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Properties And Functions Of The Cell

2 Comments / By Oluwayemi Alabi / June 7, 2014

Biology, SS 2, First Term, Week: 4

Topic: Properties and Functions of The Cell

Introduction

Nutrition is the process by which food is taken in by living organisms in order to supply the
nutrients required for the continuous metabolic reactions going in the body. Food is the source

of nutrients.

Usefulness of Food

Living cells or organisms require food for various reasons. These reasons are:

To provide energy needed for various physical and metabolic activities.

To make essential substances such as hormones and enzymes.

To make new cells for growth and replacement of worn-out tissues.

To supply various substances required for healthy growth and development.
Types Of Nutrition

All living organisms are capable of carrying out different modes of nutrition. However, the
mode of nutrition can be grouped into two major classes referred to as autotrophic and

heterotrophic nutrition.

Autotrophic Nutrition

This is the type of nutrition in which organisms are able to manufacture their food. Organisms

which can manufacture their food are called.

Autotrophic nutrition is further divided into two groups. These are holophytic or photosynthetic

nutrition and chemosynthetic nutrition.

Holophytic (Photosynthetic) Nutrition: Holophytic nutrition is the type if nutrition in which all
green plants are able to manufacture their own food making use of of carbon dioxide and

water in the presence of sunlight. This process is called photosynthesis.

The green plants derive their energy for making this food from the sunlight. This energy is

usually trapped by chlorophyll.

Popular examples of organisms that carry out or exhibit photosynthetic nutrition are all green
plants such as flowering plants, Spirogyra, Euglena, blue-green alga (nostoc) etc.

Chemosynthetic Nutrition: Chemosynthetic nutrition is another is another mode of

nutrition in which certain bacteria are able to synthesise organic compounds from simple

inorganic materials such as carbon (iv) oxide. ammonia, water or nitrite to manufacture
their food. The energy used for the synthesis comes from the oxidation of the inorganic

materials or chemicals, hence the process is called chemosynthesis. Examples of the

organisms or bacteria that exhibit chemosynthetic nutrition are:

Nitrosomonas which converts ammonia to nitrate.

 Nitrobacter which converts nitrites to nitrate.

Heterotrophic Nutrition:

Thus is the type of nutrition in which organisms cannot manufacture their food but depend
directly or indirectly on plants (autotrophs) for their food.

Organisms which cannot manufacture their own food are called heterotrophs. Most animals,
fungi, protozoa and some bacteria belong to this group.

Heterotrophic nutrition is also sub-divided into the following groups or types:

1). Holozoic Nutrition: Holozoic nutrition involves the feeding on other organisms or solid
organic substances synthesised by green plants.

The organisms ingest, digest and assimilate these food into their bodies. Examples of

organisms that exhibit holozoic mode of nutrition are:

(a). Carnivores like cats, dogs, lions etc that feed on flesh.

(b). Herbivores like sheep, goat, rabbits, etc that feed on plants.

(c). Omnivores like man, pig etc that feed on both flesh and vegetables or plants.

(d.) Scavengers like vulture that feed on dead animals.

2) Parasitic Nutrition: This is the type of nutrition in which certain organisms feed on another

organism in order to derive nourishment from it. This mode of nutrition is called parasitic
nutrition while the association is called parasitism. Parasitism is an association between two

organisms, usually of different species in which one called the parasite gains from the
association while the other called the host is harmed or suffer losses. Examples if parasites

are:
(a.) Animal Parasites like Tapeworm (Taenia Solium), plasmodium, roundworms, liver flukes,
ticks, fleas, bugs, leeches, Aphids, body louse, guinea worm, hookworm, etc.

