
insecticide. The major use of chloroform today is in the production of the freon
refrigerant R-22. Inhalation of chloroform vapours ceases the sense organs and thus,
it is used as an anaesthesia.
Iodoform (CHI 3 )
It is a yellow crystalline sublimative substance with specific odour. It is prepared in
the haloform reaction by the reaction of iodine, NaOH and ethanol.
It is insoluble in water and soluble in alcohol and ether. It was used earlier as an
antiseptic but the antiseptic properties are due to the liberation of free iodine and not
due to iodoform itself. It is a bactericidal substance.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) (Freons)
These are extremely stable, unreactive, non-toxic, non-corrosive and easily liquefiable
gases. Freon-12 is one of the most common freons in industrial use. These are used in
refrigeration and air conditioning purposes and in aerosol propellants. They play a
significant role in ozone layer depletion.
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
165
Carbon Tetrachloride (CCl 4 )
It is used in the manufacture of refrigerants and propellants for aerosol cans. It is
widely used as a cleaning fluid (for dry cleaning), both in industry as a decreasing
agent and in home as a spot remover and as a fire extinguisher (electric fire) under the
name pyrin.
Aniline (C 6H 5 NH 2 ) (Aminobenzene)
It is an amine derivative and took its name from a Portuguese word ‘anil' means indigo.
Unverdorben synthesised it for the first time by the distillation of lime water and indigo in
1826. Runge obtained it from coaltar and Fritsche by heating indigo with conc. alkali. It is
used in the preparation of various compounds like sulphonilic acid, nitroaniline and in
explosives. It is used in the preparation of drugs, coloured dye and Zwitter ion. It is also
used in rubber industry.

Methyl Isocyanate (CH 3 NC)

It is used in the production of rubbers, adhesives and in pesticides. Leakage of this gas
from Union Carbide Company of USA in 1984 led the Bhopal gas tragedy in which
thousands of people were killed.
Gammexane or Benzene Hexachloride (BHC) or Lindane
It is used as an insecticide and in pharmaceutical industries.
Formamint
It is used in making medicines of throat (chewing tablets).
Nitrobenzene (C 6H 5 NO 2 ) (Oil of Mirbane) Tear Gas
Alpha chloro
It contains  NO 2 functional group and was acetophenone, acrolein,
extracted from the first time from Mitscherilich in carbonyl chloride and
1834. chloropicrin (which is obtained by
the reaction of chloroform and
It is used in making TNB (trinitro benzene) an HNO 3) are the examples of tear
explosive soaps, polishes and cheap perfumes. gas. It causes bitter burning in
the eyes and produces tears.
Naphthalene (C10H 8 ) It is generally used for
It is a polynuclear hydrocarbon. Its major source is controlling uncontrolled
coaltar. It is used as an germicide and moth repellent. mob.

Lewisite
It was used during Second World War. It is a poisonous gas produced by the reaction
of acetylene with AsCl 3 in the presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride.
Paraldehyde
It is obtained by heating anhydrated acetaldehyde with conc. H2 SO 4 and used as a
sleeping drug.
Urotropine (Hexamethylene tetramine)
It is formed by the reaction of HCHO and NH3 . It is used in making medicine of urine
(urological diseases).
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
166
Chloretone
It is formed by the reaction of acetone with chloroform in the presence of KOH. It is
used in making drugs (for vomiting and headache) during the mountain or sea
expedition.
Acetamide [(CH3CONH2 )]
It is used in moistening pulp and paper, in softening Mustard Gas
leather. It was used during First
World War as a chemical
Chlorobenzene (C 6H 5Cl) weapon. It is produced by the
It is prepared by treating benzene with chlorine in reaction of sulphur monochloride
the presence of iron as catalyst. and ethylene smell of this gas is
like the mustard oil. Its vapours
It is used in manufacturing of phenol, aniline, etc. produce blister on the skin and
damages lungs. Its vapours
Dichloromethane (CH 2Cl 2 ) are transmitted through
It is used as solvent for paint remover, propellant in the rubber.
aerosols, in metal cleaning etc.
Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloroethane (DDT)
It is used as insecticide for mosquito and lice, and have many industrial applications.
Benzene Sulphonic Acid (C 6H 5 SO 3H)
It is used in the preparation of sulpha drugs, saccharin (an artificial sweetener).
Urea (NH 2CONH 2 )
It was the first organic compound synthesised in laboratory. It was extracted for the
first time from urine in 1773. It is a colourless, odourless substance that is soluble in
water. In it, the nitrogen content is 46%. That’s why it is used as fertilizer and for the
production of baronial medicines, formaldehyde-urea, plastics, etc.
Chloral (CCl 3CHO) (Trichloro Acetaldehyde)
It is a oily colourless liquid and is obtained by the reaction of chlorine with
acetaldehyde. It is used in manufacturing of DDT.

Everyday Science
a Nicotine, an alkaloid which is present in tobacco, can cause cancer.
a Tea stimulates the nervous and muscular system causes indigestion and burns on
stomach wall.
a Coffee aids digestion of taken after meal.
a Bagasse is the residue left after extracting juice from sugarbeet and sugarcane.
a Henna (Lawsonia inermis) is a flowering plant used to dye skin, hair, fingernails, leather
and wood. Its colouring property is because of the presence of lawsone, an organic
compound having high affinity towards proteins and amino acids in animals.
 Assessment
1. In all bio compounds the most necessary 10. What is the general formula of alkenes?
fundamental element is [SSC CHSL 2018]
(a) CnH 2n (b) CnH 2n + 2
[UPPCS (Mains) 2015]
(c) CnH 2n − 2 (d) CnH 2n− 1
(a) sulphur (b) carbon
(c) oxygen (d) nitrogen 11. In which of the following functional
2. Which of the following gases is used in group isomerism is not possible?
[CDS 2019]
cigarette lighters ? [BPSC (Pre) 2015]
(a) Alcohols (b) Aldehydes
(a) Butane (b) Methane
(c) Alkyl halides (d) Cyanides
(c) Propane (d) Radon
12. How many moles of CO can be obtained
3. Methane is a colourless odourless.
by reacting 2.0 mole of CH with
non-toxic but flammable gas. What is its
2.0 mole of O 2 according to the
common name? [SSC CGL 2020]
equation given below? [CDS 2018]
(a) Blue vitriol (b) Laughing gas
1
(c) Heating gas (d) Marsh gas CH4 ( g) + O2 → CO + 2H2
2
4. Which of the following is not the
(a) 2.0 (b) 0.5 (c) 2.5 (d) 4.0
allotrope of carbon? [SSC 2019]
(a) Graphite 13. In which one of the following reactions,
the maximum quantity of H2 gas is
(b) Methane
(c) Diamond
produced by the decomposition of 1 g of
(d) C-60 Buckminister Fuller ene
compound by H2O, O2 ? [CDS 2018]
(a) CH 4 + H 2 O → CO + 3H 2
5. Which one of the following is the largest
(b) CO 4 + H 2 O → CO 2 + H 2
composition in biogas? [NDA 2020]
1
(a) Carbon dioxide (b) Methane (c) CH 4 + O 2 → CO + 2H 2
2
(c) Hydrogen (d) Hydrogen sulphide
(d) C 12 H 24 + 6O 2 → 12CO + 12H 2
6. Which of the following gas causes
14. The compound C7 H7 NO2 has [CDS 2018]
explosion in coal mines? [SSC 2019]
(a) 17 atoms in a molecule of the
(a) Carbon dioxide (b) Nitrogen
compound
(c) Butane (d) Methane
(b) equal molecules of C and H by mass
7. Which of the following is not an (c) twice the mass of oxygen atoms
unsaturated carbon compound? compared to nitrogen atoms
[SSC 2019] (d) twice the mass of nitrogen atoms
(a) Acetylene (b) Pentene compared to hydrogen atoms
(c) Butane (d) Benzene 15. Ethanol containing 5% water is known
8. ……… was the first person to isolate as [SSC CGL 2013]
methane gas. He discovered that (a) rectified spirit (b) absolute alcohol
methane mixed with air could be (c) dilute alcohol (d) power alcohol
exploded using an electric spark.
16. An organic compound is used in making
(a) Alessandro Volta [SSC CGL 2019]
picric acid (explosive), phenolphthalein
(b) William Thomson (an indicator), bakelite, salol, aspirin,
(c) Louis Pasteur salicylic acid etc. The organic compound is
(d) William Crookes (a) benzene (b) phenol
9. Which of the following is the general (c) nitrobenzene (d) aniline
formula for saturated hydrocarbons ? 17. Which of the following is an aldehyde?
[CDS 2018] [SSC CGL 2019]
(a) CnH 2n + 2 (b) CnH 2n − 2 (a) Propanal (b) Pronanol
(c) CnH 2n + 1 (d) CnH 2n − 1 (c) Propanone (d) Propine
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
168
18. Which of the following is a sweet Codes
smelling substance? [SSC 2019] A B C D A B C D
(a) Ammonia (b) Methanol (a) 2 4 1 3 (b) 4 3 2 1
(c) 2 1 3 4 (d) 1 4 2 3
(c) Esters (d) Ethanol
24. Which acid substance is found in
19. Which of the following are amongst the
vinegar? [RRB 2018]
few carbon containing compounds not
(a) Lactic acid (b) Citric acid
classified as organic? [SSC CGL 2019] (c) Maleic acid (d) Acetic acid
(a) Methane (b) Nucleic acids
(c) Cyanides (d) Propane 25. Which of the following compounds does
not contain a carboxylic acid group?
20. Statement I Inflammable substances are
(a) Picric acid (b) Vinegar
petrol, alcohol, LPG etc.
(c) Salicylic acid (d) Benzoic acid
Statement II These substances have low
26. Which of the following is the major
ignition temperature.
component of vinegar? [SSC CGL 2020]
(a) Both the Statements I and II are
individually true and Statement II (a) Nitric acid (b) Lactic acid
is the correct explanation of (c) Citric acid (d) Acetic acid
Statement I. 27. ……… is the primary acid present in
(b) Both the Statements are individually ripe bananas. [SSC CHSL (10+2) 2019]
true but Statement II is not the (a) Formic acid (b) Sulphuric acid
correct explanation of Statement I. (c) Malic acid (d) Hydrochloric acid
(c) Statement I is true, but Statement II
28. Which of the following acids is present
is false.
in ant bites? [SSC CGL 2019]
(d) Statement I is false, but Statement II
(a) Formic acid (b) Malic acid
is true.
(c) Perchloric acid (d) Nitric acid
21. Consider the following statements :
29. What is the dominant chemical present
I. Saturated hydrocarbons undergo
in vinegar? [SSC CGL 2019]
substitution reaction.
(a) Malic acid (b) Formic acid
II. Carbon black is obtained when methane
(c) Sulphuric acid (d) Ethanoic acid
is heated in the absence of air.
Which of the above statement(s) is/are 30. Which of the following has a strong
correct? fruity fragrance? [SSC CGL 2019]
(a) Only I (b) Only II (a) Methyl chloride (b) Methanoic acid
(c) I and II (d) None of these (c) Methanol (d) Ethyl acetate
31. Which of the following acid found in
22. Match the following Columns.
apple? [SSC CGL 2019]
Column I Column II
(a) Malic acid (b) Nitric acid
A. Alkanes 1. C2H2n (c) Formic acid (d) Sulphuric acid
B. Alkenes 2. C2H2 n +2 32. A traditional ‘battery’ contains which of
C. Alkynes 3. C nH2 n +1OH the following chemicals? [SSC CGL 2019]
D. Alcohol 4. C nH2 n−2 (a) Ethylene glycol (b) Sulphuric acid
(c) Sodium bicarbonate (d) Ethanol
Codes
33. Chlorofluorocarbon is also known by the
A B C D A B C D
(a) 4 3 2 1 (b) 2 1 4 3 name of [RRB 2013]
(c) 1 1 4 3 (d) 1 2 3 4 (a) chloroform (b) freon
(c) glycerol (d) marsh gas
23. Match the following Columns.
34. The gas used as a coolant in the
Column I Column II
refrigerator is [RRB 2013]
A. Vodka 1. Apples (a) freon-12 (b) helium
B. Brandy 2. Potatoes (c) carbon dioxide (d) ammonia
C. Cidar 3. Barley 35. Calcium carbide is used for artificial
D. Whisky 4. Grapes ripening of green fruits because it
products [RAS/RTS (Pre) 2016]
ASSESSMENT
169
(a) methylene (b) auxin 43. Tetra Ethyl Lead (TEL) is [SSC 2010]
(c) acetylene (d) florigen (a) a catalyst in the combustion of fossil
36. The gas used in refrigerator is [CDS 2013] fuels
(a) cooled down on flowing (b) an anti-oxidant
(c) an anti-knocking compound
(b) heated upon flowing
(d) a reducing agent
(c) cooled down when compressed
(d) cooled down when expanded 44. Which of the following is used as an
37. Chlorofluorocarbons are widely used in
anti-freezing substance in the self
[SSC CHSL (10+2) 2013] starting engines? [UPPSC LS (Pre) 2009]
(a) micro ovens (b) solar heaters (a) Propyl alcohol (b) Ethanol
(c) washing machines (d) refrigerators (c) Ethylene glycol (d) Methanol
45. Leakage of which of the following gases
38. The open ‘sigrees’ or coal stoves often
and caused the Bhopal Gas Tragedy.
require fanning to sustain burning
[Uttarakhand PCS (Pre) 2012]
because of [SSC Multitasking 2014]
(a) Methyl isocyanate (b) Carbon monoxide
(a) tendency of carbon dioxide to form a (c) Nitric oxide (d) Sulphur dioxide
layer along with dust smoke
46. The chloroform is kept in the coloured
(b) lack of oxygen in the surroundings
bottle or container because it directly
of sigrees
reacts with air and light and forms a
(c) accumulation of smoke and dust over toxicated substance
the sigrees (a) phosphine (b) phosgene
(d) interrupted release of moisture from (c) mustard gas (d) CO
the material
47. In which one of the following the
39. Which one of the following is to be maximum percentage of nitrogen is to be
found in nail polish remover? [CDS 2009] found from the mass point of view?
(a) Acetone (b) Benzene (a) Urea [NDA 2009]
(c) Petroleum ether (d) Acetic acid (b) Ammonium cyanide
40. Which one of the following is a (c) Ammonium carbonate
component of tear gas? [SSC 2010] (d) Ammonium sulphate
(a) Ethane 48. Consider the following chemicals :
(b) Ethanol I. Benzene
(c) Ether II. Carbon tetrachloride
(d) Chloropicrin III. Sodium carbonate
IV. Trichloroethylene
41. Mixture of which one of the following
pairs of gases is the cause of occurrence Which of the above is/are used as dry
of most of the explosions in mines? cleaning chemicals?
(a) Only I (b) Only II
(a) Hydrogen and oxygen [IAS 2008]
(c) I, II and IV (d) All of these
(b) Oxygen and acetylene
49. Which of the following statements are
(c) Methane and air
(d) Carbon dioxide and methane
correct about chloroform?
I. Liquid fuel
42. The gas used for artificial ripening of
II. Anaesthetic in nature
green fruit is [SSC Multitasking 2014]
III. Produces phosgene
(a) acetylene
IV. Fire extinguisher
(b) ethylene
[SSC (10+2) DEO & LDC 2011]
(c) ethane (a) I and II (b) I and III
(d) carbon dioxide (c) II and III (d) IV and I

1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (a) 9. (a) 10. (a)
11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (a) 16. (b) 17. (d) 18. (c) 19. (c) 20. (a)
21. (c) 22. (b) 23. (a) 24. (a) 25. (a) 26. (d) 27. (c) 28. (a) 29. (d) 30. (b)
31. (a) 32. (b) 33. (b) 34. (a) 35. (c) 36. (d) 37. (d) 38. (b) 39. (a) 40. (d)
41. (c) 42. (b) 43. (c) 44. (c) 45. (a) 46. (b) 47. (a) 48. (c) 49. (c)
16
Food Chemistry
Living systems are made up of various non-living complex biomolecules like carbohydrates,
proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, etc. Carbohydrates and proteins are essential constituents of our
food. These biomolecules interact with each other and form molecular logic of life processes.

