MAE 155A: Aerospace Engineering Design I

Con guration

John Hwang
Associate Professor
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The aircraft conceptual design wheel

After initial sizing, we know:

‣ Gross, empty, fuel/battery weight
‣ Wing, engine size

Next step:
‣ Select a few concepts

Raymer, D. (2012). Aircraft design: a conceptual approach.

American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.

2
Electri ed aircraft propulsion types
Bowman, C. L., Felder, J. L., & Marien, T. V. (2018, July).
Turbo-and hybrid-electri ed aircraft propulsion concepts for
commercial transport. In 2018 AIAA/IEEE Electric Aircraft
Technologies Symposium (EATS) (pp. 1-8). IEEE.

(N3-X, STARC-ABL,
SUGAR Freeze)
(RAM, PEGASUS,
Turboelectric:
SUSAN, SUGAR Volt)
- Electric power from
Hybrid electric: turbine engine
- Power from both - No battery
turbine engine
and batteries (UAM)
Electric:
- Electric power
from battery only
- No turbine engine
Fig. 1. Classification of electrical powertrains as applied to air vehicles.

3 competed under the NASA Research Announcement

trade space in the context of narrow-body aircraft. These efforts,
(NRA) system, were challenged to determine how overall energy efficiency of a commercial aircraft mission could
be improved with a parallel hybrid approach. An entry into service date of 2035-2040 was assumed but fuel burn and
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The conventional
Previous
The tube-and-wing Jet (tube-and-wing)
Airliners
configuration
Motivation
con guration
The Past of
Aircraft Design
The Future of
Aircraft Design
Project
Objectives
Parametric
Modeler
Choice of
Parametrization
High-Level
Architecture
Patchwork
(OML) Boeing 707 Boeing 757 Boeing 787
Low-Level
Implementation
Interface to
High-Fidelity
Towards
High-Fidelity
1957 1972 1982 1992 2009
MDAO

Airbus A300 Airbus A330

John T. Hwang (University of California San Diego) 4 7

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Airlinerconfigurations
Airliner con gurations
Airliner configurations

Conventional
(a) Tube-and-wing Blended wing
(b) Blended wingbody (BWB)
body (BWB) Double
(c) Doublebubble (D8)
bubble (D8)
(a) Tube-and-wing (b) Blended wing body (BWB) (c) Double bubble (D8)

Single-aisle
Turboelectric Aircraft
with an Aft Boundary-
(d) Truss-braced wing (e) Joined wing (f) Single-aisle Turboelectric Air- Layer propulsor
craft with an Aft Boundary-Layer (STARC ABL)

Truss-braced
(d) Truss-bracedwing
John T. Hwang (University of California San Diego)
wing Joined
(e) Joinedwing
wing propulsor Turbo-electric
(f) Single-aisle Turboelectric Air-
(STARC-ABL) 8

craft with an Aft Boundary-Layer

5
John T. Hwang (University of California San Diego) propulsor (STARC-ABL) 8
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VTOL configurations
VTOLVTOL
configurations
(vertical takeo and landing) con gurations

Tilt rotor Tilt-wing

(g) Tilt-rotor (h) Tilt-wing

(g) Tilt-rotor (h) Tilt-wing

Lift-plus-cruise Multi-rotor

(i) Lift + cruise 6 (j) Multicopter

(i) Lift + cruise (j) Multicopter
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 Preliminary methods for sizing tails are provided in Chapter 6, and stab-
ility and control analysis methods are provided in Chapter 16 .

.m Tail Arrangement
Wing and empennage arrangement Figure 4.30 illustrates some of the possible aft-tail arrangements.
The first one has become "conventional" for the simple reason that it
works. Probably 70% or more of the aircraft in service have such a tail

Flying wing Single wing

Conventional Main wing (front) + tail (rear)

Canard Canard (front) + main wing (rear)

Tandem Two wings of similar size

Fig. 4.30 Aft tail variations.

Raymer, D. (2012). Aircraft design: a conceptual approach.
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.

