I.

BASIC MECHANICS

 A force is defined as any cause which tends to alter the state or rest of a body or its state
of uniform motion in a straight line.
 Forces acting at some angle from the coordinate axes can be resolved into mutually
perpendicular forces called components. The component of a force parallel to the x-axis
is called the x-component, parallel to y-axis the y-component, and so on.
 We can get the components of a force in XY Plane using the formula:

F x =Fcos θ x =Fsin θ y
F y =Fcos θ x =Fsin θ y
Fy
tanθx=
Fx

Figure 1.1 shows the components of force in XY plane

 Resultant of a force system is a force or a couple that will have the same effect to the
body, both in translation and rotation, if all the forces are removed and replaced by the
resultant.
 The equation involving the resultant of force system are the following:

1. Rx=ΣFx=Fx1+Fx2+Fx3+...
The x-component of the resultant is equal to the summation of forces in the x-
direction.
2. Ry=ΣFy=Fy1+Fy2+Fy3+...
The x-component of the resultant is equal to the summation of forces in the x-
direction.
3. Rz=ΣFz=Fz1+Fz2+Fz3+...
The x-component of the resultant is equal to the summation of forces in the x-
direction.

 The line of action of each force in coplanar concurrent force system is on the same plane.
All of these forces meet at a common point, thus concurrent. In x-y plane, the resultant
can be found by the following formulas:
 Rx = ΣFx

Ry = ΣFy

F=√ F x 2+ F y 2

Ry
tanθ x =
Rx

 Coplanar parallel forces can be in the same or in opposite directions. The sign of the
direction can be chosen arbitrarily, meaning, taking one direction as positive makes the
opposite direction negative. The complete definition of the resultant is according to its
magnitude, direction, and line of action.

 The summation of all forces on the same plane gives the total parallel forces present,
given by the formula:

R = ΣF = F 1 + F 2 + F 3 + …

Rd = ΣFx = F1x1 + F2x2 + F3x3 + …

 The resultant of non-concurrent force system is defined according to magnitude,

inclination, and position. The magnitude and inclination from the horizontal can be
obtained using the previous equations used on concurrent forces but differs on
determining the position of the resultant:
  Moment is the measure of the capacity or ability of the force to produce twisting or
turning effect about an axis. This axis is perpendicular to the plane containing the line of
action of the force.
 The magnitude of moment is equal to the product of the force and the perpendicular
distance from the axis to the line of action of the force.
 The intersection of the plane and the axis is commonly called the moment center, and the
perpendicular distance from the moment center to the line of action of the force is called
moment arm.
 The moment of force about a given point is equal to the product of the given force and
the moment arm.

 The formula used on moment of force is:

M = Fd

Wherein,

M = moment

F = given force

d = distance (moment arm)

 Couple is a system of forces whose magnitude of the resultant is zero and yet has a
moment sum.
 Geometrically, couple is composed of two equal forces that are parallel to each other and
acting in opposite direction. The magnitude of the couple is given by:

C = Fd

The formula might be synonymous with the moment’s formula but there are differences between
the two like:

1. The couple is independent of the moment center.

 2. The couple is rotated through any angle in its plane.
3. The couple is shifted to any other position in its plane.
4. The couple is shifted to a parallel plane.

Illustrative Problems.

Example 1
Determine the x and y components of the forces shown below:

Given: F = 60N
θ = 30°

Formula: Fx = F cos θ
Fy = F sin θ

Solution: Fx = 60N cos 30° = 51.9615N

Fy = 60N sin 30° = 30N
Example 2
Get the resultant of the figure below:

Given: Fx = 40N
Fy = 25N

Formula: R=√ F x 2 + F y 2

Solution: R=√ (40 N )2 +(25 N )2=47.1699 N

Example 3
Calculate the moment of the illustration given below:

Given: d = 0.5m
F = 25N

Formula: M = Fd

Solution: M = (25N)(0.5m) = 12.5 N • m

Example 4
Compute for the moment of the figure below:

Given: d1 = 10m

F1 = 20kN
F2 = 20kN
or FC = 20kN

d2 = 1.25m

Formula: C = (FC)(d2) = (20kN)(1.25m) = 25kN • m

Solve for the following problems.

Problem 1
A dog with a chain attached to its collar exerts a total force of 120N pull the chain, straightening
it at 27 degrees. What are the horizontal and vertical forces exerted by the dog to the chains?
Problem 2
A wagon a being pulled diagonally at an angle of 64 degrees with a force of 855N across a
railway. Ignoring the friction between the wagon’s wheel and the railway, and the wagons wind
resistance, what are the forces exerted along and sideways with respect to the railway?

Problem 3
A towing truck pulls a vehicle and exerts a force of 4450N diagonally with an angle of 45
degrees. What is the vertical force that lifts off the car off the ground?

Problem 4
A ring that has three strings on it is being pulled by 3 siblings; Tim, Lydon, and Mhel. Tim pulls
a string with a force of 4N, Lydon pulls a string with a force of 2N, and Mhel pulls a string with
a force of 1N. The directions of their strings are shown below:

What is the direction the ring when the 3 siblings pull the strings simultaneously without
changing the force they apply on pulling the strings?
Problem 5
Given is a movable lever that is 20 feet in length and has 4 different forces acting upon it.
Disregarding the weight of the lever, determine the direction of lever (clockwise or
counterclockwise), and the location of the resultant on the lever.