Carbohydrates
Earlier, it was belived that these are the compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in the
ratio of 1 : 2 : 1. But all the available carbohydrates were not in accordance with this ratio, so the
definition has been modified.
According to modern definition, these are optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones
or the compounds producing these molecules when subjected to hydrolysis. General formula
of the carbohydrates is C x (H 2 O)y . e.g. Glucose [C 6 H 12 O 6 or C 6 (H 2 O)6 ], fructose, sucrose, etc.
These are primarily produced by plants and form a very large group of naturally occuring
organic compounds.
Cereals like wheat, maize, rice, corn, rye, oat, barley, etc., potato, turnit beet root, banana, etc
are the major sources of carbohydrates.

Classification of Carbohydrates
I. On the basis of their behaviour on hydrolysis, carbohydrates are divided into following three
groups:
(i) Monosaccharides These are simplest form of saccharides and hence further can not
be hydrolysed. e.g. Triose (glyceraldehyde), tetrose (erythrose), pentose (ribose), hexose
(glucose, fructose), etc.
(ii) Oligosaccharides They yield 2 to 10 monosaccharide units on hydrolysis.
e.g., sucrose (sugarcane), maltose, lactose, etc all give two molecules of monosaccharides
on hydrolysis, so these are also called disaccharides. On hydrolysis, sucrose gives two
molecules each of glucose and fructose whereas maltose gives two molecules of glucose.
(iii) Polysaccharides They yield a large number of monosaccharide units joined together
by glycosidic linkages. e.g. Starch, cellulose, gums, glycogen, etc. These are usually,
insoluble in water and extracted from plants.
II. On the basis of physical properties, carbohydrates are divided into following two groups:
(i) Sugars Carbohydrates which are sweet in taste, are called sugars. e.g. Sucrose, lactose
(milk sugar), etc.
(ii) Non-sugars Carbohydrates which are not sweet in taste, are called non-sugars. e.g.,
all polysaccharides, (starch, cellulose), etc.
FOOD CHEMISTRY
171
III. On the basis of their reducing properties, carbohydrates are classified into following two
classes
(i) Reducing Carbohydrates They reduce Tollen’s reagent into silver mirror and
Fehling’s solution into red precipitates. It includes all monosaccharides and
disaccharides (except sucrose).
(ii) Non-reducing Carbohydrates These are unable to reduce Tollen’s reagent and
Fehling’s solution. Sucrose and all other higher saccharides are included in this class.

Some Common Carbohydrates

Some common carbohydrates are discussed below:
Glucose (C 6 H 12 O 6 ) It is also known as dextrose. It is present in sweet fruits, ripe grapes and
honey. Commercially, it is obtained from starch upon hydrolysis. It is the main sugar
metabolised by the body for energy. Its concentration in blood stream ranges between
70-115 mg/100 mL. It provides instantaneous energy to the human body.
Fructose (C 6H 12 O 6 ) It is also known as fruit sugar. It is present in honey, other fruits and
high fructose corn syrup. Natural fructose is also called laevulose. It is used in medicinal
syrup, toffies, etc.
■ Glucose because of its
Sucrose (C 12 H 22 O 11 ) It is obtained from sugarcane and is also
known as cane sugar. On hydrolysis, it gives glucose and reducing nature is used for
silvering mirrors.
fructose in equal amounts and the product is called invert
■ Galactose is not generally
sugar. It is an excellent preservative which is present in
many jarred foods like jams. found in nature in large
quantities, however it
Maltose (C 12 H 22 O 11 ) It is composed of two glucose units. It is combines with glucose to
also known as malt sugar and used in alcohol production. give lactose in milk.
■ Cellulose is not digestible by
Lactose (C 12 H 22 O 11 ) It is found in milk of mammals; 4-6% in
humans because our
cow’s milk and 5-8% in human milk. So, it is also called milk
digestive system does not
sugar. It is composed of galactose and glucose.
contain cellulase enzyme.
Starch (C 6 H 10 O 5 )n It is found in cereals, roots, tubers and some It is present in stomach of
vegetables. On digestion, it gives maltose which further ruminant mammals (cow,
decomposes to give glucose. It is a polymer of glucose and it deer) and termites.
consists of two components, i.e. amylose (water soluble) and ■ Gum is a polymer of more
amylopectin (water insoluble). It acts as food reserve of than one type of
plants. monosaccharides. These are
acidic polysaccharides.
Cellulose (C 6 H 10 O 5 )n It occurs exclusively in plants and it is ■
Fructose is much sweeter
predominant constituent of cell wall of plant cells. It is a than sucrose.
straight chain polysaccharide of glucose. It is used for ■
Starch (amylose) gives blue
making shatterproof glass. violet colour with I2 solution.
Glycogen In animal body, carbohydrates are stored as ■ Cotton wool obtained from
glycogen, so it is also known as animal starch. It is present in cotton plant is made up of
liver, muscles and brain. When our body needs glucose cellulose.
(energy), enzymes break glycogen into glucose.

Importance of Carbohydrates
(i) They form a major portion of our food and supply energy to the body by the process of
oxidation. They also form nucleic acid. Honey is used as an instant source of energy.
(ii) These are used as storage molecules such as starch in plants and glycogen in animals.
(iii) Cellulose in the form of wood is used in (build) furniture and clothes in the form of cotton
fibres.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
172
(iv) They provide raw materials for textiles, lacquers and beverages.

Proteins
The term ‘protein’ is derived from the word ‘proteios’ means the ‘prime importance’. This term
was coined by Muller in 1838. These are the nitrogenous substances, i.e., have nitrogen along
with C, H and O and called the building blocks of the body.
All proteins are polymers of α-amino acids which are linked together through peptide linkage.
Proteins make upto 15% by mass of our body. These are important components of most foods
and are essential for nourishment purposes. Meat and egg are their richest sources.
In animals, 20 types of amino acid codes are found for the synthesis of proteins.

Classification of Proteins ■ Insulin which maintains

I. On the basis of composition, proteins are classified into level of blood sugar
following two classes: contains 51 amino acid
units while haemoglobin
(i) Fibrous Proteins They constitute structural materials of
which carries oxygen
the animal tissues. When the polypeptide chains run
consists of 574 amino acid
parallel and are held together by hydrogen and disulphide
units.
bonds, then fibre-like structure (fibrous protein) is formed.
e.g. Keratin, fibroin, collagen and myosin (present in ■ Transportable proteins are
muscles). responsible for the
transportation of
(ii) Globular Proteins They maintain and regulate the life micronutients to different
cycle. In them, polypeptide chains are coiled about around body parts, contractile
which results in a spherical molecule. e.g. Enzymes, proteins are helpful in
hormones such as insulins and albumins, etc. muscles contraction (i.e., in
smooth movement of
II. On the basis of components of molecules, proteins are
muscles), structural proteins
classified into following three classes:
form the structural part of
(i) Simple Proteins These are made up of amino acids only, the cells and tissues
e.g. collagen of connective tissue, albumins, albuminade, whereas defensive proteins
globules, etc. make body resistant
towards infection (thus,
(ii) Conjugated Proteins These are made up of protein
antibodies are basically
molecules joined to non-protein part (prosthetic group),
proteins).
e.g. haemoglobin, casein of milk, nucleoprotein,
glycoprotein, phosphoprotein.
(iii) Derived Proteins These are formed by partial breakdown of natural proteins, e.g.
peptones, insulin, fibrin, etc.

Functions of Proteins
(i) They act as enzymes in plants and animals.
(ii) These are the components of hair, muscle and skin.
(iii) They act as hormones, e.g. insulin and vasopressin.
(iv) They transport oxygen, fats and other substances required for metabolism.
(v) Proteins are vital for physiological growth and nourishment purposes. They help in the
synthesis of cells, protoplasm and tissue culturing.
(vi) They provide instantaneous energy only at the time of emergency when carbohydrates and
fats are not available.
(vii) These are also found helpful in the development of genetical characteristics and in controlling
the heridetary activities.

Denaturation of Proteins
When protein is subjected to physical change such as change in temperature or chemical
change such as change in pH, it loses its biological activity. This is called denaturation.
FOOD CHEMISTRY
173
The coagulation of egg on boiling is a common example of denaturation.

Fats and Oils ■ Fats provide more

energy (9 kcal/g) as
Fats mainly contain saturated esters while oils mainly contain compared to
unsaturated esters derived from the single alcohol glycerol. Thus, carbohydrates (4.2
these are also called triglycerides. Triglycerides are, thus, esters of
kcal/g), energy provided
glycerol with higher fatty acids such as palmitic acid (C 15 H 31 COOH), by which is higher than
stearic acid (C 17 H 35 COOH), oleic acid (C 17 H 33 COOH), etc. that given by proteins.
Like carbohydrates, these are also composed of carbon, hydrogen ■ Drying oil contains
and oxygen but oxygen content is much lesser as compared to
unsaturated fatty acids.
carbohydrates. These are insoluble in water but soluble in organic Castor oil is a vegetable
solvents like benzene, carbon tetrachloride, petroleum, etc. These oil obtained from
are the major food reserve of organisms and are responsible for castor bean. It is
several functions. colourless to pale
Phospholipids are an important group of phosphorus containing yellow with high
fats. Unsaturated triglycerides are called oils and saturated protein content.
triglycerides are called fats. Further, glycerides having melting point
below 20°C are oils while glycerides having melting point above 20°C are fats. At room
temperature, fats are in solid state. Edible fats must have the boiling points below the 37° C
(human body temperature).
Unsaturation of any fat or oil is determined by iodine value.

Types of Fats
Depending upon their origin, fats are classified into following two classes:
(i) Animal Fats These are actually saturated fats and obtained from animals. Their main
sources are milk, butter, meat, cheese (paneer), egg, fish, etc. They exist in solid form.
(ii) Vegetative Fats These are transaturated fats. Their main sources are nut, coconut,
almond, mustard, surflower, etc. They generally exist in liquid form.

Functions of Fats
The general functions performed by fats are as follows:
(i) They act as stored source of energy.
(ii) These are stored up beneath the skin to provide resistive layer in the body.
(iii) These are also stored in the form of shock resistive layer to protect various organs of the
animals.

Waxes ■ Bee wax mainly contains myricyl

palmitate (the ester of myricyl
Waxes are the organic compounds which occur alcohol and palmitic acid).
synthetically and naturally. Natural waxes are the esters ■ Carnauba wax is obtained from palm
of fatty acids and long chain alcohols whereas synthetic leaf. It contains myricyl cerotate.
waxes are mixture of the long chain hydrocarbons and ■ Spermaceti wax is obtained from
obtained from petroleum. sperms of whale. It contains cetyl
These are insoluble in water but soluble in organic palmitate.
solvents. It is used to make candles, in coating substances, ■ Paraffin waxes are synthetic waxes.
cosmetics, etc.

Types of Waxes
(i) Animal waxes (ii) Plant waxes
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
174
(iii) Petroleum derived waxes (iv) Montan waxes

Vitamins
Vitamins are the organic compounds required in small amounts in our diet. These are not
required for providing energy but essential for regulating the metabolism in human beings.
Their deficiency causes specific diseases. Excess of vitamins is also harmful, therefore vitamin
pills should not be taken without the advice of doctor.
Vitamins are represented by capital letters of English alphabets like A, B, C, D etc.

Types of Vitamins
Depending upon their solubility in water or fat, vitamins are classified into two groups:
(i) Fat Soluble Vitamins These are vitamins A, D, E and K. These are stored in liver and fat
storing tissues.
(ii) Water Soluble Vitamins B group vitamins and vitamin-C are soluble in water. These
vitamins must be supplied regularly in diet because they are readily excreted in urine i.e.,
not stored in body (except vitamin B 12 ).

Various Vitamins and their Functions

Fat Soluble Vitamins
Deficiency
Name Sources Functions Other Information
Symptoms
Vitamin-A (Retinol) Carrot, tomato, It has an essential Night blindness It is a first fat soluble
papaya, mango, role for vision, (dim vision in the vitamin discovered by
milk, eggs and growth, differentiation evening and at McCollum (1913).
cod-liver oil of epithelial tissue. night), Paul Karrer got Nobel
Xerophthalmia Prize (chemistry) in
(hardening of 1937 for determining
cornea of eye), the structure of
abnormal epithelial vitamin-A.
cell growth
Vitamin-D Cod liver oil, skin It increases calcium Rickets in children Vitamin-D behaves
(Calciferol) can synthesise absorption from the and osteomalacia more like a hormone
vitamin-D in the gastrointestinal tract in adults than as the cofactor of
presence of and helps to control an enzyme. It is the only
sunlight calcium deposition in vitamin synthesised
the bone. in our body.
Vitamin-E Wheat germ, green It acts as good Reproductive Vitamin-E is also
(Tocopherol) leafy vegetables, antioxidant, essential failure, muscular called vitamin of
fats of vegetables for normal functioning dystrophy, reproduction. It was
of reproductive increased discovered by Herbert
organs, maintains haemolysis leading Evans and Katherine
muscles of the body to macrocytic Bishop (1922) in
and structure or anaemia green leafy vegetables.
RBCs.
Vitamin-K Leafy vegetables, It helps in blood Faulty blood Dam (1939) isolated
There are three wheat germ, clotting, prevention of clotting vitamin-K1 and in the
derivatives of vitamin-K is excessive bleeding. same year Doisy
vitamin-K; synthesised by isolated vitamin-K2 .
K1 (Phylloquinone), bacteria of large Both of them shared
K2 (Menaquinone) intestine. the 1943 Nobel Prize
and K 3 in Chemistry for
(Menadione) chemical nature of
vitamin-K.
 Water Soluble Vitamins
Name Sources Functions Deficiency Symptoms Other Information
Vitamin-B1 (Thiamine) Whole grain wheat germ, It is essential for repair and growth of Beri-beri disease, B1 deficiency in Alcohol interferes with metabolism of B1 in
legumes, nuts, fish, dry tissues. It helps the body to convert amino alcoholics causes Wernicke’s the liver. This was discovered by Eijkman
chillies, uncleaned pulses acid tryptophan to niacin. It acts as thiamine syndrome and Korsakoff’s in 1897.
pyrophosphate (TPP) in tricarboxylic acid syndrome
(TCA) cycle (Krebs’ cycle).
Vitamin-B2 (Riboflavin) Milk, cheese, meats, eggs, It helps in RBCs production and acts as Cheilosis, cracks in skin, red eyes, Riboflavin is also called ‘yellow enzyme’.
legumes, wheat germ, flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and flavin cracks in tongue, etc
mushrooms and green leafy adenine dinucleotide (FAD). FMN acts in
vegetables electron transport chain (ETC), however FAD
FOOD CHEMISTRY

acts in both TCA cycle and ETC.