(b.) Plant Parasites like Doder (Cassytha filiformis) and mistletoe. Animal parasites are

classified as endoparasites and ectoparasites.

i). Ectoparasites: These are parasites which live on the body of their hosts. In other words, they

live outside the body of the host where they derive food and shelter from, e.g. flea, body louse,
bed bug, Aphid and tick. Ticks are usually found in cattle and sheep. Ticks and fleas may be

found on dogs, chickens and rats also carry lic on their bodies. Aphids and cotton stainers are
ectoparasites on plants.

ii). Endoparasites: These are parasites which live inside the body of their hosts such as man

and other animals. Examples include:

Tapeworm (Taenia Solium): Tapeworm is associated with pigs which are the secondary host

and man which is the primary host. It has a flattened tape-like body. It has a head called scolex
on which are found rostellum, hook and sucker which enable it to fasten itself to the lining of

the host’s intestine. It also has a body cuticle which resists digestive enzymes of the host.
Tapeworm has a flat body surface which ensures a large surface area for absorption of already

digested food. The entire body consists of numerous proglottids which aids the absorption of
digested food from its host.

Liver Fluke (Fasciola hepatica): This is a small endoparasitic associated with sheep. It is
common with the liver of the sheep.

Filaria worm (Wucheraria bancrofti): This is another endoparasite associated with cattle,

sheep and goat. It causes elephantiasis.

Roundworm (Ascaris lumbricoides): This is another endoparasite commonly found in the

alimentary canal of human beings and pigs. It deprives its host of the food which it eats.
Guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis): This is an endoparasite commonly found in the
subcutaneous tissues from which it pushes out its head through a blister caused by it on the

foot or leg of its host.

Saprophytic Nutrition: This is the type of nutrition in which certain organisms called,
the saprophytes feed on dead and decaying organic materials. This type of nutrition is

called saprophytism. The saprophytes, generally, can secrete enzymes into the substrate of
dead and decaying organic materials on which they grow. The enzymes so secreted are able to

digest some portions of the substrate outside the body of the saprophyte by a process
called extracellular digestion. The digested food material on the substance is then absorbed

into the body through the rhizoids. Examples of organisms which exhibit saprophytic mode of
nutrition are the fungi such as rhizopus, mushroom, mucor, toad stool and penicillium.

Symbiotic Nutrition: This is the type of nutrition in which two organisms of different species
called symbionts live together and derive nutrients or food from each other. In this case, both

organisms gain from such association and none is harmed. This type of nutrition is called
symbiotic nutrition while the association between the two organisms in which both derive

benefits is called symbiosis. Apart from nutritional benefits, the symbionts can derive other
benefits like protection, shelter and reproduction during such association.

Examples of organisms that exhibit symbiotic nutrition are:

1.) Nitrogen fixing bacteria and root nodules of leguminous plants: An example of a symbiotic
association is the one between the nitrogen fixing bacteria, Rhizobium spp and the root

nodules of leguminous plant. The bacteria is able to fix atmospheric nitrogen directly into the
plant while the plant in turn provides shelter and food for the bacteria.

2.) Algae and fungi in a lichen: A lichen is usually made up of two organisms, a fungus and a
unicellular alga, living closely together. The thallus or plant body of a lichen consists mostly of

fungal hyphae, with alga cells embedded in them. The alga cells are arranged in a definite layer.
The green alga manufactures food for both plants, while the fungus protects the alga and
absorbs water from the surroundings.

3.) Sea anemones and hermit crabs: The sea anemone is known to attach itself to the empty

shell in which the hermit crab is found. Pieces of food left by the crab are eaten by the sea
anemone while the crab obtains its benefit by way of protection against predators that would

have attacked or eaten it as the sting of the sea anemone keep them away from the hermit
crab.

4.) Termites and protozoa living in the gut: This is another example of symbiotic nutrition. In
this case, the protozoa in the gut of termite helps the termite to digest cellulose while the

termite provides protection and food for the protozoa.

Carnivorous or Insectivorous plants: Carnivorous or insectivorous plants are equipped with

devices for trapping, digesting and absorbing nutritive compounds from the bodies of insects

and other small organisms. They have green leaves to help them carry out photosynthetic
nutrition.

Carnivorous plants usually grow in places with little nitrogenous salts and they then use
insects or other smaller animals as their sources of nitrogen.

Macronutrients

Nitrogen is a major component of proteins, hormones, chlorophyll, vitamins and enzymes

essential for plant life. Nitrogen metabolism is a major factor in stem and leaf growth

(vegetative growth). Too much can delay flowering and fruiting. Deficiencies can reduce yields;
can cause yellowing of the leaves and stunt growth.