Problem 6
The effect of a specific non-concurrent force system is defined by the following data:

 ΣFx = 10N
 ΣFy = 21N
 ΣM0 = 180N • m

Identify the point at which the resultant intersects the x-axis.

Problem 7
The effect of a specific non-concurrent force system is defined by the following data:

 ΣFx = 61kN
 ΣFy = 44kN
 ΣM0 = 255kN • m
 Identify the point at which the resultant intersects the y-axis.

Problem 8
In a kindergarten classroom, there is a 50cm x 50cm table which is being used whenever there is
an activity with one corner hinged to the wall. In one instance, different forces are applied
resulted by pushing and pulling of the kids on the table. Using the given below, identify the
rotation (clockwise or counterclockwise) of the table when the forces are applied simultaneously.

Reference:

Vert, J. (n.d.). Principles of Statics. Retrieved December 06, 2020, from

https://mathalino.com/reviewer/engineering-mechanics/statics
 II. EQUILIBRIUM MECHANICS

Equilibrium is the condition of a system when neither its state of motion nor its internal
energy state tends to change with time. A simple mechanical body is said to be in equilibrium if
it experiences neither linear acceleration nor angular acceleration; unless it is disturbed by an
outside force, it will continue in that condition indefinitely. For a single particle, equilibrium
arises if the vector sum of all forces acting upon the particle is zero. A rigid body (by definition
distinguished from a particle in having the property of extension) is considered to be in
equilibrium if, in addition to the states listed for the particle above, the vector sum of all torques
acting on the body equals zero so that its state of rotational motion remains constant. An
equilibrium is said to be stable if small, externally induced displacements from that state produce
forces that tend to oppose the displacement and return the body or particle to the equilibrium
state. Examples include a weight suspended by a spring or a brick lying on a level surface. An
equilibrium is unstable if the least departure produces forces that tend to increase the
displacement. An example is a ball bearing balanced on the edge of a razor blade.

A structure is in equilibrium when all forces or moments acting upon it are balanced. This
means that each and every force acting upon a body, or part of the body, is resisted by either
another equal and opposite force or set of forces whose net result is zero. Sir Issac Newton
addressed this issue when he noted that a body at rest will remain at rest until acted upon by an
external force. Every structure that can be seen to remain standing on a daily basis is in
equilibrium; it is at rest and each of its members, combination of its members or any part of a
member that is supporting a load, are also at rest. There is a net result of zero in all directions for
all of the applied loads and reactions.

There are two types of equilibrium; External and Internal. External equilibrium
encompasses the loads upon, and reactions of, a structural system as a whole. Internal
equilibrium describes the various forces are acting within every member of the system. There are
conditions of equilibrium that must be satisfied for both types. These are:

Sum of All Vertical Forces (∑Fy) = 0

Sum of All Horizontal Forces (∑Fx) = 0
Sum of All Moments (∑Mz) = 0
(Sum of All Forces (∑Fz) = 0)
(Sum of All Moments (∑My) = 0)
(Sum of All Moments (∑Mx) = 0)
 These six equations are all that can be used to determine every one of the forces that are
acting with a structure. They are few, but very powerful. The first three are the most common
equations and will be utilized in all of the problems associated with this course. The other three
are only necessary when considering three-dimensional force systems.

A rigid body will remain in equilibrium provided that sum of all the external forces
acting on the body is equal to zero, and the Sum of the moments of the external forces about a
point is equal to zero.

Sample Free Body Diagrams

Various Supports 2-D Force Systems
Various Supports 3-D Force Systems
Illustrative Problems

Example 1
A uniform beam has length 8 m and mass 600 Newton. It is suspended by two ropes, as shown in
the diagram below. Find the tension in each rope.

Solution

The diagram shows the forces acting on the beam.

Take moments about the point where T1 acts to give:

5 T2=3 600
3 600
T2=
5
T2=360

Take moments about the point where T2 acts to give:

5 T1=2 600
2600
T1=
5
T1=240

Finally, for vertical equilibrium we require T1+T2=588, which can be used to check the tensions.
In is the case we have:
T1+T2=600 N
360+240=600 N
Example 2
A ladder length of 3 m and mass 25 kg, leans against a smooth, vertical wall so that the angle
between the horizontal ground and the ladder is 60. Find the magnitude of the friction and
normal reaction forces that act on the ladder, if it is in equilibrium.

Solution

The diagram shows the forces acting on the ladder

25kg=245.18 N

Considering the horizontal forces gives:

F=S
Considering the vertical forces gives:
R= 245.18 N

Taking moment about the base of the ladder gives:

196 1 5cos60º=S 3sin60º
245.18 N 1 5 cos 60 º
S=
3 sin 60 º
245.18 N cos 60º
S=
2 sin 60 º
245.18 N
S=
2 tan 60 º

S=70.777 N
But since F=S, the friction force has magnitude 70.777 N

Example 3

Determine the magnitudes of the forces C and T, which, along with the other three forces shown,
act on the bridge-truss joint.

Solution

The given sketch constitutes the free body diagram of the isolated section of the joint in
questions and shows the five forces which are in equilibrium.