Vitamin-B3 (Niacin, Whole grain nuts, legumes It acts as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide Pellagra and hartnup disease, a Elvehjem isolated nicotinic acid in 1937.
Nicotinic acid) yeast, liver, fish, meat and (NAD) and nicotinamide adenine hereditary abnormality in
poultry dinucleotide phosphate (NADP) in TCA metabolism of tryptophan
cycle.
Vitamin-B5 Yeast, milk, It is essential for healthy skin and hair. It Dermatitis, retarded growth, loss of Pantothenic acid was first identified by
(Pantothenic acid) groundnut, tomatoes, liver, forms Co-enzyme A in TCA cycle. It is also hair, greying of hair Williams and associated in 1933.
meat, wheat germ, honey, egg used orally for osteoarthritis, parkinson’s
and yolk disease, premenstrual syndrome (PMS), etc.
Vitamin-B6 Whole grain cereals, peanuts, Protein metabolism. Dermatitis, anaemia, convulsions, Pyridoxine was discovered by Albert
(Pyridoxine) banana, soyabean, meat and nausea mental disorder, retarded Szent-Györgyi in 1934.
vegetables growth
Vitaim-B7 (Biotin) Egg, yolk, milk, nuts, honey, Carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism. Poor growth, loss of muscular Biotin was discovered in 1936 by Kogl and
liver, meat and fish control, loss of appetite, weakness, Tonnis. Raw egg should not be eaten.
hair fall White of egg contains avidin protein which
prevents the absorption of biotin.
Vitamin-B9 (Folic acid) Green leafy vegetables It is essential for the formation of RBCs Causes megaloblastic anaemia Folic acid was discovered by Lucy Wills in
and increases appetite. 1934.
Vitamin-B12 ; Castle’s It is reported in Spirulina (an RBCs production, DNA synthesis, proper Pernicious anaemia Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin got 1964
Extrinsic Factor alga), liver, meat, fish, eggs functioning of neurological system. Nobel Prize in chemistry for the structure of
(Cyanocobalamin, and milk vitamin B12 . It contains cobalt (Co) metal.
Cobalamin)
Vitamin-B17 (Laetrile) Wheat, grass and juice B17 has anti-cancer property. — —
Vitamin-C Citrus fruits, amla, guava and It is essential for the formation of RBCs and Its deficiency causes scurvy James Lind (1753) discovered the cure of
(Ascorbic acid) tomato the production of antibodies. It is good for scurvy and reported that citrus fruits are
bones, teeth and gums. It acts as rich in vitamin-C.
antioxidant.
Vitamin-P (Hesperidin, Citrus fruits and green vegetables It maintains walls of blood vessels. — —
Citrin).
175

■ Vitamin B1 , B 5 , B6 , B12 and C are destroyed by heat. Vitamin C is the vitamin that is not present in animal food or food of animal origin.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
176
Enzymes
These are the complex nitrogenous organic compounds which are produced by living plants
and animals. They are actually protein molecules of high molecular mass. These are also called
biochemical catalysts because numerous reactions that occur in the bodies of animals and
plants to maintain life processes, are catalysed by enzymes.

Enzymes and their Uses

Enzymes Uses
Zymase enzyme In the formation of ethyl alcohol from glucose
Diastase enzyme In the formation of maltose from starch
Mycodrumi aciti In the production of vinegar from sugar beat
Invertase enzyme In the production of glucose and fructose from sugarcane
Lacto bacillus In the production of lactic acid from milk
Pepsin enzyme In the decomposition of protein into simpler amino acids in stomach
Erepsin enzyme In the decomposition of proteins into amino acids in intestines
Trypsin enzyme In the decomposition of proteins into amino acids in pancreas
Ptylin enzyme In the transformation of starch into glucose in human saliva
Carbonic anhydrase In the transformation of H2CO 3 to H2O and CO 2
Nucleases In the transformation of RNA and DNA to nucleotides
Amylase In the transformation of starch to α-glucose
Urease In the transformation of urea to CO 2 and H2O
α-amlase In the production of sweet syrup from corn starch
Rennin Essential for the digestion of mother’s milk in young mammals

Characteristics of Enzymes ■ With only two exceptions, all

(i) Enzymes are most highly efficient. enzymes are proteins but all
(ii) Enzymes are highly specific in nature, e.g. urease proteins are not enzymes.
catalyses the hydrolysis of urea only. ■ Enzyme catalysed reactions are
(iii) Enzymes are highly active under optimum temperature, faster than metal catalysed
i.e. 298-310 K. On either side of optimum temperature, reactions.
the enzyme activity decreases. ■ Phenyl ketone urea disease is
(iv) Enzymes are highly active under optimum pH, i.e. caused due to the deficiency of
between 5-7. an enzyme phenylalanine
(v) Enzyme activity is increased in the presence of certain hydroxylase.
substances called co-enzymes. ■ Disease albinism is caused due
(vi) Presence of metal ions increases the activity of an to the deficiency of enzyme
enzyme, e.g. amylase in the presence of Na + ions are tyrosinase.
catalytically very active. ■ Enzymes are also used to treat
(vii) Presence of inhibitors and poisons reduces or heart diseases, e.g. enzyme
completely destroys the catalytic activity of the streptokinase dissolving clots once
enzymes. they have fulfilled their purpose of
stopping blood clots.
Food Preservatives
They prevent spoilage of food due to the microbial growth. The most commonly used
preservatives include table salt, sugar, vegetable oils, sodium metabisulphite and sodium
benzoate. Salts of sorbic acid and propanoic acid are also used as preservatives.

Everyday Science
a Refrigeration also helps in food preservation because it provides low temperature and
reduces the rate of biochemical reaction (i.e. reactions occuring in living organisms). Due
to which bacterial (microbes) activities are reduced greatly, i.e. they can not reproduce or
eat food.
FOOD CHEMISTRY
177

Artificial Sweetening Agents

Natural sweeteners like sucrose add to calorie intake and therefore many people mainly
diabetic prefer to use artificial sweeteners.
Some commonly marketed artificial sweeteners are as follows:
Saccharin It is ortho-sulphobenzimide. It is about 550 times as sweet as cane sugar. It is
excreted from the body in urine changed. It appears to be entirely inert and harmless when
taken.
Aspartame It is the most successful and widely used artificial sweetener. It is 100 times as
sweet as cane sugar. Its use is limited to cold foods and soft drinks because it is unstable at
cooking temperature.
Alitame It is high potency sweetener. It is about 2000 times as sweet as cane sugar.
Sucrolose It is trichloro derivative of sucrose. Its appearance and taste are like sugar. It is
stable at cooking temperature.

Food Poisoning
Sometimes, microorganisms grow on our food and produce toxic substances. They make the
food poisonous causing serious illness and even death.
■ Deep fried food materials are carcinogenic as they are rich in hydrocarbon.

Antioxidants
Unsaturated oils and fats containing food materials, when stored, undergo deterioration
because of the oxidation by atmospheric oxygen. To avoid their oxidation and to prevent their
spoilage, certain chemicals which are able to prevent their oxidation are added. These
chemicals are known as antioxidants.
Therefore, the chemicals which retard the action of oxygen on the food material and thereby
help in its preservation are called antioxidants. BHA (butylated p-hydroxyanisole), BHT
(butylated p-hydroxytoluene), esters of gallic acid and lecithin are some examples of
antioxidants.
Some antioxidants are present in food materials as shown in the following table.
Sources of Some Antioxidants
Antioxidants Food Materials Containing Antioxidants
Vitamin-C (ascorbic acid) Fruits and vegetables
Vitamin-E (tocopherols) Vegetable oils
Carotenoids Fruits and vegetables
Polyphenolic antioxidants Tea, coffee, soyabean, chocolate, etc.

Everyday Science
a Sulphur dioxide and sulphite are useful antioxidants for beverages sugar syrups, peeled
fruits.
a Regular intake of fresh fruits and vegetables is recommended as they are good source of
antioxidants which help to maintain health and promote longevity by neutralising free
radicals produced in the body during metabolism.
 Assessment
1. In honey, which one among the following 8. Nobel prize in chemistry for the year 2012
sugars predominates? [NDA/NA 2014] was given for the work on [CDS 2013]
(a) Sucrose (b) Fructose (a) G-protein coupled receptors
(c) Galactose (d) Maltose (b) human stem cell cloning
(c) anti-malarial vaccine
2. The most abundantly found organic
(d) neurotransmitters
compound in the nature is [UPPCS 2013]
(a) glucose (b) fructose 9. Consider the following statements :
(c) sucrose (d) cellulose I. All waxes are organic compounds.
II. Waxes are soluble in water.
3. Which one of the following artificial
III. Waxes can be obtained from plants and
sweeteners is modified sugar? animals.
[Asst. Comm. 2017]
IV. Waxes are used in industry for the
(a) Aspartame (b) Succharin
manufacture of coatings.
(c) Sucralose (d) Alitame
Which of the above statement(s) is/are
4. Which carbohydrate is used in silvering correct?
of mirrors? [SSC 2006] (a) I and II (b) II and III
(a) Fructose (b) Sucrose (c) I, III and IV (d) I, II, III and IV
(c) Glucose (d) Starch
10. Consider the following statements :
5. Statement I On hydrolysis, maltose I. Fats are soluble in organic solvents.
gives two molecules of glucose. II. Fats can only be obtained from animal
Statement II Malt is used to sources.
manufacture health drinks such as III. Trans fats can occur as polyunsaturated
maltova. and saturated fats.
(a) Both the Statements I and II are Which of the above statement(s) is/are
individually true and Statement II is correct?
the correct explanation of Statement I.
(a) Only I (b) II and III
(b) Both the Statements are individually
(c) I and II (d) I, II and III
true but Statement II is not the
correct explanation of Statement I. 11. In human body vitamin A is stored up in
(c) Statement I is true, but Statement II [UPPCS 2015]
is false. (a) liver (b) skin (c) lung (d) kidney
(d) Statement I is false, but Statement II 12. Which vitamin is made at a higher rate
is true. in our body? [SSC 2018]
6. Consider the following statements : (a) Vitamin A (b) Vitamin B
I. Monosaccharides are the simple (c) Vitamin C (d) Vitamin D
carbohydrates. 13. Which one of the following diseases may
II. Monosaccharides are sweet in taste. be caused by the deficiency of vitamin C?
III. Monosaccharides upon heating get [NDA 2019]
charred and give the smell of burning (a) Rickets (b) Rabies
sugar. (c) Hepatitis (d) Scurvy
Which of the statement(s) given above 14. Which of the following vitamin helps in
is/are correct? the absorption of calcium? [SSC 2016]
(a) Only I (b) II and III (a) Vitamin A (b) Vitamin D
(c) I and III (d) I, II and III
(c) Vitamin B (d) Vitamin C
7. Which of the following vegetable oils 15. In which of the following the maximum
does not contain essential fatty acids ? vitamin D is to be found? [RRB NTPC 2016]
(a) Sunflower oil (b) Mustard oil (a) Oil of vanilla (b) Oilive oil
(c) Coconut oil (d) Groundnut oil (c) Oil of cod liver (d) Oil of sunflowers
ASSESSMENT
179
16. Which of the following vitamin is used Which of the above statement(s) is/are
like hormone? [UPSC 2009] correct?
(a) Vitamin A (b) Vitamin B (a) I and II (b) I and III
(c) Vitamin C (d) Vitamin D (c) II and III (d) Only III
17. Which of the following vitamin is called 24. Which of the following statements about
ergocalciferol? [BPSC 2016] vitamins are correct?
(a) Vitamin D 2 (b) Vitamin D 3 I. Vitamin C is essential to make
(c) Vitamin B 12 (d) Vitamin B 6 connective tissue in body.
18. Among the pairs of vitamins and II. Vitamin D is needed for synthesis of eye
diseases which of the following are pigment.
correctly matched? III. Vitamin B12 helps in maturation of RBC.
I. Vitamin A- Rickets IV. Vitamin C is required to make use of
II. Vitamin B1 - Beri-beri calcium absorbed from the intestine.
III. Vitamin C - Scurvy Select the correct answer using to code
Choose the correct option. given below. [NDA/NA 2014]
(a) Only II (b) II and III (a) I and II (b) I and III
(c) I and III (d) I, II and III (c) II and IV (d) I and IV

19. Which one among the following vitamins 25. Match List I with List II and select the
is necessary for blood clotting? correct answer using the codes given
[CDS 2012] below the lists.
(a) Vitamin A (b) Vitamin D List I List II
(c) Vitamin K (d) Vitamin C (Molecule) (Product of digestion)
20. The vitamin C is also known as A. Proteins 1. Nitrogenous based
[SSC Multitasking 2014] and pentose sugars
(a) amino acid (b) ascorbic acid B. Carbohydrates 2. Fatty acids and
(c) acetic acid (d) azelaic acid glycerol
21. Vitamin B12 deficiency causes pernicious C. Nucleic acids 3. Monosacchar ides
anaemia. Animals cannot synthesise D. Lipids 4. Amino acids
vitamin B12 . Humans must obtain all Codes [NDA 2014]
their vitamin B12 from their diet. The A B C D A B C D
complexing metal ion in vitamin B12 is (a) 2 3 1 4 (b) 2 1 3 4
(a) Mg 2 + (Magnesium ion) [CDS 2016] (c) 4 1 3 2 (d) 4 3 1 2
(b) Fe 2 + (Iron ion) 26. Match the following Columns.
(c) CO 3 + (Cobalt ion)
Column I Column II
(d) Zn 2 + (Zinc ion)
A. Vitamin E 1. Yellow orange food
22. Enzymes are [SSC CHSL (10+2) 2013] colour
(a) carbohydrates (b) proteins
B. Carotenoids 2. Anti-oxidant
(c) lipids (d) steroids
C. Potassium 3. Artificial
23. Consider the following statements : metabisulphite sweeteners
I. Vitamins are complex organic molecules. D. Alitame 4. Food preservative
II. Vitamins are required in small amounts
Codes
for our life.
A B C D A B C D
III. Water soluble vitamins can be stored in (a) 2 1 4 3 (b) 3 4 2 1
our body. (c) 1 3 4 2 (d) 4 2 3 1

1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (c) 10. (c)
11. (a) 12. (d) 13. (d) 14. (b) 15. (c) 16. (d) 17. (a) 18. (b) 19. (c) 20. (b)
21. (c) 22. (b) 23. (a) 24. (b) 25. (d) 26. (a)
17
Chemistry in
Everyday Life
Chemistry plays a vital role in every aspect of our life. Daily use materials such as clothes,
toothpaste, oil, soaps, comb, etc., we use and other important things like paint, varnish,
drugs, dyes, glass, cement, etc., all are given by chemistry.

Soaps and Detergents

These are used as cleansing agents. They help in removal of fats which bind other
materials to the fabric or skin.

Soaps
Soaps are the sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acids (RCOONa), e.g. stearic acid
(C 17 H35 COOH), oleic acid (C 17 H33 COOH) and palmitic acid (C 15 H31COOH). These are
obtained from petroleum products. Soaps are used to improve the cleansing properties of
water. These are biodegradable compounds.

Manufacture (Saponification Reaction)

When fats (glyceryl esters of fatty acids) are heated with aqueous sodium hydroxide
solution, the soaps are formed. This reaction is called saponification reaction.
Heat
Fats + Sodium hydroxide → Soap + Glycerol
(Glyceryl ester (Sodium (By-product)
of stearic acid) stearate)

■ Sodium chloride is added to solution to precipitate soap.

■ Only sodium and potassium soaps are soluble in water and are used for cleansing purposes.

Types of Soaps
There are following types of soaps:
(i) Toilet Soaps These are prepared by using better grades of fats and oils and free from
excess alkali. Colour and perfumes are also added to make them more attractive.
(ii) Floating Soaps These are made by beating tiny air bubbles before their hardening.
(iii) Transparent Soaps These are made by dissolving soap in ethanol and then
evaporating the excess solvent.
(iv) Medicated Soaps They have substances of medicinal value like dettol etc.
CHEMISTRY IN EVERYDAY LIFE
181
(v) Shaving Soaps They contain glycerol to prevent rapid drying. Rosin, a gum is added to
these soaps to form sodium rosinate which lathers well.
(vi) Laundry Soaps They contain fillers such as sodium rosinate, sodium silicate, borax
and sodium carbonate.
(vii)Soap Powders and Scouring Soaps They contain some soap, a scouring agent, such as
powdered pumice or finely divided sand and builders like sodium carbonate and
trisodium phosphate.
(viii) Soap Granules These are dried miniature soap bubbles.