Phosphorus is necessary for seed germination, photosynthesis, protein formation and almost
all aspects of growth and metabolism in plants. It is essential for flower and fruit formation.

Low pH (<4) results in phosphate being chemically locked up in organic soils. Deficiency
symptoms are purple stems and leaves; maturity and growth are retarded. Yields of fruit and
flowers are poor. Premature drop of fruits and flowers may often occur. Phosphorus must be

applied close to the plant’s roots in order for the plant to utilize it. Large applications of
phosphorus without adequate levels of zinc can cause a zinc deficiency.

Potassium is necessary for formation of sugars, starches, carbohydrates, protein synthesis

and cell division in roots and other parts of the plant. It helps to adjust water balance, improves
stem rigidity and cold hardiness, enhances flavour and colour on fruit and vegetable crops,

increases the oil content of fruits and is important for leafy crops. Deficiencies result in low
yields, mottled, spotted or curled leaves, scorched or burned look to leaves.

Sulphur is a structural component of amino acids, proteins, vitamins and enzymes and is
essential to produce chlorophyll. It imparts flavour to many vegetables. Deficiencies show as

light green leaves. Sulfur is readily lost by leaching from soils and should be applied with a
nutrient formula. Some water supplies may contain Sulphur.

Magnesium is a critical structural component of the chlorophyll molecule and is necessary for

functioning of plant enzymes to produce carbohydrates, sugars and fats. It is used for fruit and
nut formation and essential for germination of seeds. Deficient plants appear chlorotic, show

yellowing between veins of older leaves; leaves may droop. Magnesium is leached by watering
and must be supplied when feeding. It can be applied as a foliar spray to correct deficiencies.

Calcium activates enzymes, is a structural component of cell walls, influences water

movement in cells and is necessary for cell growth and division. Some plants must have

calcium to take up nitrogen and other minerals. Calcium is easily leached. Calcium, once
deposited in plant tissue, is immobile (non-translocatable) so there must be a constant supply

for growth. Deficiency causes stunting of new growth in stems, flowers and roots. Symptoms
range from distorted new growth to black spots on leaves and fruit. Yellow leaf margins may

also appear.

Micronutrients
Iron is necessary for many enzyme functions and as a catalyst for the synthesis of chlorophyll.
It is essential for the young growing parts of plants. Deficiencies are pale leaf colour of young

leaves followed by yellowing of leaves and large veins. Iron is lost by leaching and is held in the
lower portions of the soil structure. Under conditions of high pH (alkaline) iron is rendered

unavailable to plants. When soils are alkaline, iron may be abundant but unavailable.
Applications of an acid nutrient formula containing iron chelates, held in soluble form, should

correct the problem.

Manganese is involved in enzyme activity for photosynthesis, respiration, and nitrogen

metabolism. Deficiency in young leaves may show a network of green veins on a light green

background similar to an iron deficiency. In the advanced stages the light green parts become
white, and leaves are shed. Brownish, black, or grayish spots may appear next to the veins. In

neutral or alkaline soils plants often show deficiency symptoms. In highly acid soils,
manganese may be available to the extent that it results in toxicity.

Boron is necessary for cell wall formation, membrane integrity, calcium uptake and may aid in
the translocation of sugars. Boron affects at least 16 functions in plants. These functions

include flowering, pollen germination, fruiting, cell division, water relationships and the
movement of hormones. Boron must be available throughout the life of the plant. It is not

translocated and is easily leached from soils. Deficiencies kill terminal buds leaving a rosette
effect on the plant. Leaves are thick, curled and brittle. Fruits, tubers and roots are discolored,

cracked and flecked with brown spots.

Zinc is a component of enzymes or a functional cofactor of a large number of enzymes

including auxins (plant growth hormones). It is essential to carbohydrate metabolism, protein

synthesis and internodal elongation (stem growth). Deficient plants have mottled leaves with

irregular chlorotic areas. Zinc deficiency leads to iron deficiency causing similar symptoms.
Deficiency occurs on eroded soils and is least available at a pH range of 5.5 – 7.0. Lowering

the pH can render zinc more available to the point of toxicity.