To avoid a simultaneous solution, we may use axes x’-y’ with the first summation in the y’-
direction to eliminate reference to T. (scalar algebra). Thus,

[∑Fy =0]
-C cos 20º-3 cos 40º + 16 sin 40º= 0
C= 3.03 kN
[∑Fx =0]
T+ 8 cos 40º- 3 sin 40º-3.03 sin 20º=0
T=9.09 kN

Example 4
A load of lumber of weight W = 30kN is being raised by a mobile crane. The weight of boom
ABC and the combined weight of the truck and driver are as shown. Determine the reaction at
each of the two(a) front wheels H, (b) rear wheels K.

Solution

Strategy. Equilibrium of parallel forces. Apply ∑M=0, ∑F=0

Modeling. NH, Nx are normal reaction of two wheels at front and rear resp.

Analysis. ∑MH=0 CCW+Equilibrium of parallel forces. Apply ∑M=0, ∑F=0

∑MH=0 CCW+

a.) Nk(2.5) + 5(0.9) +30(2.9)-55(2)=0

Nk(2.5)=22.55kN

Nk= 9.02kN; hence reaction at Front wheel= 4.51kN

∑Mk= 0 CW+

b.) NH (2.5)- 5(3.4)- 30(5.4)- 55(0.5) =0

Nh (2.5) = 206.5kN

NH= 82.6kN; hence reaction at rear wheel= 41.3kN

Reflect and Think. Use ∑M=0 to directly eliminate one of the unknown reactions. Use ∑F=0 to
check solution.

Example 5

Calculate the tension T in the cable which supports the 1000-lb load with the pulley arrangement
shown. Each pulley is free to rotate about its bearing, and the weights of all parts are small
compared with the load. Find the magnitude of the total force on the bearing of pulley C.

Solution

The free-body diagram of each pulley is drawn in its relative position to the others. We begin
with pulley A, which includes the only known force. With the unspecified pulley radius
designated by r, the equilibrium of moments about its center O and the equilibrium of forces in
the vertical direction require:

[∑Mo =0]

T1r+T2r=0

T1=T2

[∑Fy =0]
T1+T2-1000=0

2T1=1000

T1=T2= 500lb

From the example of pulley A we may write the equilibrium of forces on pulley B by inspection
as

T2
T3=T4= =250lb
2

For pulley C the angle e= 30º in no way affects the moment of T about the center of the pulley,
so that moment equilibrium requires

T= T3 or T= 250 lb

Equilibrium of the pulley in the x- and y- directions requires

[∑Fx =0]

250 cos 30º-Fx= 0

∑Fx=217 lb

[∑Fy =0]

∑Fy+250 sin 30º-250=0

∑Fy=125 lb

F=√ Fx2 + Fy 2

F=√ (217)2 +(125)2

F=250lb
Solve for the following problems.

Problem 1
The cable and boom shown in Figure support a load of 600 lb. Determine the tensile force T in
the cable and the compressive for C in the boom.

Problem 2
The system of knotted cords shown in Figure support the indicated weights. Compute the tensile
force in each cord.

Problem 3
A boom AB is supported in a horizontal position by a hinge A and a cable which runs from C
over a small pulley at D as shown in Figure. Compute the tension T in the cable and the
horizontal and vertical components of the reaction at A.
Neglect the size of the pulley at D.
Problem 4
A bar AE is in equilibrium under the action of the five forces shown in Figure. Determine P, R,
and T.

Problem 5
The upper beam in Figure is supported at D and a roller at C which separates the upper and lower
beams. Determine the values of the reactions at A, B, C, and D. Neglect the weight of the beams.

Problem 6
A beam, of mass 50 kg and length 5 m, rests on two supports as shown in the diagram. Find the
magnitude of the reaction force exerted by each support. Find the maximum mass that could be
placed at either end of the beam if it is to remain in equilibrium.

Problem 7
The uniform 100-kg beam I-beam is supported initially by its end rollers on the horizontal
surface at A and B. By means of the cable at C. It is desired to elevate end B to a position 3m
above end A. Determine the required tension P, the reaction at A, and the angle ѳ made by the
beam with the horizontal in the elevated position.

Problem 8
The frame shown supports part of the roof of a small building. Knowing that the tension in the
cable is 150 kN, determine the reactions at the fixed end E.

References:
Bhattacharjya, R. (n.d.). ME 101: Engineering Mechanics. Retrieved November 28, 2020, from
https://www.iitg.ac.in/rkbc/me101/Presentation/L01-03.pdf

Equilibrium of Concurrent Force System. (n.d.). Retrieved November 28, 2020, from
https://mathalino.com/reviewer/engineering-mechanics/equilibrium-force-system

What is a Equilibrium? (n.d.). Retrieved November 28, 2020, from

http://web.mit.edu/4.441/1_lectures/1_lecture6/1_lecture6.html

III. FRICTION

Friction is the resistance to motion of one object moving relative to another. It is not a
fundamental force, like gravity or electromagnetism. Instead, scientists believe it is the result of
the electromagnetic attraction between charged particles in two touching surfaces.
Friction acts tangentially along surfaces in contact, in the direction that opposes motion.

Coefficient of friction

Two solid objects moving against each other experience kinetic friction. In this case, the friction
is some fraction of the perpendicular force acting between two objects (the fraction is determined
by a number called the coefficient of friction, which is determined through experiments). In
general, the force is independent of the contact area and doesn't depend on how fast the two
objects are moving.

Friction also acts in stationary objects. Static friction prevents objects from moving and is
generally higher than the frictional force experienced by the same two objects when they are
moving relative to each other. Static friction is what keeps a box on an incline from sliding to the
bottom.