Characteristics of a Good Soap

(i) There should be no free alkali in a good soap.
(ii) A good soap should not contain moisture more than 10%.
(iii) Soap must be soluble in alcohol and should not crack during use.

Why soaps do not work in hard water?

Soaps react with calcium and magnesium ions present in hard water and form
insoluble calcium and magnesium soaps. They separate as scum in water and also
adhere to clothes as gummy mass. Hair washed with hard water looks dull due to
this sticky precipitate.
a Generally, potassium soaps are soft to the skin than sodium soaps.
a In acidic medium, soaps are hydrolysed to give corresponding insoluble long
chain fatty acids and thus, they lose their cleansing effect.

Detergents
They have all the properties of soaps but actually do not contain any soap. They can be
used both in soft and hard water because their calcium and magnesium salts are soluble
in water thus scum formation does not occur and also in acidic medium. Thus, they have
relatively stronger cleansing property as compared to soaps. Detergents are chemically
alkyl sulphate or sulphonate or ammonium salt of long chain fatty acids (having 12-18
carbon atoms), e.g. sodium lauryl sulphate, sodium p-dodecylbenzenesulphonate. These
are generally obtained from vegetable oils.

Classification of Synthetic Detergents

These are mainly classified into three categories:
(i) Anionic Detergents These are sodium salts of sulphonated ■ Sodium sulphate and
long chain alcohols or hydrocarbons, e.g. sodium lauryl sodium silicate are
sulphate, sodium p-dodecylbenzenesulphonate. Anionic added to the
part of these detergents is involved in the cleansing action. detergents to keep the
These are used for household work and also used in tooth washing powder dry
pastes. and to maintain its
alkalinity.
(ii) Cationic Detergents These are quaternary ammonium
salts of amines with acetates, chlorides or bromides as ■ Detergents clean the
anions, e.g. cetyltrimethylammonium bromide. They have surfaces by decreasing
germicidal properties. the surface tension of
water and hence, has
Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide is used in hair
a greater cleansing
conditioners. action than soaps.
(iii) Non-ionic Detergents They do not contain any ion in their
constitution, e.g. partially esterified compound like pentaerythritol monostearate.
These are used as liquid dishwashing detergents.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
182
Disadvantages of Detergents over Soaps
Soaps are biodegradable while detergents which have highly branched hydrocarbon
chain, are non-biodegradable and cause water pollution.
Now-a-days, detergents with straight hydrocarbon chain (or less branching hydrocarbon
chain) which are biodegradable, are used to prevent pollution.

Dyes
These are coloured substances used to impart permanent colour to fabric, food stuffs, etc.
Chromophore group such as nitro, azo, etc., is responsible for colour of a substance. It
absorbs certain radiations from white light and reflects complementary coloured light.

Classification of Dyes
I. On the basis of their constitution, dyes can be classified in following manner:
(i) Azo Dyes, e.g. methyl orange, congo red, etc.
(ii) Phthalein Dyes, e.g. phenolphthalein and mercurochrome.
(iii) Indigoid Dyes, e.g. indigo and tyrican purple.
(iv) Anthraquinone Dyes, e.g. alizarin (a natural dye).
(v) Triphenyl Methane Dyes, e.g. malachite green.
II. On the Basis of applications, dyes can be classified in following manner:
(i) Acid Dyes These are used as their sodium salts which are freely soluble in water.
These are used to dye wool, silk and nylon directly but these are not used to dye
cotton, e.g. methyl orange, methyl red, congo red, orange I, orange II.
(ii) Basic Dyes These are used to dye modified nylons and polyesters. e.g. aniline yellow,
malachite green.
(iii) Direct Dyes These can be directly applied to fabrics from their aqueous solutions,
e.g. martius yellow, congo red.
(iv) Disperse Dyes These are applied in the form of dispersion, e.g. celliton fast pink B.
(v) Fibre Reactive Dyes They get attached to the fibre by a chemical reaction, e.g. procion
cibacron.
(vi) Vat Dyes These are mainly used to dye cotton fibres, e.g. indigo.
(vii) Mordant Dyes These dyes need a binding agent between fibre and the dye.
Depending upon the binding agent, the same dye can give different colours,
e.g. alizarin gives bright red colour with aluminium and blue colour with barium.

Polymers
The word ‘polymer’ came from two Greek words ‘poly’ meaning many and ‘mer’ meaning
part/unit. So, a polymer is made up of many repeating units. These repeating units are
derived from some simple and reactive molecules known as monomers.

Polymerisation
The process of formation of polymers from respective monomers is called
polymerisation. It takes place under certain specific condition.
e.g. When acetylene gas is heated in a red hot copper pipe, its three molecules combine to
give benzene which can be considered as a polymer of acetylene.
CHEMISTRY IN EVERYDAY LIFE
183
Polymerisation can occur in following two manner
(i) Addition Polymerisation In this polymerisation, monomers combine together
without the loss of smaller units like H2 O, NH3 , etc., hence, the molecular weight of
the polymer obtained, is the multiple factor of molecular weight of monomer. It is
generally a reversible process. Poly vinyl chloride (PVC), polythene, polystyrene,
rubber are obtained by this process.
(ii) Condensation Polymerisation In this process, small units like water (H2 O), ammonia
(NH3 ), etc are eliminated when monomers are combined together. Molecular weight
of such polymer (obtained), is not the multiple factor of molecular weight of
monomer. Terylene, nylon, etc., are obtained by this process.

Plastics
These are the organic polymers of high molecular mass. They remain soft during the
course of their preparation and can be shaped in any form.
These are of two types:

1. Natural Plastics
These are made by plant materials like starch, cellulose and tree of eucalyptus.

2. Synthetic Plastics
These are synthesised in laboratory or industry.
These are, further, of two types:
(i) Thermoplastics Some plastics which get deformed easily on heating and can be
bent easily (i.e., become soft on heating and hard on cooling), are known as
thermoplastics. Polythene, polystyrene, teflon and poly vinyl chloride (PVC) are
some examples of thermoplastics.
Some Thermoplastics, their Monomers and Uses
Thermoplastic Monomer Uses
Polythene Ethene (CH2 ==CH2 ) For making toys, bottles, polybags,
pipes, dustbins, etc.
Teflon Tetrafluoroethene (CF2 ==CF2 ) For making oil seals, gaskets and for
non-stick surface coated utensils
Polystyrene Styrene (C 6H5 —CH==CH2 ) As insulator in the manufacturing
of toys, radio and TV cabinets,
combs, etc.
PVC (Polyvinyl Vinyl chloride (CH2 ==CH—Cl) For making rain coats, dish antenna,
chloride) hand bags, water pipes, etc.
Polypropene Propene (CH3 —CH==CH2 ) For making toys, pipes, roper,
fibres, etc.
Lucite O For making contact lenses

Methyl methacrylate (H2C==C —C —OCH3)

(ii) Thermosetting Plastics Some plastics which when moulded once, can not be
softened by heating, are called thermosetting plastics. These are irreversible and also
called rigid temperature polymers.
Two examples of thermosetting plastics are bakelite and melamine.
(a) Bakelite is a copolymer of phenol (C 6 H5 OH) and formaldehyde (HCHO) formed in
the presence of sodium hydroxide. It is a poor conductor of heat and electricity. It
is used for making electrical switches, handles of various utensils, etc.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
184
(b) Melamine resists fire and can tolerate heat better than other plastics. It is used for
making floor tiles, unbreakable kitchen wares, fabrics which resist fire, etc.
■ All plastics do not have same type of arrangement of units. In some, it is linear
(PVC, polythene) whereas in others, it is cross linked (bakelite, melamine).
■ Plasticizers can convert a hard and brittle plastic into soft and easily pliable plastic.
■ Plasticizers are high boiling esters or high boiling haloalkanes.
■ Polycarbonates (like polyurethane kevlar) are used for making bulletproof glass, fridge
containers, mixi jars and baby feed bottles.

Properties of Plastics
These are non-reactive, light, strong and durable. There are poor conductor of heat and
electricity.
■ Special plastic cookware is used in microwave ovens for cooking food. In microwave ovens,
the heat cooks the food but does not affect the plastic vessel.

Rubber
Rubber is an elastic polymer. It is obtained from rubber latex (milk of trees found in the
equatorial evergreen forest) which is a colloidal solution of rubber in water. Earlier, it was
used for erasing marks of graphite on paper, so it got the name rubber. Later, by
improving its several other properties like elasticity, water holding capacity, etc., it is used
for various other purposes.
In earlier times, rubbers were obtained from the forests of Amazon and Zaire. Amazon
river basin was the main region of rubber production and thus, rubber was also called
wild rubber. Later in 20th century, rubber plants were also planted in Malaya and in
South-East Asia.
It can be classified into two forms, i.e. natural and synthetic rubbers.
1. Natural Rubber
It is obtained from the latex of the rubber tree. The monomer of natural rubber is
isoprene.
CH3 CH3
 Polymerisation 
n CH2 == C  CH == CH2 →  [ CH  C == CH  CH2 
]n
2- methyl -1, 3-butadiene Natural rubber
(isoprene)

2. Synthetic Rubber
It was discovered by Mathews and Harris. Examples of synthetic rubber are neoprene
rubber, buna-N, thiokol rubber, etc.
(i) Neoprene is fomed by the polymerisation of chloroprene (2-chloro buta-1,3-diene)
and also called synthetic rubber. It has superior resistance to vegetable and mineral
oils. It is used for manufacturing conveyor belts, gaskets, hoses, electrical cable, etc.
(ii) Buna-N It is fomed by the polymerisation of 1,3-butadiene and acrylonitrile. It is
used in making oil seals, tank lining, etc.
(iii) Thiokol It is formed by the reaction of dichloroethane and polysulphide. Its mixture
with other chemicals is used as rocket propellant as it releases oxygen. It is a
solid propellant. It is also used to prepare solvent storage tank, pipes of carrying
crude oil, etc.
CHEMISTRY IN EVERYDAY LIFE
185

Vulcanisation of Rubber
It is the process in which rubber is heated with sulphur to improve its resistance and
elasticity. The obtained vulcanised rubber is strong, more resistant to chemicals and an
appropriate additive at a temperature range between 373-415 K.
■ In the manufacture of tyre rubber, 5% of sulphur is used as a cross linking agent and 30%
sulphur is used in making battery cases.
■ Buna-S (butadiene styrene rubber) is used in making bubble gums.

Fibres
Fabrics (clothes) are made from fibres. Fibres are long thread-like structures.
These are of two types:
1. Natural Fibres
These are obtained from plants or animals. These are ■ Cotton is more resistant
biodegradable. Plant fibres consist of cellulose, therefore these towards fire.
are used in the manufacture of paper and textile, e.g. cotton, ■ Silk is a protein fibre,
hemp, jute flax, etc.
some forms of which can
Animal fibres consist of proteins, e.g. silkworm silk, spider silk,
be woven into textiles.
wool, etc. The best known silk is
2. Semisynthetic Fibres obtained from cocoons
These are obtained by treated natural fibres with some of larvae of mulberry
chemicals, e.g. rayon. silkworm, Bombyx mori.
Rayon It is obtained by the chemical treatment of wood pulp ■ Rexin is an artificial
(cellulose), a natural fibre. Cellulose is first treated with cold leather obtained by
sodium hydroxide and then carbon disulphide to obtain vegetation of cellulose. It
viscose. That’s why rayon is sometimes called viscose rayon. is also obtained by
coating pyroxylene on
Viscose is passed through the hole of metallic cylinder and dil.
the thick canvas. The
H2 SO 4 is poured which converts the viscose into long fibres.
rexin obtained by later
Rayon is mixed with cotton to make bed sheets or mixed with
process is of good quality.
wool to make carpets. It is also used in making pharmaceutical
lint or porous thick paper.

Synthetic Fibres
These are obtained from chemicals in laboratories or industries. These are of various
types like carbon fibre, nylon, polyester, metallic fibre, silicon carbide fibre, etc.

Some Synthetic Fibres, their Monomers and Uses

Fibre Monomers Uses
Nylon Hexamethylene diamine In making tooth brushes, roper,
NH2 (CH2 ) 6NH2 and adipic acid parachute, net of fish trapping,
HOOC —(CH2 ) 4 —COOH garments, etc.
Polyester (dacron/terylene) Ethylene glycol H2COH — CH2OH In making clothes, hose pipes of fire
and terepthalic acid extinguisher

HOOC— —COOH

Carbon fibres Carbon In making the parts of space vehicles

and sports items
Orlon (synthetic wool) Acrylonitrile CH2 ==CH — CN As a substitute of wool for making
blankets, etc.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
186
Advantages of Synthetic Fibres They dry up quickly and are durable, less expensive,
readily available and easy to maintain than that of natural fibres.
Disadvantages of Synthetic Fibres Synthetic fibres melt on heating. We should not
wear synthetic clothes while working in the kitchen or in laboratory because they catch
fire easily, melt and stick to the body of the person wearing it.
■ Nylon was first obtained synthetically in 1935.
■ PET (polyethylene terephthalate) is a familiar form of polyester. It is used in making jars,
bottles, utensils, films, wires, etc.
■ Polycot is a mixture of polyester and cotton, polywool is a mixture of polyester and wool.
■ Synthetic fibres are prepared by a number of processes using petrochemicals.
■ Kevlar is used in making bulletproof vests.

Ceramics
Clay is the most important raw material used in ceramic industry. In pure state, clay is
aluminium silicate. China clay is mainly decomposed feldspar with small amount of
quartz and mica.

Uses of Ceramics
(i) Pottery, table wares, tiles, building bricks are some popular ceramic products.
(ii) Refractive bricks are used for lining in furnaces.
(iii) Abrasive ceramics made of silicon and tungsten carbides are used in cutting and
grinding tools.
(iv) Some ceramics are used as superconductors to attain very low temperature.

Drugs
Drugs are chemicals of low molecular masses. Some drugs which are used in diagnosis,
prevention and treatment of diseases, are called medicines.
A medicine is a chemical substance which cures the disease, is safe to use, has negligible
toxicity and does not cause addiction. In contrast, a drug is a chemical substance which
also cures the disease but is habit forming, causes addiction and has serious side effect.
On the basis of therapeutic action, drugs are classified as follows:

Antipyretics
‘Anti’ means against and ‘pyretics’ means pertaining to fever. These drugs are used to
reduce fever, i.e. they bring down body temperature at the time of high fever. The drugs
used as antipyretics are aspirin, crocin, ibuprofen paracetamol, phenacetin, analgin,
novalgin, etc.

Analgesics
These are used to reduce pain without causing impairment of consciousness, mental
confusion or some other disturbances of nervous system, e.g. aspirin, paracetamol,
morphine (which is an opium alkaloid obtained from poppy plant), etc.
Aspirin is acetyl salicylic acid. It acts as analgesics as well as antipyretics (to reduce the
body temperature during fever). It is also used in the prevention of heart attacks due to its
antiblood clotting action.
Morphine is a narcotic (addictive) analgesics. It is obtained from opium poppy.
Marijuana is a sedative.
CHEMISTRY IN EVERYDAY LIFE
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Antibiotics
These are the chemicals that inhibit the growth or even destroying the microorganisms.
Responsible of causes injections in human beings. These are obtained from
microorganisms and used to destroy the other microorganisms. Penicillin was the first
natural antibiotics discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928. Penicillin (which is obtained
from fungus), amino glycosides and ofloxacin are bactericidal (killing) antibiotics whereas
erythromycin, tetracycline (which is obtained from bacterium) and chloramphenicol are
bacteriostatic (inhibitory) antibiotics.
Ampicillin, amoxicillin, chloramphenicol (which is considered as the drug of last resort
for human beings), vancomycin and ofloxacin are broad spectrum antibiotics which are
used against a wide range of bacteria. Penicillin-G is narrow spectrum antibiotic which is
used against a particular type of bacteria.