7
 place for wave drag, as already discussed. Also, the box carrythrough inter-
feres with the longeron load-paths.
The "ring-frame" approach relies upon large, heavy bulkheads to carry
the bending moment through the fuselage. The wing panels are attached

Wing structure to fittings on the side of these fuselage bulkheads. While this approach is
usually heavier from a structural viewpoint, the resulting drag reduction
at high speeds has led to the use of this approach for most modern fighters.
Wing structure

Raymer, D. (2012). Aircraft design: a conceptual approach.

Strut-braced
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.

(Raymer Daniel 1999)

8 Fig. 8.12 Wing carrythrough structure.
John T. Hwang (University of California San Diego)
Fuselage design

‣ The primary function of the fuselage is to carry the payload (crew, passengers, cargo) while satisfying
requirements (safety, convenience, etc.) with minimal weight and drag.

‣ Requirements/considerations: crew, passengers, luggage, avionics.

‣ Fuselage cross section geometry: outer shape, location of cabin oor(s), lower hold, overhead storage.

‣ Cockpit crew, cabin crew, passengers—assume 200 lb weight and 30 lb of luggage person.

‣ Luggage—compute volume requirements based on a density of 12.5 lb/ft3.

‣ Cargo—compute volume requirements based on a density of 10 lb/ft3 (for commercial airliners).

9 fl
 carried via hoop tension rather than bending.
I Aerodynamic considerations: sharp corners should be avoided to encou
help prevent flow separation).
Cross-sectional
I
pro le
To account for room for fuselage structural members (frames and strin
assume a gap of 2% of diameter plus an inch, 1.5 in for small commer
‣ The main decision is the number of oors and the number of
inch margin should be added for structural deformation and tolerances
seats across.

‣ Structural considerations: circular sections are the most

efficient since pressurization loads are carried via hoop tension
rather than bending.

‣ Aerodynamic considerations: sharp corners should be avoided

to encourage attached ow (i.e., help prevent ow separation).

‣ To account for fuselage structural members (frames, stringers)

and insulation, assume a gap of 2% of diameter plus an inch,
John T. Hwang (University of California San Diego)
1.5 in for small commercial a/c. An additional 3/4 inch margin
should be added for structural deformation and tolerances.

10
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fl
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 A key consideration is the neness ratio:
fuselage length divided by diameter

‣ Want to minimize overall size to decrease weight and drag

‣ Need su cient volume to carry the required number of passengers or other payload

‣ Need su cient length to provide the required empennage moment arm

‣ Larger neness ratio means a higher wetted area; therefore, higher parasite drag

‣ Larger neness ratio means the fuselage is longer and Reynolds number is higher; therefore, lower skin
friction drag coe cient

‣ Larger neness ratio means the section area is smaller; therefore, lower form drag (less separation)

11
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 Containers for luggage and
Containers for luggage and cargo cargo

Raymer, D. (2012). Aircraft design: a conceptual approach.

American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.

12
John T. Hwang (University of California San Diego)
 I Tail cone must be designed to allow up to 14 deg rotation on takeo↵.
Boeing 777 Example
I Taper helps avoid separation; typical taper ratios are between 1.8 and 2.
AE481 Aircraft Design — J.R.R.A. Martins 85 Wednesday 7th November, 2012 at 14:3

Nose and tail cones

Nose cone

‣ Cockpit length is typically between 110 in to 150 in. Figure 10.1: Rotation angle clearance and tipback angle for the Boeing 777-200LR

‣ Assume the pilot is 5’2”John

to 6’3”.
T. Hwang (University of California San Diego)

‣ The pilot should be able to see: the horizon at approach angle of attack; 10 degrees below the horizon
during climb; and the wing tips when leaning.

Figure 10.2: Tipover angle for the Boeing 777-200LR

Tail cone
Bibliography

‣ Tail cone must be designed to allow up to 14 deg rotation on Kundu.

[1] Ajoy Kumar takeoff.
Aircraft Design. Cambridge University Press, 2010.

[2] Daniel P. Raymer. Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach. AIAA, 5th edition, 2012.

‣ Taper helps avoid separation; typical taper ratios are between 1.8 and 2.

13
Landing gear

‣ For retractable landing gears, drag bene ts typically outweigh weight penalties above 150 kt.

‣ Two main types: conventional (easier ground maneuvering, more popular) and taildraggers (lighter
overall, better for soft elds).

‣ Need to consider tip-over and ground clearance; therefore, we need the CG excursion plot before
designing and locating the landing gear.