Before sliding occurs:

friction is just sufficient to maintain equilibrium and prevent motion.
F < FMAX

On the point of sliding and when sliding occurs:

F = μR where F is the friction force acting between two surfaces in contact, μ is the coefficient
of friction, and R is the normal contact force.
(Note that sometimes N is used instead of R for the normal contact force.)
You can use the friction model to determine whether a body will slide, what force will be
required to make a body slide, or to find the coefficient of friction between two surfaces in
contact.

Illustrative Problems

Example 1
A 5 kg box on a horizontal table is pushed by a horizontal force of 15 N as shown on the right.
15 N If the coefficient of friction is 0.4, will the box move?

5 kg

Think about

What is the smallest force that could make the box slide along the table? R

Solution
The sketch shows the forces acting on the box.
F 15 N
Note that the weight of a box of mass 5 kg is 5g where g = 9.8 ms–2
Since the vertical forces are in equilibrium, R = 5g
5g
Therefore, the maximum possible friction is F = μR = 0.4 x 5g = 19.6 N
The pushing force, 15 N, is less than this and so cannot overcome the friction.
The box will not move.

Example 2
Normal Force
An object resting on a table, shown in the figure below. Mass of the object is 1 kg. Acceleration
of gravity is 9.8 m/s2. Determine the normal force exerted on the object by the table.

Known:
Mass (m) = 1 kg
Acceleration of gravity (g) = 9.8 m/s2
Weight (w) = m g = (1 kg) (9.8 m/s2) = 9.8 kg m/s2 = 9.8 Newton
Wanted: normal force (N)
Solution:

The object is at rest on the table, so the net force on the object is zero (Newton’s first or second
law). The weight of the object acts vertically downward, toward the center of the Earth. There
must be another force on the object to balance the gravitational force. Object resting on the table,
so that the table exerts this upward force. The force exerted by the table is often called a normal
force (N). Normal means perpendicular.

Choose the upward direction as the positive y-direction. The net force on the object is:
∑Fy = 0
N–w=0
N=w
N=mg
N = 9.8 Newton
The normal force on the object, exerted by the table is 9.8 N upward.
Example 3
Forces acting at an angle (with Friction)
We consider forces that act at an angle, but this time including friction.
Examine a force F pulling up at an angle θ on one side of an object which is located on a rough
horizontal plane. A free body diagram of this situation is shown below.

Our first step will be to resolve, or break down, the diagonal force into its horizontal and vertical
components. These components, Fx and Fy are shown in the next diagram.

Since the object is in vertical equilibrium, the relationship ΣFy = 0 will produce the equation
N = mg - F sin θ
If F has been pushing down at angle θ on the object instead of pulling up at angle θ,

then the value for the normal would change to:

N = mg + F sin θ.

If the object is also in horizontal equilibrium, that is, it is either at rest or moving with a
constant velocity towards the right, the relationship ΣFx = 0 yields the equation:
f = F cos θ where f = µN.
If the object were accelerating to the right, the equation that could be used to calculate the
object's horizontal acceleration would be:
net Fx = ma
T cos θ - f = ma where f = µN.
Notice that the magnitude of the acceleration will be changed by the value of f since it is
impacted by the value of the normal. Hence, it is easier to accelerate an object by pulling up on it
(decreasing the normal force) than by pushing down on it (increasing the normal force).

Example 4
Force of Static and Kinetic Friction
An object rests on a horizontal floor. The coefficient static friction is 0.4 and acceleration of
gravity is 9.8 m/s2. Determine (a) The maximum force of the static friction (b) The minimum
force of F
Solution:

Known:
Mass(m) = 1 kg
The coefficient static friction (μs) = 0.4
The acceleration of gravity (g) = 9.8 m/s2
Weight (w) = m g = (1 kg) (10 m/s2) = 10 kg m/s2 = 10 Newton
Normal force (N) = w = 10 Newton

Wanted:
(a) The maximum force of the static friction
(b) The minimum force of F

Solution:

(a) The maximum force of the static friction

fs = μs N
fs = (0.4) (9.8 N) = 3.92 Newton
(b) The minimum force of F

If the force F is exerted on the object but the object isn’t moved, so there must be the force of
static friction exerted by the floor on the object. If the object will start to move, the force of the
static friction is exceeded, there must be the force of the kinetic friction. Object start moves if F
is greater than the maximum force of the static friction.

So, the minimum force of F = maximum force of the static friction = 3.92 Newton.

Example 5
Friction on wedges
Determine the force P required to start the wedge shown in the figure. The angle of friction for
all surfaces in contact is 15°.
Solution:

From the FBD of the block to the right

ΣFV=0

R1 cos15∘ = R2 sin15∘ + 200

R1 = 0.2679R2 + 207.06

ΣFH = 0
R2 cos15∘ = R1 sin15∘ + 50
R2 cos15∘ = (0.2679R2 + 207.06) sin15∘+50
0.8966 R2 = 103.59
R2=115.54 kN

From the FBD of the wedge to the left

ΣFH=0
R3 cos30∘ = R2 cos15∘
R3 cos30∘ = 115.54 cos15∘
R3 = 128.87 kN

ΣFV=0
P = R2sin15∘ + R3 sin30∘
P = 115.54sin15∘ + 128.87sin30∘
P = 94.34 kN answer
Solve the following problems.