Antiseptic
They prevent the growth of microorganisms or kill them ■ Cimetidine (tagamet),
but are not harmful to living human tissues, e.g. furacine, ranitidine (zantac),
soframycine. These are not ingested like antibiotics. omeprazole and lansoprazole
Other antiseptics are dettol, bithionol, tincture iodine, give quick relief from acidity.
boric acid, iodoform and 0.2% solution of phenol. ■ Paul Ehrlich got Nobel Prize
for the medicine Salvarsan in
Disinfectants 1908 which was the first
These are applied to inanimate objects such as floors, effective treatment for syphilis.
drainage system, instruments, etc., e.g. phenyl, 1% ■ Narcotics are habit forming
solution of phenol. i.e., one gets addicted to these
narcotics. Morphine and
Sulpha Drugs heroin are powerful narcotic
These drugs contain sulphur and nitrogen also. type analgesics.
Sulphapyridine, sulphadiazine, sulphaguanidine and ■ General anaesthetics produce
sulphathiazole are some important sulpha drugs. These a general loss of sensation
are effective against bacterial infection. Sulphanilamide and consciousness. e.g., diethyl
was first sulpha drug prepared in 1908. ether, divinyl ether and nitrous
oxide act after inhaling.
Anaesthesia ■ Tranquillizers are
These drugs cease the sense organs and thus are given psychotherapeutic drugs. They
during the major surgical operations. The first reduce anxiety and are used
anaesthesia diethyl ether was used by William Morten for the treatment of mental
in 1846. Chloroform was once used as a general diseases. e.g., derivatives of
anaesthetic in surgery by James Sampson but has been barbituric acid, equanil,
valium, serotonin.
replaced by less toxic, safer anaesthetic, such as ether.
Other examples of compounds used as anaesthesia are
■ Quinine is an anti-malarial
cocaine, diazepam, halothane, nitrous oxide, pentothal drug which is obtained from
sodium, etc. cinchona bark.

Antacids
These drugs reduce or neutralise the acidity in stomach. Metal hydroxides such as
aluminium and magnesium hydroxide do not increase the pH above neutrality, so these
are better antacids than sodium hydrogen carbonate.
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Cosmetics
Creams, perfumes, talcum powder, deodorants, etc are used as cosmetics.
Chemicals used in different cosmetics are as follows:
■ Moisturising Cream Cetyl alcohol and hydroquinone.
■ Perfumes Benzaldehyde, benzyl acetate, camphor, ethanol, linalool and terpineol.
■ Nail Enamel Remover Acetone, benzyl alcohol.
(However, now-a-days ethyl acetate or butyl acetate is used in place of acetone.)
■ Shaving Cream Benzaldehyde, camphor, ethanol.
■ Shampoo Methylene chloride, ethanol.
■ Nailpolish Toluene.
■ Cologne Methylene chloride, acetone, benzaldehyde.
■ Aftershave Lotions Benzyl acetate.
■ Vaseline Petroleum.

Glass
It was first prepared in Egypt. Chemically, it is a homogeneous mixture of silicates of
various alkaline metals of non-crystallised and transparent or non-transparent
chemicals. The ordinary glass (soda glass or window glass) has approximately the
composition Na 2 O ⋅ CaO ⋅ 6SiO 2 . It is prepared by melting sand (silica), sodium carbonate
(soda) and calcium carbonate (limestone) in proper proportions and at moderate
temperature. Some scrap glass (cullet) is also added to the mixture as flux which makes
the mixture fusible.

Types of Glasses, their Properties and Uses

Types of Glasses Properties Uses
Soda glass or soft Contains sodium carbonate, calcium Window glass, bottles, dishes,
glass carbonate and silica, brittle, cheapest tubelights, domestic utensils, etc
Potash glass or hard Contains carbonate of K and Ca and Hard boiling glass test tubes,
glass silica, high temperature resistant beakers, etc.
Photochromatic glass Turns dark in sharp shining UV light Eye lenses and goggles
because of the presence of embedded
microcrystalline silver compound (silver
chloride) in glass
Pyrex glass Contains borax and silica, withstand Laboratory equipments
(borosilicate glass) sudden alterations in temperature
Flint glass Contains sodium, potassium and lead Optical instruments like lens of camera,
silicate, have high refractive index prisms, microscopes, telescope and in
electric bulbs
Crown glass Contains oxides of potassium, barium Optical instruments
and silicon, have high refractive index
Jena glass (best form Soft, strong and more resistant to acids Bottles for keeping acids and alkalies in
of glass) and alkalies, contains zinc and barium laboratory
borosilicate
Crook’s glass Contains cerium oxide (CeO 2 ) and silica, Eye lenses used in different eye defects
thus, absorbs UV rays
Lead crystal glass Contains potassium carbonate, lead Various ornamental items, costly glass
oxide and silica, shows optical containers
phenomenon of total internal reflection
Quartz glass or silica Ultraviolet rays emerge out through it In making bulb of ultraviolet lamp,
glass laboratory equipments
CHEMISTRY IN EVERYDAY LIFE
189

Annealing of Glass
In this process, glass utensils are allowed to cool slowly, steadily and moderately.
If glass is cooled very slowly, it becomes opaque and if it is cooled very rapidly, it becomes
brittle and fragile.

Coloured Glass
These are obtained by mixing colour supplying substances in the molten or fused state of
glass. Such substances are tabulated below:

Substances Colour Substances Colour

Carbon Brownish black Nickel and manganese monoxide Black
Cadmium sulphide Yellow (lemon) Manganese dioxide Pink
Cobalt oxide Deep blue Ferric salt or sodium uranate Fluorescent yellow
Cuprous oxide Glitter red Potassium dichromate Green and green yellow
Cupric oxide Peacock blue Gold chloride or purple of cassius Ruby red
Selenium oxide Orange red Sodium chromate or ferrous oxide Green
Ferric oxide Brown

■ Water glass is basically a compound of sodium silicate (Na2SiO 3 ) and prepared by heating
sodium carbonate with silica. It is soluble in water.
■ Safety glass has a transparent plastic layer of vinyl acetate resin in between two glass layers.
■ Optical fibre is used in the telecommunication and endoscopy.
■ Ground glass is produced by grinding ordinary soda glass with emery and turpentine oil.
■ Coloured glasses for goggles have lanthanide oxide.

Glass Wool
It is an insulating material obtained from fibre glass arranged into a texture similar to
wool. It is produced in rolls or in slabs with different thermal and mechanical properties.
Its tensile strength is greater than that of steel. It is actually fireproof and is used to
prepare fire glass. Fibre glass is used for making glass reinforced plastic.

Cement
It is an important building material, first introduced in England in 1824 by Joseph
Aspdin. It is also called Portland cement because it resembles with natural limestone
quarried in the Isle of Portland, England. It is a grey coloured powder. Chemically, it is
calcium aluminium silicate. Cement has a specific property of handing when comes in
contact of water as silicate and aluminate present in it react with water and form a
colloidal solution which is solidified.

Raw Materials
Limestone, clay and gypsum in very small amount (2-3 % by weight) are the raw materials
for making cement. Limestone is a source of calcium oxide (CaO) while clay is a source of
silica, alumina and ferric oxide.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
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Composition
It is a mixture of calcium silicate and aluminate. Its average composition is
CaO = 50 − 60% SiO 2 = 20 − 25% Al 2 O 3 = 5 − 10%
MgO = 2 − 3% Fe 2 O 3 = 1 − 2% SO 3 = 1 − 2%
When limestone and clay are heated strongly together, they react to form cement clinker.
This clinker is mixed with gypsum to form cement.
■ Gypsum is added to cement to slow down the process of setting of the cement so that it gets
sufficiently hardened.
■ Setting of cement is an exothermic reaction, so structure of cement have to be cooled during
setting by sprinkling water.
■ Excess of lime in the cement causes cracks in cement during solidification. While excess of
alumina in it causes easy and quick solidification of cement.

Fertilizers (On the Basis of the Nature of Nutrient Elements)

These are commercially produced plant nutrients. Fertilizers increase the fertility of soil
by supplying nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and other nutrients. These are used to
ensure good vegetative growth giving rise to healthy plants.

Types of Fertilizers
Fertilizers are of following types:
(i) Nitrogenous Fertilizers These are obtained from ammonia and its derivatives.
e.g., ammonium sulphate, calcium ammonium nitrate, basic calcium nitrate, calcium
cyanamide (nitrolim), urea, etc.
Ammonium sulphate (NH4 ) 2 SO 4 contains 25% ammonia which is transformed into
the nitrate by denitrifying bacteria present in the alkaline soil. The nitrates are easily
absorbed by crop plants. It is produced on a large scale at Sindri, Jharkhand in India.
In calcium ammonium nitrate [Ca(NO 3 ) 2 NH4 NO 3 ], the amount of nitrogen is about
20% which is directly absorbed by plants. Because of its higher solubility, it has no
adverse effect on the soil. It is manufactured at Nagal in Punjab. Urea (NH2 CONH2 )
contains nearly 46% nitrogen and it does not affect the pH of the soil. It is the
extensively used nitrogenous fertilizer.
(ii) Phosphatic Fertilizers These are superphosphate of lime, triple superphosphate
(obtained from bone ash) and Thomas slag or phosphatic slag. Potassium chloride,
potassium nitrate and potassium sulphate, etc are also included in this category.
Superphosphate of lime is a mixture of calcium dihydrogen phosphate and gypsum.
In this fertilizer, 16-20% P2 O 5 exists. Thomas slag contains 14-18% of P2 O 5 . It is a
by-product of steel industry because of its higher solubility, it is easily assimilated by
plants.
(iii) NP Fertilizers Dihydrogen ammoniated phosphate is an example of NP fertilizer
because it supplies nitrogen and phosphorus to the soil (plants).
CHEMISTRY IN EVERYDAY LIFE
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(iv) NPK Fertilizers They supply nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium to the soil. That’ s
why name mixed fertilizer is given to such fertilizers.
Urea is prepared by heating carbon dioxide with ammonia at 125–150°C and
8.5 atmospheric pressure. This fertilizer is never brought in direct contact of seed.
After using this fertilizer, water is supplied 3-4 days later.
■ Basic calcium nitrate and ammonium sulphate increase the acidity of soil which is removed
by adding lime to the soil.
■ Reactive component of superphosphate of lime is calcium dihydrogen phosphate which is
soluble in water.
■ Nitrolim is a mixture of Ca(CN)2 and carbon. It is used before introducing seed into the soil.
■ Calcium nitrate, a nitrogenous fertilizer is also called Norwegian saltpeter.