‣ Number of wheels per strut:

‣ Below 50000 lb: 1-2

‣ 50000-150000 lb: 2

‣ 200000-400000 lb: 4

‣ Above 400000 lb: 4-6

14
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 Tip-over
I Conventional: the main landing gear must be behind the CG by at least 15 degrees.
10

Landing gear I Taildragger: the main landing

Boeing
gear 777 Example
must be ahead the CG by at least 15 degrees.
Wheel sizing
AE481 Aircraft Design — J.R.R.A. Martins 85 Wednesday 7th November, 2012 at 14:36

‣ Conventional: the main landing gear must be behind the

e main landing gear must be behind the CG by at least 15 degrees. CG
Wheel sizing
by at least 15 degrees. Use the table below to358sizing 10
Step wheels
Aircraft 4:
Design: Tire
Awhere Wwsize
Conceptual is the(cont’d)
Approach weight carried by each w
9

Boeing 777 Example

main landing gear must be ahead the CG by at Longitudinal
least 15 Tip-over
degrees. Criterion (cont’d) W : weight carried by each wheel in lb
w
Statistical tire sizing
‣ Taildragger: the main landing gear
AE481 Aircraft Design — J.R.R.A. Martins
must be
• For taildraggers:

85
ahead the
Wednesday 7 th
CG
Figure 10.1: •Rotation angle clearance and tipback angle for the Boeing 777-200LR
Table 11.1 Statistical Tire Sizing
Main landing gear must be forward of the forward c.g. location
November, 2012 at 14:36
[Rayme
Width
by at least
AE481 15 —degrees.
Aircraft Design J.R.R.A. Martins 85
• Usual a 15 deg angle between vertical gear position and aft c.g./
gear line7th November, 2012 at 14:36
Wednesday

Lateral clearance General aviation 1.51 0.349 0.7150 0.312

9
Business twin 2.69 0.251 1.170 0.216
16
Transport/ bomber 1.63 0:315 0.1043 0.480
Boeing
Longitudinal 777
Tip-over Example
Criterion (cont’d)
Figure 10.2: Tipover angle for the Boeing 777-200LR Jet fighter; trainer 1.59 0.302 0.0980 0.467
• For taildraggers: [Roskam] Metric units: Main wheels diameter or width (em) =
Figure 10.1: •Rotation
Main landing
anglegear must be and
clearance forward of theangle
tipback forward Bibliography
forc.g.
the location
Boeing 777-200LR General aviation 5.1 0.349 2.3 0.312
Figure 10.1: Rotation angle clearance and tipback angle for the Boeing 777-200LR
• Usual a 15 deg angle between vertical gear position and aft c.g./
[1] Ajoy Kumar Kundu. Aircraft Design. Cambridge University Press, 2010.
gear line Business twin 8.3 0.251 3.5 0.216
Lateral clearance: [2] Daniel P. Raymer. Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach. AIAA, 5th edition, 2012.
John T. Hwang (University of California San Diego) Transportj bomber 5.3 0.315 0.39 19 0.480
Jet fighterj trainer 5.1 0.302 0.36 0.467
Ww = Weight on wheel. Can assume that “nose” tire diameter g
(Raymer Daniel 1999)
Raymer, D. (2012). Aircraft design: 60% -100%approach.
" a conceptual of main tires for tricycl
theAmerican Institute
same size as of tires.
the main " and
Aeronautics 25%-33%
Taildragger ofabout
mainInc.
aftAstronautics,
tires are afor taildragger
quarter to a
third of the size of the main tires.
Figure 10.2: TipoverFigure
angle10.2:
for the Boeing
Tipover 777-200LR
angle for the Boeing 777-200LR
[Roskam]
For a finished design layout, the actual tires to be used must be selected
Bibliography Bibliography 15 from a manufacturer's catalog. This selection is usually based upon the
smallest tire rated to carry the calculated static and dynamic loads.
John T. Hwang (University of California San Diego)
[1] Ajoy
[1] Ajoy Kumar Kundu. Kumar
Aircraft Kundu.
Design. Aircraft Design.
Cambridge Cambridge
University University Press, 2010.
Press, 2010.
Calculation of the static loads on the tires is illustrated in Fig. 11.6 and