Problem 1
A 400-gram package lying on a horizontal surface is attached to a
horizontal string which passes over a smooth pulley. 400 g
When a mass of 200 grams is attached to the other end of the string, the
package is on the point of moving.
Find μ, the coefficient of friction.
200 g

Problem 2
Two objects resting on a table. Mass of object 1 (m1) = 1 kg, mass of object 2 (m2) = 2 kg,
acceleration due to gravity (g) =9.8 m/s 2. Determine the magnitude and direction of the normal
force exerted by m2 on the m1 and the normal force exerted by the table on the m2.

Problem 3
Object’s mass (m) = 2 kg, acceleration of gravity (g) = 9.8 m/s 2, angle = 30o. Find magnitude and
direction of the normal force exerted on the object.

Problem 4
A force of 18 N acts on a particle, of mass 7.5 kg, at an angle of 30 ◦ above the horizontal. The
particle is on a rough horizontal plane. Given that the particle is on the point of slipping, what is
the coefficient of friction, between the particle and the plane?

18 N
o
30
F

Problem 5
An object slides down an inclined plane with constant velocity. Determine coefficient kinetic
friction (μk). g = 9.8 m/s2

Problem 6
1 kg box is pulled along a horizontal surface by a force F, so the box is moving at a constant
velocity. If the coefficient kinetic friction is 0.1, determine the magnitude of the force F! (g = 9.8
m/s2)

Problem 7
A box is sliding up an incline that makes an angle of 20 degrees with respect to the horizontal.
The coefficient of kinetic friction between the box and the surface of the incline is 0.2. The
initial speed of the box at the bottom of the incline is 2 m/s. How far does the box travel along
the incline before coming to rest?
Problem 8
A block weighing 80 N rests on a plane inclined at 30 degrees to the horizontal. The coefficients
of static and kinetic friction are 0.2 and 0.1 respectively. What is the minimum magnitude of the
force F, parallel to the plane, that will prevent the block from slipping?

References:

Solvephysics.com. 2020. Physics Problems and Solutions: How To Solve Physics Problems:
Efficient Methods. [online] Available at: <http://www.solvephysics.com/> [Accessed 21
November 2020].

Basic Physics. 2020. Basic Physics. [online] Available at: <https://physics.gurumuda.net/>

[Accessed 20 November 2020].

Physicslab.org. 2020. Welcome To Physicslab!. [online] Available at:

<http://www.physicslab.org/> [Accessed 21 November 2020].
 IV. WEDGE, SQUARE THREADED SCREW, AND BELT FRICTION

I. Wedge
Wedge is commonly known as a piece of hard material with two main faces that converge at
a sharply acute angle by applying a pounding or pushing force to lift, hold or break objects as
a hammer. In general, a wedge is a triangular object that is either positioned between two
objects to keep them in place or used to move one relative to the other.

But a normal person, specially, a girl, when we ask her “What is a wedge?” For sure, she will
definitely answer a “the footwear? Wedge shoes?”. But try asking a carpenter, and he will
answer you “Wedges is always with woodworking.” How about an engineering student? Let me,
give you a way to understand the friction on the wedge.

One thing is common in the illustration above and that is the shape idea of a wedge. A sharp
acute angle piece of hard material. And when we say, friction – it is a force between two surfaces
that are sliding, or trying to slide, across each other and with the structure of a wedge, if it will be
moved, the objects that are connected on it will definitely change position as well.

The friction on a wedge gives a good rule to stick – the pressures on the faces will all be in the
same direction while a wedge is in operation. That is either against the point of the wedge or
away from it. In reality, friction is always present between any two surfaces in contact which
may be moving with respect to each other or impending to move.

If the force P is large enough to

push the wedge forward, then the
block will rise and the following is
an appropriate free-body diagram.
One has to have a slide on all three surfaces to move the wedge. The direction of the friction
force will offset the sliding on each board. Because each surface must resolve the resistance to
slipping before the wedge can pass, one can presume that

F1 = μN1 F2 = μN2 F3 = μN3

The wedge would be moved to

the right if the force P is not
high enough to hold the top
block from going down, and
the necessary free-body
diagram is as follows.
Remember that the only
alteration is the direction of the
powers of friction.

The application of friction on a wedge can be seen in different circumstances other than on
friction problem solving sheet. The wedge footwear, in order to made one of this, there must be a
calculation on the weight of wedge and what kind of rubber must be in put on the sole and heel
part of the footwear, specifically under the wedge, to cause friction so the person wearing it
would not slide or be slipped. While in the carpentry, the usual material used for wedges are
wood, so basically, it has its own roughness and friction.

Illustrative Problems
Example 1
Determine the force P required to start the wedge shown. The angle of friction for all surfaces in
contact is 20°.

Step 1: Use the equilibrium to get the value of R 2

and R3.
ΣFV = 0
R1cos20° = R2sin20°+ 250
R1 = 0.3640R2 + 266.04

ΣFH=0
R2cos20° = R1sin20° + 75
R2cos20° = (0.3640R2 + 266.04) sin20° + 75
0.9397R2 = 166.12N
R2 = 176.77N

ΣFH=0
R3cos40° = R2cos20°
R3cos40° = 176.77cos20°
R3 = 216.84N

ΣFV=0
P = R2sin20° + R3sin40°
P = 176.77sin20° +
216.84sin40°
P = 94.34N

Example 2
A force 'P' is applied in a downward direction to a
wedge. The wedge bears against a stationary plane to
the left with a 6º angle to the vertical. The right plane
of the wedge is vertical. The wedge is used to move a
block 2000 N to the right. All surfaces have a
coefficient of static friction of 0.30. Find 'P'.
 Step 1: Start with the known weight. The FBD is shown. The
direction of the frictional force on the bottom of the block is
easily determined; it opposes the direction of impending motion
which is to the right.