Explosives
These are the substances which on combustion produce ■ Potential energy stored
extreme heat and energy with a strong cracking sound. They in an explosive may be
consist of pure compound like TNT or a mixture of fuel and an chemical energy,
oxidiser. Explosives can be classified as primary explosives, pressurised gas or
secondary explosives and tertiary explosives. nuclear energy.
(i) Trinitroglycerine (TNG) It is also called Noble’s oil and
■ In zelatin dynamite,
prepared by mixing conc. H2 SO 4 and conc. HNO 3 in nitrocellulose in very
glycerine. So, it is an ester. It is a colourless oily liquid used small amount is also
added.
in making dynamite, invented in 1846.
■ At present, in making
(ii) Trinitrotoluene (TNT) It is prepared by the reaction of dynamite in place of
toluene with nitrating mixture (conc. H2 SO 4 and conc. nitroglycerine, sodium
HNO 3 ). It is frequently used as explosive. It was firstly nitrate or ammonium
invented in 1863 but commercially used for the first time nitrate and wood pulp
by UK. are used.
(iii) Research and Development Explosive (RDX) Chemically, ■ Gun powder is a
it is cyclotrimethylene trinitramine. It is also known as mixture of nitrate,
cyclonite (in USA), hexogen (in Germany) and T4 (in Italy). sulphur and charcoal.
It was firstly invented by Henning in 1899. It is also called
plastic exploder.
It is a very powerful explosive and can be used pure or in plastic explosives. When
plastic substance like polybutenic acrylic acid is added to RDX, it is called Plastic
Bonded Explosive (PBE). The explosion energy in normal RDX is nearly 1510 kcal.
When some aluminium powder is added to RDX, explosive C-4 is obtained which is
deadly destructor (cracker).
(iv) Trinitrophenol (TNP) It is prepared by the reaction of phenol with conc. H2 SO 4 and
conc. HNO 3 . It is also called picric acid. It is ultra exploder explosive.
(v) Dynamite It was invented by Swedish chemist and engineer Alfred Nobel in 1863. It
consists of three parts; nitroglycerin, one part diatomaceous earth (Kieselguhr) and a
small mixture of sodium carbonate. It is used in blast purposes in mines.
 Assessment
1. Sodium stearate is a salt and is used Which of the above statement(s) is/are
[NDA/NA 2013] correct?
(a) in gunpowder (b) in paint (a) I and II (b) Only I
(c) to make soap (d) to make fertilizer (c) I and III (d) I, II and III
2. Which among the following are the most 10. Which one of the following polymers is
important raw materials for the not biodegradable?
manufacturing of soap? [CDS 2010]
[UPRO/ARO (Pre) 2017]
(a) Fats and caustic alkali
(a) Cellulose (b) Starch
(b) Fats and potash
(c) Protein (d) PVC
(c) Vegetable oil and potash
(d) Fats and acid 11. Natural rubber is a polymer of
[BPSC (Pre) 2019]
3. The process involved in the preparation (a) isoprene (b) styrene
of soap is called [SSC CPO 2008] (c) vinyl acetate (d) propene
(a) saponification (b) water hydrolysis
(c) freezing (d) polymerisation 12. When hot water is placed into an empty
water bottle, the bottle keeps its shape
4. The principle of cleaning by soap is
and does not soften. What type of
[NDA/NA 2013]
plastic is the water bottle made from?
(a) surface tension (b) floatation
[CDS 2019]
(c) viscosity (d) elastcity
(a) Thermoplastic (b) PVC
5. Alcohol obtained in the saponification (c) Polyurethane (d) Thermosetting
process is [SSC CHSL (10+2) 2013]
13. Who discovered the rubber making
(a) ethyl alcohol (b) methyl alcohol
process through the vulcanisation
(c) wood spirit (d) glycerol
method ? [SSC 2017]
6. Soap solution used for cleaning purpose (a) John Dunlop (b) Charles Goodyear
appears cloudy. This is due to the fact (c) Macmillan (d) Newton
that soap micelles can [CDS 2019]
14. Which one of the following is not a
(a) refract light (b) scatter light
natural fibre? [SSC 2019]
(c) diffract light (d) polarise light
(a) Terylene (b) Jute
7. Which one of the following is not a (c) Flax (d) Wool
synthetic detergent? [NDA 2019]
15. Which of the following is an example of
(a) CH 3 (CH 2 )10 CH 2 OSO 3− Na +
a non-cellulosic fibre ?
(b) [CH 3 (CH 2 )15  N  (CH 3 )3 ]+ Br – [RAS/RTS (Pre) 2018]
(c) CH 3 (CH 2 )16 COO –Na + (a) Rayon (b) Linen
(c) Jute (d) Nylon
(d) CH 3 (CH 2 )16 COO(CH 2 CH 2 O)n
CH 2 CH 2 OH 16. Fabric made from ………does not get
wrinkled easily. [SSC CGL 2017]
8. Synthetic detergents are prepared from
(a) cotton (b) flax
[SSC 2016]
(c) silk (d) polyester
(a) potassium salts of higher fatty acids
(b) sodium salts of higher fattyacids 17. The polymer obtained through the
(c) hydrocarbons of petroleum condensation of hexamethylene diamine
(d) glycerides and adipic acid is [SSC 2013]
(a) toluene (b) bakelite
9. Consider the following statements : (c) nylon - 6, 6 (d) terylene
I. Synthetic detergents are alkyl
sulphonates produced from petroleum 18. The polymeric fibres used as a
and sulphuric acid. substitute for wool in making synthetic
II. Detergents have stronger cleansing blankets, sweaters etc., is [CDS 2010]
action than soaps. (a) nylon (b) teflon
III. Mostly detergents are biodegradable. (c) orlon (d) bakelite
ASSESSMENT
193
19. Which of the following is used to make 31. Which one among the following polymers
light weight, but strong plastic? is used for making bullet proof material ?
[SSC 2016] (a) Polyvinyl chloride [UPPCS 2013]
(a) Nylon (b) Polythene (b) Polycarbonate
(c) Polythene (d) Polyvinyl chloride (c) Polyethylene
20. Nylon is made of [SSC 2014] (d) Polyamide
(a) polyethylene (b) polypropylene 32. Which among the following is true
(c) polyamide (d) polyester about rayon? [SSC 2018]
21. Which of the following is natural fiber? (a) It is obtained from silk worm.
[SSC 2018] (b) It is obtained from wood pulp
(a) Silk (b) Rayon (c) Nylon (d) Polyester (c) It is obtained from both silk worm and
wood pulp
22. Which one of the following fibre is made
(d) No option is correct.
from natural raw materials?
(a) Rayon (b) Nylon 33. Which statements are correct?
(c) Polyester (d) Polystyrene I. In early 1930’s nylon was prepared
from coal, water and air.
23. Which one of the following polymeric
material is used for making bulletproof II. Nylon was the first synthetic fibre.
jakets ? [JSSC (Pre) 2011] III. Nylon fibre was strong elastic and
(a) Nylon-6, 6 (b) Rayon light. [SSC (10+2) 2018]
(c) Kevlar (d) Dacron (a) Only I and II
24. Nylon threads are made of [SSC 2016] (b) Only I and III
(a) polyester polymer (c) Only II and III
(b) polyamide polymer (d) All I, II and III
(c) polyvinyl polymer 34. Match the following Columns.
(d) polysaccharide
Column I Column II
25. Which of the following is used in the
synthesis of polyethene (polyethylene)? A. Gypsum 1. Prevent UV rays
[RAS/RTS 2009] B. Nylon 2. Non-stick utensils coating
(a) Methane (b) Ethene C. Teflon 3. Textile fabrics
(c) Propane (d) Butane
D. Crookes glass 4. Cement
26. Which of the following is a natural
polymer? [SSC 2016] Codes
(a) Bakelite (b) Nylon A B C D A B C D
(c) Polythene (d) Starch (a) 4 3 2 1 (b) 3 2 1 4
(c) 2 4 3 1 (d) 1 3 4 2
27. Which of the following chemically
predominants in the silk fibres? 35. Cosmetic powders are prepared from
(a) Protein [CDS 2016] [SSC Multitasking 2013]
(b) Carbohydrate (a) asbestos (b) talc
(c) Complex lipid (c) gypsum (d) serpentine
(d) Mixture of polysaccharide and fat 36. Antacids are found in drugs that give
28. Which of the following is a relief to [SSC Multitasking 2014]
biodegradable waste? [IAS (Pre) 2007] (a) eye sight (b) stomach ache
(a) Nylon (b) Plastics (c) acne (d) headache
(c) Wool (d) Polythene bags 37. The percentage of nitrogen present in
29. Which of the following is used in the ammonium sulphate is [SSC CGL 2013]
commercial vulcanisation of the rubber? (a) 30.5% (b) 18 %
[CDS 2009] (c) 21 % (d) 25 %
(a) Sulphur (b) Carbon 38. Which one of the following compounds
(c) Phosphorus (d) Selenium
is used as freezed medicine
30. The polymer orlon is made of [SSC 2013] [UPPCS (Pre) 2010]
(a) acrylonitrile (b) neoprene (a) KBr (b) CaCl 2
(c) vinyl chloride (d) tetrafluoro ehtylene (c) C 2 H 5 OH (d) PCl 3
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
194
39. Which one of the following pairs is not 47. KMnO4 can be used as
correctly matched? [UPRO/ARO (Pre) 2017] [SSC Multitasking 2014]
(a) Chloromycetin–antityphoid (a) insecticide (b) fertilizer
(b) Crystal violet–antiseptic (c) pesticide (d) disinfectant
(c) Quinine–antimalarial
48. Which of the following fertilizers has
(d) Aspirin–anaesthetic
more nitrogen content? [WBCS 2019]
40. Glass is actually [NDA 2011] (a) Urea
(a) a non-crystalline solid or super cooled (b) Ammonium nitrate
liquid (c) Potassium nitrate
(b) an ionic solid (d) Ammonium phosphate
(c) an elastic solid (d) a nitrified liquid
49. Urea is [UPPCS (Pre) 2017]
41. Consider the following statements about (a) a nitrogen containing organic
glass: compound.
I. Glass is a supercooled liquid having (b) a nitrogen containing inorganic
infinite viscosity. compound.
II. Violet coloured glass is obtained by (c) a plant hormone.
adding MnO 2 . (d) an endergonic compound.
III. Glass is a man-made silicate. 50. Which of the following chemical
IV. Glass is a crystalline substance. fertilizers is relatively more soluble in
Which of the statements given above are water at 20°C? [UPPCS (Pre) 2017]
correct? [NDA/NA 2011] (a) Ammonium sulphate
(a) I, II and IV (b) II, III and IV (b) Urea
(c) I, II and III (d) I and III (c) Diammonium phosphate
42. A thick paste of cement, sand and water (d) Ammonium chloride
is called [SSC Multitasking 2014] 51. Farmers are requested to mix lime with
(a) concrete (b) RCC (c) mortar (d) kiln soil while farming their fields. This is
43. Cement, the most important building because [CDS 2012]
materials at the present time, is used in (a) lime is very helpful in maintaining
the construction of buildings, roads, dams the water content in the soil
etc. It does not contain (b) lime decreases the acidity of soil
(a) calcium silicate (c) lime decreases the basicity of soil
(b) calcium aluminate (d) high concentration of lime is
(c) calcium sulpho-aluminate necessary for the plant growth
(d) calcium phosphate
52. Bone is used as a fertilized because
44. Azolla is often used as bio-fertilizer because it contains the plant nutrient.[SSC 2002]
it is associated with [UPPCS (Mains) 2011] (a) Nitrogen (b) Phosphorus
(a) blue green algae (b) red algae (c) Sodium (d) Calcium
(c) fungus (d) moss
53. Natural organic fertilizers are found to
45. Aquatic Fern, which is used as a be better then chemical fertilizers
bio-fertilizer, is [UPRO/ARO (Mains) 2014] because
(a) salvnia (b) azolla (a) chemical fertilizers are less productive
(c) marsilia (d) pteridium (b) organic fertilizers are more
46. In which of the following form alum is productive
used? [NDA 2009] (c) organic fertilizers sustain soil
(a) as a pain killer (b) as a fertilizer productivity
(c) as an antiseptic (d) as a waterpurifier (d) chemical fertizers are toxic

1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (d) 6. (b) 7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (d)
11. (a) 12. (d) 13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (d) 16. (d) 17. (c) 18. (c) 19. (c) 20. (d)
21. (a) 22. (a) 23. (c) 24. (b) 25. (b) 26. (d) 27. (d) 28. (c) 29. (a) 30. (a)
31. (b) 32. (b) 33. (d) 34. (a) 35. (b) 36. (b) 37. (c) 38. (a) 39. (d) 40. (a)
41. (c) 42. (c) 43. (d) 44. (a) 45. (a) 46. (d) 47. (d) 48. (a) 49. (a) 50. (b)
51. (b) 52. (b) 53. (c)
 Appendix 1
Glossary

Absorbent Anything having the power of absorbing.