Copper is concentrated in roots of plants and plays a part in nitrogen metabolism. It is a
component of several enzymes and may be part of the enzyme systems that use

carbohydrates and proteins. Deficiencies cause die back of the shoot tips, and terminal leaves
develop brown spots. Copper is bound tightly in organic matter and may be deficient in highly

organic soils. It is not readily lost from soil but may often be unavailable. Too much copper can
cause toxicity.

Molybdenum is a structural component of the enzyme that reduces nitrates to ammonia.

Without it, the synthesis of proteins is blocked and plant growth ceases. Root nodule (nitrogen
fixing) bacteria also require it. Seeds may not form completely, and nitrogen deficiency may

occur if plants are lacking molybdenum. Deficiency signs are pale green leaves with rolled or
cupped margins.

Sodium is involved in osmotic (water movement) and ionic balance in plants.

Cobalt is required for nitrogen fixation in legumes and in root nodules of non legumes. The
demand for cobalt is much higher for nitrogen fixation than for ammonium nutrition. Deficient

levels could result in nitrogen deficiency symptoms.

Silicon is found as a component of cell walls. Plants with supplies of soluble silicon produce

stronger, tougher cell walls making them a mechanical barrier to piercing and sucking insects.
This significantly enhances plant heat and drought tolerance. Foliar sprays of silicon have also

shown benefits reducing populations of aphids on field crops. Tests have also found that
silicon can be deposited by the plants at the site of infection by fungus to combat the

penetration of the cell walls by the attacking fungus. Improved leaf erectness, stem strength
and prevention or depression of iron and manganese toxicity has all been noted as effects

from silicon. Silicon has not been determined essential for all plants but may be beneficial for
many.

Anabolism
Anabolism is the process by which the body utilizes the energy released by catabolism to
synthesize complex molecules. These complex molecules are then utilized to form cellular

structures that are formed from small and simple precursors that act as building blocks.

Stages of Anabolism

There are three basic stages of anabolism.

Stage 1 involves production of precursors such as amino acids, monosaccharides,

isoprenoids and nucleotides.

Stage 2 involves activation of these precursors into reactive forms using energy from ATP

Stage 3 involves the assembly of these precursors into complex molecules such as
proteins, polysaccharides, lipids and nucleic acids.

Practice Questions

1. ____ is the process by which food is taken in by living organisms in order to supply the
nutrients required for the continuous metabolic reactions going in the body.

a) Nutrition
b) Anabolism

c) Catabolism
d) Malnutrition

2. ____ is the type of nutrition in which two organisms of different species live together and
derive nutrients or food from each other

a) Holotrophism
b) Autotrophism

c) Symbiosis
d) Saprophytism

3. ____ is the process by which the body utilizes the energy released by catabolism to
synthesize complex molecules.

a) Anabolism
 b) Catabolism
c) Nutrition

d) Autotrophism
4. _____ plants are equipped with devices for trapping, digesting and absorbing nutritive
compounds from the bodies of insects and other small organisms
a) Insectivorous

b) Herbivorous
c) Omnivorous

d) Symbionts
5. ____ nutrition is the type of nutrition in which certain organisms feed on dead and

decaying organic materials.

a) Holozoic

b) Symbiotic
c) Autotrophic

d) Saprophytic
6. Parasites which live inside the body of the host is called _____
7. ______ nutrition is another mode of nutrition in which certain bacteria are able to
synthesise organic compounds from simple inorganic materials such as carbon (iv)

oxide. ammonia, water or nitrite to manufacture their food.

a) Photosyntethic

b) Chemosynthetic
c) Biosynthetic

d) Photosynthesis

Answers

1. A
2. C
3. A
4. A
 5. D
6. Endoparasite
7. B

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2 thoughts on “Properties And Functions Of The Cell”

GOODWILL TARILA BEN

SEPTEMBER 17, 2017 AT 11:22 PM

Enter your comment here…nice

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ANONYMOUS
OCTOBER 22, 2017 AT 7:38 PM

I want to be clear and understand about lesson plan or teachers preparation

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