Step 2: Create equations based on the given

formula of friction.

Fw Fb
µs = tan (φs) = 0.30 = =
Nw Nb

Thus Fw = 0.30Nw
Fb = 0.30 Nb

ΣFy = -3000 + Nb - Fw
ΣFx = -Fb + Nw
ΣFy = 0 = -3000 + Nb - 0.30 Nw
ΣFx = 0 = -30 Nb + Nw

Step 3: Solve by Elimination. Divide ΣFx by 0.30 then add to ΣFy

ΣFy = 0 = -3000 + Nb - 0.30 Nw

ΣFx = 0 = - Nb + 3.33Nw
= -3000 + 0 + 3.03Nw
Nw = 989N→

ΣFy = 0 = -3000 + Nb - 0.30(989)

Nb = 3297N ↑

Step 4: Substitute the value of Nw and Nb to get the value of Fw and Fb.
Fw = 0.30Nw
Fw = 0.30(989)
Fw = 297N ↓

Fb = 0.30Nb
Fb = 0.30(2397)
Fb = 989N ←

Step 5: Now develop a FBD of the wedge.

 Use the Pythagorean theorem to find Rw

 Determine friction angle φ
 Develop the force triangle using known values
 Solve with the law of sines

φs = tan-1 (0.3) =
16.7°
= 90 – φs = 73.3°
γ = 90 -(φs + 15) =
58.3°
β = 180 - 73.3 -
58.3 = 48.4°
 P 1033 N
=
sin 48.4 sin 58.3

P = 908N

Example 3

A wedge A of negligible weight is to be driven between

two 450 N plates B and C. The coefficient of static
friction between all surfaces of contact is 0.35.
Determine the magnitude of the force P required to start
moving the wedge (a) if the plates are equally free to
move, (b) if plate C is securely bolted to the surface.

φs = tan-1
µs = tan-1(0.35) = 19.2900°

Step 1: Use Sine Law to find the value of R1

R1 450 N
=
sin 19.29° sin 31.42°

R1 = 285.162 N

Step 2: Now develop a FBD of the wedge.

R3 = R1 = 285.162 N
β = 19.29° + 20° = 39.29°
P = 2R1sinβ
P = 2(285.162) sin39.29°
P = 361.16N

II. Square Threaded Screw

The square thread form is a common screw thread form, used in high load applications such
as leadscrews and jackscrews. It gets its name from the square cross-section of the thread. It
is the lowest friction and most efficient thread form, but it is difficult to fabricate. It is also
the most efficient thread form owing to thread flanks that are perpendicular to the thread axis
that has no side thrust and higher efficiency which is used for general purpose power
transmission.

At

most, squared threaded screw is quite

unfamiliar to an ordinary student, so here is some explanation what a squared threaded screw is.

In area where different machines are needed, we can easily find this type of screw. It is mostly
used for fast attaching of different parts of machines. As definition stated, it is the most efficient
since, it has the lowest friction and no side thrust.

Square threads are defined as follows by ISO standards:

Sq60 times 9
where Sq designates a square thread, 60 is the nominal diameter in millimeters, and 9 is the
pitch in millimeters. When there is no suffix it is a single start thread. If there is a suffix then the
value after the multiplication sign is the lead and the value in the parentheses is the pitch.
For example:
Sq60 times 18 (P9) LH –
would denote two starts, as the lead divided by the pitch is two. The "LH" denotes a left-
hand thread.

Standard Pitches for Metric Diamete

Nominal Diameter (mm) Pitch (mm)

22, 24, 26, 28 5

 30, 32, 36 6

40, 44 7

48, 50, 52 8

55, 60 9

65, 70, 75, 80 10

85, 90, 95, 100 12

Illustrative Problems

Example 1
The ends of two fixed rods A and B are each made in the form of a single-threaded screw of
mean radius 6 mm and pitch 2 mm. Rod A has a right-handed thread and rod B has a left-handed
thread. The coefficient of static friction between the rods and the threaded sleeve is 0.15.
Determine the magnitude of the couple that must be applied to the sleeve in order to draw the
rods closer together.

Step 1: Solve for the value of screw at A

 2 mm
tan θ =
2 π (6 mm)
θ = 3.037°

φs = tan-1 (0.15)
φs = 8.531°

Q = (3kN) tan11.568°
Q = 614.1N

Step 2: Solve the Moment at A = Qr

MA = (614.1N) (6mm)
MA = 3.68Nm

Example 2
A clamp is used to hold two pieces of wood together as shown. The clamp has a double square
thread of mean diameter equal to 12 mm with a pitch of 2 mm. The coefficient of friction
between threads is µs = 0.30. If a maximum torque of 50 Nm is applied in tightening the clamp,
determine (a) the force exerted on the pieces of wood, and (b) the torque required to loosen the
clamp.

Step 1: Calculate lead angle and pitch angle.