Absorption A process in which gas is taken up by a liquid or solid, or a liquid is taken by a
solid. It is a bulk phenomenon.
Acids Chemical compounds that tend to taste sour, attack metals and dissolve in
water producing hydrogen ions. They turn blue litmus paper red. Acids
combine with alkalis to make salts and water. The pH value for acids is less
than 7.
Acid rain Due to the presence of large concentration of carbon dioxide and sulphur
dioxide in the atmosphere, which reacts with atmospheric oxygen and
hydrogen to produce sulphuric acid and nitric acid. Both these acids are
harmful for human cells.
Adsorption The accumulation of molecular species at the surface rather than in the bulk
of a solid or liquid.
Aerosol A colloidal system in which particles are dispersed in a gas as in smoke or
mist.
Alcohols Aliphatic compounds, which contains at least one  OH group and have a
general formula ROH.
Aldehydes Derived from alkanes by the replacement of one hydrogen atom by aldehydic
( CHO) group and have a general formula R CHO.
Alkali Any base or hydroxide, e.g., soda, potash, etc., that is soluble in water and can
neutralise acids. Alkalies have an acrid taste and turn red litmus blue. Also,
any soluble mineral salt or mixture of salts found in soils?
Alkaline earth metals The group of chemical elements that are also alkaline and present in earth
crust.
Alkali metals A group of elements that react with water to form alkalies, and are found in
group I A of the periodic table. e.g., lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium,
caesium, francium.
Alkanes These are simple hydrocarbons that are commonly called paraffins and
having general formula Cn H2n + 2 . The alkanes series begins with methane,
CH4 .
Alkenes These are unsaturated hydrocarbons containing at least one double bond
and having general formula, C nH2 n .
Alkynes These are unsaturated hydrocarbons containing at least one triple bond and
having general formula, C nH2 n − 2 .
Allotropy The property by which certain chemical elements exist in two or more
different forms (as carbon in graphite, charcoal, diamonds, lamp black, etc).
Alloy Metal consisting of a mixture of one metal with another metal or non-metal.
e.g., brass is an alloy of copper and zinc.
Amalgam An alloy of mercury with other metals. Silver amalgam is used as a dental
filling material.
Amphoteric Substances having both acidic and basic properties, e.g., alumina.
Aromatic compounds There is a series of compounds based upon benzene ring structure, many of
which have an odour or are derived from materials having odour.
Atom The smallest part of an element capable of taking part in a chemical reaction.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
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Atomic mass The atomic mass of an element is numerical number which indicates how
many times an atom of an element is heavier than 1/12 mass of carbon-12.
Atomic number This is equal to the number of protons present in the nucleus.
Atomicity It is the number of atoms in a given molecule.
Avogadro’s number Number of molecules present in one mole of a substance is constant and is
equal to 6.023 × 10 23 at STP/NTP.
Base A compound release hydroxyl ions (OH − ) in aqueous solution, having pH
greater than 7.
Base metal Non-precious metal, the main metal constituent of an alloy.
Bath salts Salts used to soften hard water.
Beet sugar Sucrose (sugar) obtained from sugar beet.
Benzene A clear, inflammable liquid obtained by the fractional distillation of coal tar. It
is used as a solvent and has carcinogenic properties.
Beta (β) rays A stream of high-speed electrons (or positrons) emitted by certain
radioactive materials.
Biomolecules Molecules of a very complex nature that are found in living systems, e.g.,
carbohydrates, proteins, fats, etc.
Bleaching Decolourisation by means of chemicals or by exposure to the sun’s rays.
Borax A white crystalline salt with an alkaline nature used in the manufacture of
glass, soldering of metals, enamels, gems, soaps, etc.
Boric acid A white crystalline solid which behaves as a weak acid. It is used as a mild
antiseptic and in the manufacture of cement, enamels, etc.
Brass An alloy of tin and copper.
Brine It is a saturated solution of NaCl in water.
Carbanion Such a carbon species carrying a negative charge on carbon atom.
Carbocation A positive species having a carbon atom possessing sextet of electrons.
Carbohydrate A chemical compound made only of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Starch
and sugar are carbohydrates.
Carbolic acid Phenol, C 6H5 OH is also called as carbolic acid.
Carbon dating A method of estimating the age of archaeological specimens of biological
origin by using C-14 isotope.
Carbonyl group Aldehyde and ketone groups jointly known as carbonyl group.
Carboxylic acid Organic compounds containing  COOH group are carboxylic acids.
Catalysis The process by which the rate of a chemical reaction may be altered.
Catalyst Any substance that changes the rate of a reaction without undergoing any
chemical change.
Catenation Property of atoms binding themselves to atoms of the same element. This
property is exhibited by carbon.
Chemical bond It refers to the attractive forces that keeps ions, atoms or group of atoms
bound together.
Chemical energy The energy stored by atoms and molecules and released during chemical
reactions.
Chemical reaction A process in which one or more chemical elements or compounds (the
reactants) form new compounds (the products).
Coal tar Thick, black, sticky substance which is produced, when coal gas is made by
the destructive distillation of coal.
Coke Light type of coal obtained when coal is heated in the presence of air. It is
used as a fuel in stoves.
APPENDIX
197
Colloid A chemical substance with large molecules which disperse in liquid to form a
solution that has different properties from a true solution. Gelatin, starch and
glue are examples of colloids.
Combustion (burning) A chemical reaction that occurs when a substance combines with oxygen and
produces light, heat and flames.
Compound A chemical substance that contains two or more elements combined
together, e.g., salt (NaCl) consists of sodium and chlorine.
Coordinate bond A bond formed by unequal sharing of electron pair between two atoms.
Covalent bond A bond formed by equal sharing of electron(s) between two atoms.
Crystal A solid substance that has a definite, symmetrical shape that is formed by the
arrangement of its atoms and molecules.
DDT Dichloro diphenyl trichloro ethane, a white powder used as an insecticide.
Decarboxylation Elimination of CO 2 .
Decomposition Breakdown of a compound into two or more components.
Dehalogenation Elimination of halogen.
Dehydration Elimination of water.
Deliquescent Substances which have the property of absorbing water molecules from the
atmosphere, e.g., calcium chloride.
Denatured A substance that has been converted into a form that is not its natural form,
for purposes of making them unfit for eating or drinking, e.g., making ethyl
alcohol denatured by adding methanol or naphtha.
Desalinisation Removal of salt from sea water or saline water.
Detergent A cleaning agent made of the sodium salt of aliphatic or aromatic sulphonic
acids.
Diagonal relationship The behaviour of lithium and beryllium is more similar with the second
elements to next group, i.e., magnesium and aluminium in periodic table.
This sort of similarity is called diagonal relationship.
Diamagnetism Diamagnetism is shown by those substances, in which all electrons present in
orbitals are paired. These substances, are repelled by a magnetic field.
Diffusion General transport of matter whereby molecules or ions mix through normal
thermal agitation.
Dilute solution Any solution with small ratio of the quantities of solute to solvent or solution
has low concentration of solute.
Distillation A process involving both evaporation and condensation simultaneously, used
for purifying liquids.
Double salt A compound of two salts formed by the crystallisation of a solution
containing them.
Electrolysis The phenomenon of decomposition of an electrolyte by passing electric
current through its solution.
Electrolyte Ionic compounds, which on dissolving in water dissociate into ions.
Electrons Negatively charged particles orbiting the atomic nucleus.
Electron affinity The energy released or absorbed for one mole of neutral atoms in a gaseous
state, when electron is accepted by each atom.
Electronegativity A measure of the ability of an atom to attract the electron pair in a covalent
bond to itself.
Electronic configuration The distribution of electrons into orbitals of an atom.
Electroplating The process of coating a solid surface with a layer of metal by the electrolysis
process.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
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Electrovalent bond The bond formed, as a result of the electrostatic attraction between opposite
charged ions.
Element A substance made only of one kind of atom.
Efflorescence Phenomenon in which some crystalline salts loose water of crystallisation on
exposure to air and become powdery on the surface.
Emulsion A colloidal dispersion of one liquid in another.
Enthalpy The energy stored within the substance or the system that is available for
conversion into heat.
Entropy A measure of disorder or randomness in a system.
Ester An organic compound obtained by the reaction of an acid with alcohol and
has a fruity smell. In nature, esters give flowers their smell and fruits their
flavour.
Ether A class or organic compound made from alcohol. It is volatile, heavier than
air, inflammable and is only slightly soluble in water.
Exothermic reaction Reactions in which heat is liberated.
Fatty acids Monobasic organic aliphatic acids occurring in living things in the form of
glycerides in oils and fats.
Fermentation The process of breaking down large molecules into simpler ones due to
action of enzymes.
Filtration A process of separation of insoluble particles from a liquid by passing the
fluid through porous material.
Fission A process in which a large nuclei breaks up to give smaller nuclei.
Freezing point The temperature, at which the solid and the liquid forms have the same
vapour pressure.
Galvanisation The process in which iron or steel articles are coated with zinc by dipping
them in a bath of molten zinc or by electrodes to protect them from
corrosion.
Gas A physical state of matter, in which a substance has a definite mass, but no
definite volume or shape. It will fill the space it occupies.
Gasoline The same as petrol, obtained by the distillation of petroleum.
Greenhouse effect The increase in CO2 in the atmosphere due to which the temperature of the
atmosphere is raising, (i.e., global warming.)
Grignard reagent An organic compound of alkyl halide and magnesium used to synthesis
organic chemicals.
Halides The halogen element compounds like fluorides, chlorides, bromides and
iodides.
Halogen group Non-metallic elements belonging to group VII A of the periodic table,
comprising fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I) and astatine (At).
Hard water Water that contains salts of calcium and magnesium and does not lather
easily with soaps.
Heavy water It is a liquid, like water, but it contains deuterium (an isotope of hydrogen) in
place of hydrogen (D2 O).
Hydrates Compounds containing water of crystallisation.
Hydrocarbon Any compound made of hydrogen and carbon, e.g., methane, ethane,
acetylene, ethylene, benzene, butane, toluene.
Hydrogenation A process in which an unsaturated compound (generally hydrocarbon) is
treated with hydrogen to produce less unsaturated or saturated compound.
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Hydrolysis A process of decomposing a compound by the reaction of water. e.g., digestion
starch and sugars are broken down by hydrolysis into more digestible sugars,
such as glucose.
Ideal gas (perfect gas) The gas conforming accurately to the gas laws (Boyle’s, Charles’ and
Gay Lussac’s laws).
Ignition The heating of a compound or mixture to the point of complete combustion.
Immiscible Substances which are incapable of forming a homogeneous substance when
mixed.
Indicator A substance that changes colour in the presence of an acid or base.
Inert gas These are inactive gases of group 0 in the periodic table. They are now called
noble gases.
Insoluble Any compound that is insoluble in a particular solvent or all solvents.
Insulator These are the solids with very low conductivities ranging between 10 −20 to
10 −10 ohm −1 m −1 .
Internal energy It is the sum of all the atoms, molecules or ions contained in the system.
Invert sugar A mixture of glucose and fructose, combined or mixed in equal proportions,
e.g., sucrose.
Ion An atom that has an electrical charge because it has lost or gained electrons.
Ionic bond A type of chemical bond characterised by the transfer of electrons from one
atom to another.
Ionisation A process in which a neutral molecule splits into charged ions in the solution.
Ionisation enthalpy The energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from an
isolated atom in the gaseous state for one mole of the substance.
Isobars Atoms of different elements with the same mass number.
Isoelectronic species Species which contain the same number of electrons.
Isomers Different chemical compounds with same molecular formula but having
different structural formulae. This phenomenon is called isomerism.
Isostructural Substances have the same lattice type and crystal structure.
Isotope An atom of an element having the same number of protons but different
mass number.
IUPAC IUPAC stands for International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. It
developed a systematic chemical nomenclature method.
Joule-Thomson effect The change in temperature produced, when a gas expands by flowing
through some kind of obstruction (like a porous plug) from a region of higher
pressure to one of lower pressure.
Kossel-Lewis theory According to this theory, elements have a high tendency to attain stable
(inert) electronic configuration.
Lamp black A soft black carbon pigment prepared by incomplete combustion of natural
gas or petroleum.
Lanthanide contraction The filling of 4f before 5d-orbital results in a regular decrease in atomic radii,
called lanthanide contraction which essentially compensates for the
expected increase in atomic size with increasing atomic number.
Lassaigne’s test A test for the detection of nitrogen, halogen and sulphur in organic
compound.
Lauryl alcohol A white crystalline solid used in the manufacture of detergents.
Leaching Washing out a soluble constituent.
Lewis acid Substances which can accept the electron pair.
Lewis base Substances which can give a pair of electron.
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
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Limiting reagent In a reaction, the reagent which gets consumed first, limits the amount of
product formed.
Liquefaction of gases The conversion of a gas into its liquid form under pressure and at lower
temperatures.
Liquid A phase of matter which has definite volume but indefinite shape.
Liquid air Air brought to the liquid state. It is used as a refrigerant and in the production
of inert gases.
Lithophone A white pigment made from zinc sulphide and barium sulphate. It is used in
paints.
Litmus paper A dye paper used as an acid-base neutral indicator. With acids, blue litmus
paper turns red whereas, with bases, red litmus paper turns blue.
Mass number The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
Matter Anything which has mass and occupies space.
Metal An element which has a tendency to donate electron.
Metalloid An element having both metallic and non-metallic properties.
Metallurgy The process of extracting a metal from its ore (or as it occurs in the earth).
Minerals All compounds that are obtained from the earth’s crust.
Mixture A material contains two or more non-reacting substances (in any ratio) or
components.
Modern periodic law The physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic functions
of their atomic numbers.
Mole Amount of a compound equal to its molecular or atomic weight in grams.
Molecule The smallest portion of a substance capable of existing independently and
retaining the properties of the original substances.
Mordants Substances used for fixing colours and dyes on textiles during the process of
dyeing.
Mother liquor The solution or liquid left after the formation of crystal.
Natural gas A combustible gas found in oil wells, on the surface of crude oil (or petroleum).
It is used as a fuel and contains mainly butane and propane. It is compressed
under pressure to give Compressed Natural Gas (CNG).
Neutralisation The process in which an acid reacts with a base to form a salt and water.
Neutron A neutral fundamental particle which has a mass nearly equal to that of
hydrogen atom.
Noble metals Metals having low reactivity, show little affinity for air, moisture, carbon
dioxide or other non-metals present in nature, e.g., gold, silver, mercury and
platinum.
Non-metal An element which has a tendency to accept electrons.
Nuclear fission The disintegration of an atomic nucleus into two or more fragments. This
process is used in the production of nuclear (electric) power in nuclear
weapons.
Optimum temperature It refers to that temperature where the yields of the products is maximum for
a given reaction.
Orbit An orbit, as proposed by Bohr, is a circular path around the nucleus, in which
an electron moves.
Orbital A region around the nucleus of an atom in which, there is a maximum
probability of finding electrons. There are one s, three p, five d and seven
f-orbitals in corresponding subshells.
Ore A mineral from which a metal can be extracted economically.
Organic compounds Hydrocarbons and their derivatives are considered as organic compounds.
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Osmosis The diffusion of substances, through a semipermeable membrane, from one
solution to the other due to the difference in concentrations of the two solutions.
This is the principle of the process of dialysis.
Oxidation The addition of oxygen/electronegative element to a substance or removal of
hydrogen/electropositive element from a substance or increase in oxidation
number of an element in a reaction.
Oxide A compound of oxygen and some other element.
Paraffin or paraffin wax A white, waxy solid. It contains higher hydrocarbons and is obtained from
petroleum (or crude oil).
Paramagnetism Paramagnetism is shown by those substances in which all electrons present in
orbitals are not paired. These are weakly attracted by a magnetic field.
Periodic table A table of arranged chemical elements in the order of increasing atomic mass or
atomic number to show the similarities of chemical properties.
Petrol A fraction of petroleum (or crude oil) obtained by its fractional distillation (or
refining), and used as a fuel in motor vehicles. It is also called gasoline.
Petroleum A mixture of hydrocarbons formed under the earth’s crust and under the sea from
marine animals and plants. It is also called crude oil.
pH The pH of a solution is the negative logarithm to the base 10 of the hydrogen ion or
hydronium ion, i.e., pH = − log 10 [H+ ].
Photosynthesis Synthesis of organic compounds (sugars) by plants, from carbon dioxide and
water, in the presence of chlorophyll and sunlight.
pi bond When atomic orbitals overlap in such a way that their axis remain parallel to each
other and perpendicular to the internuclear axis, a pi ( π ) bond is formed.
Pig iron An impure form of iron and contains between 2 and 4.5 per cent carbon. It is hard
and brittle and cannot be tempered or moulded. It is also called cast iron.
Plastics Materials that are stable in normal use and easily moulded to any desired shape.
These are cross-linked polymers.
Polymerisation Process by which polymers and plastics are made from monomeric units.
Polymers Substances which are made up of small molecules (called monomers) and are very
large in size and weight, e.g., polythene, PVC, proteins, starch, rubber, etc.
Power alcohol Ethyl alcohol, used for purpose of power generation in internal combustion engine,
is known as power alcohol.
Precipitate An insoluble substance formed in a solution by the mixing of chemical reagents in
a chemical reaction.
Proof spirit Solution of ethyl alcohol containing 49.28 per cent alcohol by weight in water.
Propellant A solid or liquid substance used to provide thrust in a rocket engine.
Proton One kind of particle in an atom’s nucleus. Protons have a positive electric charge.
Pyrolysis Chemical decomposition by the action of heat.
Quanta The energy of an electron is packed in small bundles called quanta.
Quicksilver Another name given to mercury (because it is a liquid and looks like molten silver).
Radical A species of one atom or group of atoms having either negative charge (acidic
radical) or positive charge (basic radical).
Reactants The substances which combine or react to give products.
Reagent A substance which produces a chemical reaction with a certain chemical and can
be used in testing for ion, radical or chemical substances.
Redox reaction A chemical reaction in which oxidation and reduction process takes place
simultaneously.
Reduction A process which involves the addition of hydrogen to a substance or the removal of
oxygen from it.
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Rusting The process by which iron articles get coated with a brownish black layer of
powder. It takes place in the presence of air and moisture. The brownish
powder is a mixture of ferric oxide and ferric hydroxide.
Salt The chemical substance formed, when a base reacts with an acid.
Saturated solution A solution, in which no more solute can be dissolved at the same temperature
and pressure.
Shell Main energy level of electrons, e.g., K, L, M, N...
Sigma bond A type of covalent bond formed by the end to end overlap of bonding orbitals
along the internuclear axis.
Silica A hard, insoluble, white colourless solid with a very high melting point. It is
chiefly made up of silicon dioxide (SiO 2 ) .
Silicon A non-metallic element used in the steel industry and in making alloys and
electronic chips for computers, etc.
Smog Dark, thick, dust and root-laden sulphurous fog that pollutes the atmosphere
in industrial cities.
Soap Mixture of sodium salts of higher fatty acids (palmitic, stearic and oleic acids).
It is used for washing clothes, to remove dirt and oil or grease by forming
emulsions with water.
Soda ash It is anhydrous sodium carbonate.
Soft water Type of water that easily produces a lot of lather with soap.
Solid A state of matter, having definite volume and shape.
Solubility The weight of a solute present in 100 grams of the solvent at a particular
temperature.
Solutes Solids that dissolve in liquids to make solutions.
Solution Homogeneous mixture of two or more than two components.
Solvents Liquids used in making solutions, e.g., water in syrups.
Spectroscopy The study of emission or absorption of spectra.
Stainless steel Iron containing 4 per cent chromium to resist rusting.
Steel It is primarily iron, containing 0.25 - 2 per cent carbon, traces of chromium
and manganese.
STP STP corresponds to standard temperature and pressure. At this stage,
properties of gas is observed at 273.15 K (0°C) temperature and
101325 Pa (or 760 mm of Hg or 1 atm) pressure.
Sublimation The conversion of a solid directly into vapour, or the process of change from
the solid to the gaseous state or from the gaseous to the solid state without
becoming a liquid.
Subshell In an atom, each shell (orbit) contains one or more subshells. These subshells
are s, p, d and f.
Suspension A mixture consisting of very small undissolved or partially dissolved particles
a solid, distributed in a liquid dispersion medium.
Synthesis The formation of a compound directly from its elements or a simple
compound.
System A system in thermodynamics refers to that part of universe in which
observations are made and remaining universe constitutes the surroundings.
Trace element An element which is present in extremely small quantities (in traces) in the
earth’s crust. Also elements, that are required by organisms in very small
quantities as essential constituents of enzymes, vitamins, or hormones.
APPENDIX
203
Transuranium The man-made elements that have a higher atomic number (number of
protons in the nucleus) than uranium (atomic number, 92), e.g., plutonium
(Pu, 94).
Trinitrotoluene (TNT) It is a highly explosive, yellow solid. It detonates and is, therefore, used in
filling shells.
Triple point The point at which (or temperature and pressure at which), the three states of
a substance-liquid, solid and gas coexist.
Unshared electron Electrons not utilised in covalent bond formation are unshared electrons, pair
of unshared electrons in a molecule is known as lone pair of electron.
Valence electrons The electrons present in the outermost orbit of an atom, which can take part
in forming chemical bonds.
Valency The combining capacity of an element measured by the number of hydrogen
atoms which combine with, or are displaced by, an atom of other elements.
Vulcanisation This is a process of improving the quality and hardness of rubber by heating it
with sulphur at about 150°C.
Wax Thick, dull-yellow, sticky substance secreted by bees for making
honeycombs.
Xanthate A class of organic salts, formed by the treatment of an alcohol with CS 2 in the
presence of an alkali.
Yield of chemical reaction The actual amount of the pure product isolated from a reaction, divided by
the theoretical amount of the pure product that should have been formed,
based on the amount of limiting reagent used, multiply by 100.
Zeeman effect Splitting of spectral lines when the source of spectrum is exposed to a
magnetic field.