L 2(2 mm)
tan θ = = = 0.1061
2 πr 12 πmm
θ = 6.06°
tan φs = µs = 0.30
φs = 16.7
Step 2: Use the block and plane analogy with impending motion up the plane to calculate the
clamping force with a force triangle.

Qr = 50Nm
50 Nm
Q=
6 mm
Q
tan (θ + φs) =
W
8.3 kN
W=
tan 22.76 °
W = 19.78kN

Step 3: Calculate the force and moment required to loosen the clamp.

Q
tan (φs - θ) =
W
Q = (19.78kN) (tan10.64°)
Q = 3.716kN

Moment = Qr = (3.716kN)
(5mm)
Qr = (3716N) (0.005m)
Moment = 18.58Nm

Example 3
The square-threaded worm
gear shown has a mean radius
of 35 mm and a lead of 6.5
mm. The large gear is subjected to a constant clockwise couple of
650 Nm. Knowing that the coefficient of static friction between
the two gears is 0.15, determine the couple that must be applied to
shaft AB in order to rotate the large gear counterclockwise.
Neglect friction in the bearings at A, B, and C.

Step 1: Solve the value of W using equilibrium method.

↺+ΣMC = 0
(0.25m) W – 650Nm = 0
W = 2600N

Step 2: Use the tangent of

the angle and given static
friction to solve for Q.
6.5 mm
θ = tan-1 =
2 π (35 mm)
1.6930°

φs = tan-1 µs = tan-1 0.15

φs = 8.5308
Q = W tan (θ + φs)
Q = (2600N) tan 10.2238°
Q = 468.929N

Step 3: Substitute the value of Q and r to get the couple applied

to shaft AB.

↺+ΣMC = 0
r = 35mm = 0.035m

(0.035m) (468.929N) – M = 0
M = 16.41Nm
 III. Belt Friction
Belt friction is a concept that describes the forces of friction between a belt and a surface. When
a force applies tension to one end of a belt or rope wrapped around a curved surface, with the
amount of wrap around the curved surface, the frictional force between the two surfaces rises and
only half of the force (or associated belt tension) is transferred to the other end of the belt or
rope.

There are various kind of belt such as flat belt and the V belt.

Flat belts are designed for light-duty power transmission and high-performance
conveying. They are best-suited for applications with smaller pulleys and large central
distances. Flat belts can connect inside and outside pulleys and can come in both endless
and jointed construction.

V-Belts are the most common type of drive belt used for power transmission. Their
primary function is to transmit power from a primary source, like a motor, to a secondary
driven unit. They provide the best combination of traction, speed transfer, load
distribution, and extended service life.

The reason why V belt is used for heavy duty machineries because it has a rough surface, that is
more suitable to have greater friction than flat belt. In addition, according to Belt Theory – a
change in belt tension due to friction forces will cause the belt to elongate or contract and move
relative to the surface of the pulley. This motion is caused by elastic creep and is associated with
static friction as opposed to static friction. The action at the driving pulley, through that portion
of the angle of contact that is actually transmitting power is just that the belt moves slowly than
the surface speed of the pulley because of the elastic creep Firbank et al (2001).
Belt Tension
In practice a spring-loaded wheel pushing against the belt is used to tension the belt. The tension
will be the same along its whole length and equal to F. When transmitting power, the driven
wheel will be reluctant to turn and the driving wheel has to pull it and exert a torque on it.
Consequently, the tension in the side pulling will increase to T1 but the tension in the other side
will decrease to T2. The increase in tension on the tight side of the belt is equal to decrease on
the slack side so the sum of the tensions remains the same.

Illustrative Problems

Example 1
A flat belt is used to transmit a couple from drum B to drum A. Knowing that the coefficient of
static friction is 0.40 and that the allowable belt tension is 450 N, determine the largest couple
that can be exerted on drum A.
 π 7π
βA = 180° + 30° = π + =
6 6
π 5π
βB = 180° - 30° = π – =
6 6

Step 1: Since βB < βA, slipping will impend first on B, since the friction coefficients are
equal.

T2 = Tmax = T1 e µsβs
450N = T1 e (0.4)5π/6
T1 = 157.914 N

↺+ΣMA = 0
Step 2: Use equilibrium to get the value of MA

MA + (0.12m) (T1-T2) = 0
MA + (0.12 m) (450N – 157.917N)
MA = 35.05Nm

Example 2
A flat belt connects pulley A to pulley B. The coefficients of friction are µs = 0.25 and µk = 0.20
between both pulleys and the belt. Knowing that the maximum allowable tension in the belt is
450 N, determine the largest torque which can be exerted by the belt on pulley A.

Step 1: Since angle of contact is smaller, slippage will occur on pulley B first. Determine belt
tensions based on pulley B.

T2
= e µsβ
T1

450 N
= e (0.25) (2π/3) = 1.688
T1

450 N
T1 = = 266.6N
1.688
Step 2: Taking pulley, A as a free-body, sum moments
about pulley center to determine torque.

↺+ΣMA = 0
MA – (450N) (0.2m) + (266.6N) (0.2m) = 0
MA = 36.68N

Example 3
A flat belt is used to transmit a couple from pulley A to pulley B. The radius of each pulley is 70
mm, and a force of magnitude P = 800 N is applied as shown to the axle of pulley A. Knowing
that the coefficient of static friction is 0.35, determine (a) the largest couple that can be
transmitted, (b) the corresponding maximum value of the tension in the belt.