Appendix 2
Branches of Chemistry
Agrochemistry Concerned with the application of chemistry for agricultural production,
food processing etc.
Analytical Chemistry Concerned with qualitative and quantitative analysis.
Biochemical Concerned with mechanisms of drug action and the influences of drugs
Pharmacology on an organism.
Biochemistry Concerned with chemical reactions related to the living organisms.
Bioinorganic Chemistry Concerned with the interaction of metal ions with living tissue, their
effect on enzyme activity.
Chemical Kinetics Concerned with the study of reaction rates and their mechanisms.
Cluster Chemistry Concerned with the study of clusters of bond atoms, intermediate in size
between single molecules and bulk solids.
Combinatorial Concerned with computer simulation of molecules and reaction between
Chemistry molecules.
Cosmetology Concerned with cosmetics and their uses.
Electrochemistry Concerned with relationship between electrical energy and chemical
changes taking place in redox reactions.
Environmental Concerned with chemical phenomenon in the environmental, especially
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
204
Chemistry related to pollution.
Food Chemistry Concerned with chemistry associated with the chemical processes of
food.
Forensic Chemistry Concerned with chemical principles, techniques and methods to the
investigation of crime.
General Chemistry Concerned with the structure of matter and the reaction between matter
and energy.
Geochemistry Concerned with chemical composition, changes and processes associated
with rocks, minerals etc, of earth or a celestial body.
Green Chemistry Concerned with processes and products that reduce or eliminate the use
and generation of hazardous substance and environmental pollution.
Hydrology Concerned with the science of water with reference to its occurence and
properties in the hydrosphere and atmosphere.
Inorganic Chemistry Concerned with the study of all the elements (except C) and their
compounds included CO, CO 2 , carbonates and bicarbonates.
Medicinal Chemistry Concerned with design, development and synthesis of pharmaceutical
drugs.
Nanochemistry Concerned with the assembly and properties of nanoscale assemblies of
atoms or molecules.
Nuclear Chemistry Concerned with the study of radioactive substances.
Organic Chemistry Concerned with the study of compound of carbon and hydrogen (i.e., of
hydrocarbon) and their derivatives.
Organometallic Concerned with the study of chemical compounds containing bonds
Chemistry between carbon and a metal.
Photochemistry Concerned with interactions between light and matter.
Physical Chemistry Concerned with chemical changes along with the energy consideration.
Physical Organic Concerned with the interrelationship between structure and reactivity in
Chemistry organic molecules.
Polymer Chemistry Concerned with the structure and properties of polymers and finds new
ways to synthesise these molecules.
Quantum Chemistry Concerned with the mathematical description of the motion and
interaction of subatomic particles.
Solid State Chemistry Concerned with the study of structure, properties and synthesis in solid
phase of matter.
Spectroscopy Concerned with the emission or absorption spectra of matter to study it
or the chemical processes it undergoes.
Stereochemistry Concerned with the spatial arrangement of atoms in molecules and
complexes.
Surface Chemistry Concerned with the phenomenon that occurs at the surface or interfaces.
Theoretical Chemistry Concerned with the study of chemistry and physics calculations to explain
or make predictions about chemical phenomenon.
Thermochemistry Concerned with the study of thermal effects of chemical reactions.
Thermodynamics Concerned with the energy changes during physical and chemical
processes.
 Appendix 3
Popular Scientists and their Discoveries
Discovery/Theory Scientists Discovery/Theory Scientists
Atomic theory Dalton Law of partial Dalton
Atomic theory based on Neil Bohr pressures
quantum theory Law of octaves Newland
Atomic number Moseley Law of mass action Guldberg and Wage
Avogadro’s hypothesis Avogadro Le-Chatelier’s principle Le-Chatelier
Artificial radioactivityIrene Curie and Fedric Law of electrolysis Faraday
Joliot Mass-energy relation Albert Einstein
Activation energy Arrhenius ( E = mc 2 )
Brownian movement Robert Brown Mass spectrum Aston
Catalysis Berzelius Mass spectrograph Aston
Dual nature of electron L de-Broglie Molecule Avogadro
Dobereiner’s triads Dobereiner Modern periodic law Moseley
Dilution law Ostwald Modern concept of Bronsted and Lowry
Dynamite Alfred Nobel acids and bases
Electron J J Thomson Manufacture of HNO3 Birkland
Gold number Zsigmondy from air
Gun powder Roger Bacon Manufacture of steel Bessemer
Group displacement Fajan, Russel and Soddy Meson field theory H Yukawa
law Neutron James Chadwick
Hund’s rule of spin Hund Neutrino Wilson
multiplicity Negative meson Carl Anderson
Hess’s law of constant GH Hess Nylon Wallace Carothers
heat summation Oxygen gas Priestley
Helium Frankland and Lockyer Optical isomerism van’t Hoff
Hydrogen gas Cavendish Octet rule GN Lewis
Heavy water H Urey Periodic law and DI Mendeleef
Inert gas Ramsay classification
Law of conservation of Lavoisier pH scale SP Sorensen
mass Plastics Alexander Parkes
Law of constant Proust Wave nature of Davison
(definite) proportion electron (experiment
Law of multiple Dalton proof)
proportion Photoelectric effect Albert Einstein
Law of reciprocal Richter Exclusion principle Pauli
proportion, Proton Goldstein
Law of equivalent Positron Wilson
proportion Positive meson Carl Anderson
Law of gaseous volume Gay Lussac Quantisation of angular Stern Gerlach
Law of diffusion of Graham momentum
gases (experimental proof)
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
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Discovery/Theory Scientists Discovery/Theory Scientists

Radium Marie and Pierre Curie Synthesis of higher Wurtz
Radioactivity Henry Becquerel alkanes
Rubber (vulcanised) Charles Goodyear Terylene J Whinfield, J Dickson
Charles Macintosh Theory of ionisation Arrhenius
Rubber (waterproof)
Theory of hybridisation L Pauling
Stainless steel Harry Brearley
Theory of Kossel
Sulphur Frasch electrovalency
Synthesis of ammonia Haber Theory of covalency GN Lewis
Synthesis of Kolbe Transuranic elements Seaborg
hydrocarbons Theory of relativity Albert Einstein
Synthesis of urea Wholer Uncertainty principle Heisenberg

Appendix 4
Some Important Compounds and Their Formulae
Compound Formula Compound Formula
Absolute alcohol C2H5 OH Gammexame (BHC) C6H6 Cl 6
Aspirin o -CH3OCO  C6H4  COOH Grape sugar Na2 SO 4 ⋅ 10H2O
Baking soda NaHCO 3 Grape sugar C6H12O 6 (fructose)
Baryta water A solution of Ba(OH) 2 Gun powder KNO 3 (70%) + S(12%)
MnO 2 + charcoal(13%)
Black oxide
Gypsum salt CaSO 2 ⋅ 2H2O
Bleaching powder CaOCl 2
(Gypsum)
Blue vitriol CuSO 4 ⋅ 5H2O
Inorganic rubber (PNCl 2 ) n
Borax (tincal) Na2B4 O 7 ⋅ 10H2O
Hydrolith CaH2
Borazole B3N3H6
Hypo Na2 S2O 3 ⋅ 5H2O
(inorganic benzene)
King of chemicals H2 SO 4
Calgon Na2 [Na4 (PO 3 ) 6 ]
(oil of vitriol)
Calomel Hg2 Cl 2
Laughing gas N2O
Carbolic acid C6H5 OH
Litharge PbO
Carborundum SiC
Lunar caustic AgNO 3
Caustic potash KOH
Marshall’s acid H2 S2O 8 (Perdisulphuric acid)
Chloropicrin (Tear CCl 3 NO 2
Marsh gas CH4
gas)
PbCrO 4 Milk of lime (slaked Ca(OH) 2
Chrome yellow
lime or lime water)
Chromyle chloride CrO 2 Cl 2
Milk of magnesia Mg(OH) 2
DDT Dichlorodiphenyl
trichloromethane Mohr salt FeSO 4 ⋅ (NH4 ) 2 SO 4 ⋅ 6H2O
Dry ice Solid CO 2 Muriatic acid HCl
Ferric alum K 2 SO 4 ⋅ Fe 2 (SO 4 ) 3 ⋅ 24H2O Mustard gas ClCH2 CH2 SCH2 CH2 Cl
Freon CCl 2F2 Oleum H2 S2O 7
APPENDIX
207

Compound Formula Compound Formula

Oil of winter green o- HOC6H4 COOCH3 Soda ash Na2 CO 3 (Anhydrous)
(Methysalicylate) Spirit of wine C2H5 OH
Pearl ash K 2 CO 3 (Grain alcohol)
Perhydrol 30% H2O 2 Talc 3MgO ⋅ 4SiO 2 ⋅ H2O
Permutit (zeolite) Na2O ⋅ Al 2O 3 ⋅ 2SiO 2 ⋅ 6H2O Teflon (C2F4 ) n
Philosopher’s wool ZnO (C2H5 ) 4 Pb
TEL
Phosgene COCl 2
TNT Teinitrotoluene
1
Plaster of Paris CaSO 4 ⋅ H2O (an explosive)
2
Turnbull’s blue KFe(Fe(CN) 6
Prussian blue Fe 4 [Fe(CN) 6 ] 3
Urea NH2 CONH2
Prussic acid HCN
Vinegar CH3 COOH (7- 8%)
Quick lime (lime) CaO
Pb 3O 4 Washing soda Na2 CO 3 ⋅ 10H2O
Red oxide
Rochelle salt NaOOCCH(OH), CH(OH)COOK Water glass (quartz) Na2 SiO 3
Rust Fe 2O 3 ⋅ xH2O White vitriol ZnSO 4 ⋅ 7H2O
Smelling salt (NH4 ) 2 CO 3 Wood spirit CH3OH

Appendix 5
Important Reagents and Mixtures

Reagent/Mixture Composition Uses

Aqua-regia Conc. HNO 3 + conc. HCl (1:3) As a laboratory reagent
Ammonal Al powder + NH4NO 3 As an explosive
Baeyer reagent Alkaline KMnO 4 solution For detecting ethylenic and
acetylenic linkages
Baking powder NaHCO 3 + sodium potassium For baking cake etc.
tartarate
Benedict’s solution CuSO 4 ⋅ 5H2 O + NaOH + sodium For detecting aldehydes
citrate
Black ash Na2 CO 3 + CaS Impure Na2 CO 3 , produced in, i.e.,
Balance process
Bordeaux mixture Solution of CuSO 4 + lime To kill moulds and fungi on plants
Carbogen 90-95% O2 + 5-10% CO 2 For the artificial respiration
Carbon oil Vegetable oil + lime water For the treatment of burns
Ceric ammonium nitrate Salt solution in nitric acid As an oxidising agent in organic
solution synthesis
Coal gas 47% H2 + 32% CH4 + 7% CO + Produce reducing atmosphere in
other gases metallurgical operations
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
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Reagent/Mixture Composition Uses

Fehling’s solution ‘A’ Solution of CuSO 4 ⋅ 5H2 O in water Mixture of Fehling’s solutions ‘A’ and
Fehling’s solution ‘B’ Solution of sodium tartarate and ‘B’ is used to test reducing sugars and
NaOH in water aldehydes
Fenton’s reagent H2 O 2 + FeCl 3 To oxidise contaminants or waste
water
Freezing mixture NaCl + Ice For lowering temperature
Fusion mixture Na2 CO 3 + K 2 CO 3 A laboratory reagent
Gobar gas CH4 + CO + H2 Domestic fuel
Gun powder KNO 3 + S + Charcoal As an explosive
Ignition mixture BaO 2 + Mg + Al In aluminothermic process
Lindlar catalyst Pd / BaSO 4 + S For the hydrogenation of alkyne to
alkene
Lithophone ZnS + BaSO 4 As a white paint
Lucas reagent Conc. HCl + anhyd. ZnCl2 For identification of 1°, 2°, 3° alcohols
Methylated spirit 85-90% rectified spirit + 10-15% As a solvent to make spirit poisonous
CH3 OH + pyridine
Molisch’s reagent Solution of α-naphthol in ethanol For detecting carbohydrates
Nessler’s reagent Solution of HgI2 in KI and KOH For testing ammonia and
ammonium ion
Nitrolim CaCN2 + graphite As fertiliser
Nitrophos Ca(H2PO 4 ) 2 + Ca(NO 3 ) 2 As fertiliser
Oil gas 50-55% H2 + 25-30% CH4 + 10-12% As laboratory fuel
CO+ 3% CO 2
Portland cement or Limestone + clay + gypsum For construction of buildings
cement
Power alcohol 80% petrol + 20% ethanol + limited As motor fuel
benzene
Producer gas 52-55% N2 + 22-30% CO + 10 -12% As fuel
H 2 + 3% CO 2
Purple of cassius Colloidal solution of Au + Sn(OH) 2 For colouring of glass and pottery red
Rectified spirit 95-87% C2H5 OH + 4.13% H2 O as a solvent
Schiff ’s reagent Solution of rosaniline in water For testing aldehydes
Soda bleach Na2 O 2 + HCl For bleaching fabrics
Sodalime NaOH + Ca(OH) 2 For decarboxylation of carboxylic
acid
Sorel’s cement MgO + MgCl2 As a tiles
Sublimed white lead PbO + PbSO 4 + ZnO As white paint
Superphosphate of lime Ca(H2PO 4 ) 2 + CaSO 4 As fertiliser
Thermite mixture Al powder + metal oxide In metallurgy
Tincture of iodine I2 + KI + C2H5 OH + water As an antiseptic
Thomas slag Ca3 (PO 4 ) 2 + 5CaOP2 O 5 ⋅ SiO 2 As fertiliser
Water gas 51% H2 + 41% CO + 4% N2 + 4% CO 2 For the preparation of methanol
 Appendix 6
Important Facts
Property Element/Ion Property Element/Ion
+
Smallest cation H Lustrous non-metal Iodine (I2)
Largest cation Cs + Hardest among non-metals Diamond
Solid with highest density Iridium (Ir) Soft metals Na, K
Liquid with highest density Mercury (Hg) Best ductile metals Au, Ag
Elements named in honour Ru, Ge, Po, Am Best conductor metal Silver (Ag)
of the countries Most poisonous element Pu
Most electronegative Fluorine (F) Element with maximum Ag
elements number of isotopes
Most abundant element on Oxygen (O) Most electropositive metal Caesium (Cs)
earth
Liquid non-metal Br
Most abundant metal in Aluminium (Al)
earth’s crust Metal kept in paraffin wax Li
Liquid metal Mercury (Hg) Coinage metals Ag, Au, Cu, Al

Appendix 7
Nobel Laureates in CHEMISTRY
Laureate Contribution
Emmanuelle Charpentier, Jennifer For the development of a method for genome editing
Doudna (2020)
John B. Goodenough, M. Stanley For the development of lithium ion batteries
Whittingham, Akira Yoshino (2019)
Frances Arnold (2018) For the directed evolution of enzymes
George Smith, Sir Gregory Winter (2018) For the phage display of peptides and antibodies
Jacques Dubochet, Joachim Frank, For developing cryo-electron microscopy for the
Richanrd Henderson (2017) high-resolution structure determination of biomolecules
in solution
Jean-Pierre Sauvage, Fraser Stoddart, For the design and synthesis of molecular machines
Ben Feringa (2016)
Tomas Lindahl, Paul L. Modrich, Aziz For mechanistic studies of DNA repair
Sancar (2015)
Eric Betzig, Stefan W. Hell and William For the development of super-resolved fluorescence
E. Moerner (2014) microscopy.
Martin Karplus, Michael Levitt and Arich For the development of multiscale models for complex
Warshel (2013) chemical systems
Brian Kobilka (2012) For studies of G-protein-coupled receptors
Dan Shechtman and Robert Lefkowitz For the discovery of quasicrystals
(2011)
 Encyclopedia OF GENERAL SCIENCE
210
Laureate Contribution
Ei-ichi Negishi and Akira Suzuki (2010) For palladium-catalysed cross couplings in organic
synthesis
Thomas A. Steitz , Ada E. Yonath and For studies of the structure and function of the ribosome
Richard F. Heck (2009)
Martin Chalfie, Roger Y. Tsien and For the discovery and development of the Green
Venkatraman Ramakrishnan (2008) Fluorescent Protein (GFP)
Gerhard Ertl Osamu Shimomura (2007) For his studies of chemical processes on solid surfaces
Roger D. Kornberg (2006) For his studies of the molecular basis of eukaryotic
transcription
Robert H. Grubbs and Richard R. For the development of the metathesis method in
Schrock (2005) organic synthesis
Jacobus Henricus vant Hoff For the discovery of the laws of chemical dynamics and
(First Nobel Laureate) (1901) osmotic pressure in solutions