Step 1: Solve the value of T2

Drum A:
 T2
= e µsπ = e (0.35) π
T1
T2 = 3.0028T1

Step 2: Since the largest couple that can be transmitted

Torque:

↺+ΣMA = 0
Β = 180° = π radians

M – (T2) (0.07m) + (T1) (0.07m)

Step 3: Use equilibrium to get the value of T1

and T2.

ΣFx = 0
T1 + T2 – 800N = 0
T1 + 3.0028T1 – 800N = 0
4.0028T1 = 800N
T1 = 199.860N
T2 = 3.0028 (199.860N) = 600.14N
Tmax = 600.14N

Step 4: After getting the value of T1 and T2, substitute it on to the equation.
M – (600.14N) (0.07m) + (199.86N) (0.07m)
M = 28.02Nm

Solve the following problems.

Problem 1
The square-threaded bolt is used to join two plates together. If the bolt has a mean diameter of d
= 30 mm and a lead of l = 5 mm, determine the smallest torque M required to loosen the bolt if
the axial tension in the bolt is W = 70 kN. The coefficient of static friction between the threads
and the bolt is µs = 0.25. Answer: 204.1Nm

Problem 2
 Block A supports a pipe column and rests as shown on wedge B. Knowing that the
coefficient of static friction at all surfaces of contact is 0.25 and that θ = 45°, determine the
smallest force P required to raise block A. Answer: 16.4286kN

Problem 3
The two blocks used in a measuring device have negligible weight. The spring has constant k =
20 lb/in, and is compressed 5 in. when in the position shown. The end of the screw is smooth and
the coefficient of static friction at all other points of contact is µs = 0.3. (Hint: This is a wedge
problem, not a screw problem.)
A. Draw the free body diagrams for blocks A and B.
B. Determine the minimum horizontal applied force P required to move block B to the
right (and downward). Answer: 39.6lb

Problem 4
The coefficient of static friction between block B
and the horizontal surface and between the rope and
support C is 0.40. Knowing that mA = 12 kg,
determine the smallest mass of block B for which
equilibrium is maintained. Answer: 16.00 kg

Problem 5
A 120 mm-radius pulley of weight 25 N is attached to a 30 mm-
radius shaft that fits loosely in a fixed bearing. It is observed that
the pulley will just start rotating if a 2.5-N weight is added to
block A. Determine the coefficient of static friction between the
shaft and the bearing. Answer: 0.0657
Problem 6
A couple MB is applied to the drive drum B to maintain a constant speed in the polishing belt
shown. Knowing that µk = 0.45 between the belt and the 35-kg block being polished and µs =
0.25 between the belt and the drive drum
B, determine (a) the couple MB, (b) the
minimum tension in the lower portion of
the belt if no slipping is to occur between
the belt and the drive drum.
Answer: MB = 12.36Nm; Tmin =
129.483N

Problem 7
In the gear-pulling assembly shown the square-threaded screw AB has a mean radius of 15 mm
and a lead of 6 mm. Knowing that the coefficient of static friction is 0.25, determine the couple
that must be applied to the screw in order to produce a force of 4 kN on the gear. Neglect friction
at end A of the screw. Answer: Couple = 19.124Nm

Problem 8
The machine part ABC is supported by a frictionless
hinge at B and a 10° wedge at C. Knowing that the
coefficient of static friction is 0.20 at both surfaces
of the wedge, determine (a) the force P required to
move the wedge to the left, (b) the components of the
corresponding reaction at B. Answer: P = 348.68N;
Bx = -419.5N, By = 591N
References:

Durowoju M.O., Sangotayo E. O., & Orowole I. A. (2014). Performance Evaluation of

Friction Belt Apparatus UsingIndigenous Materials. International Journal of Modern
Engineering Research. Vol. 4_ Iss. 4

Bhattacharjya, R. K. (2009). Engineering Mechanics. Department of Civil Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati.

Choi, H. J. Chapter 8: Friction. School of Mechanical Engineering. (Retrieved from:

http://isdl.cau.ac.kr/education.data/statics/ch8.pdf)

The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (2010). Static Friction Force. Vector Mechanics for
Engineers.

V. CENTROID
Centroid is the point corresponding to the geometric center of an object; probably one of
the major underlying factors in engineering mechanics. It is applied to minimize the stress and
energy in a design so that the component is stable. It is also necessary in stress and deflection
analysis of a beam. In order to have a stability the centroid should be located carefully. For
example, in rotating shafts if the axis had some eccentricity then it can tear apart the machine,
this is just a simple example. In practical application centroid is very important like in designing
ships etc. For calculating area moment of inertia, again centroid is important.

Centroid refers to the geometrical center of a plane figure: a curve, area or volume. It is
the average position of all the points of an object. The centroid is the centre point of the object.
The point in which the three medians of the triangle intersect is known as the centroid of a
triangle. It is also defined as the point of intersection of all the three medians. The median is a
line that joins the midpoint of a side and the opposite vertex of the triangle. The centroid of the
triangle separates the median in the ratio of 2: 1. It can be found by taking the average of x-
coordinate points and y-coordinate points of all the vertices of the triangle.

Centroid Theorem
The centroid theorem states that the centroid of the triangle is at 2/3 of the distance from
the vertex to the mid-point of the sides.

Centroidal Axes are the lines passing through the centroid of the figure. The vertical centroidal
axis is represented by line Y and the horizontal centroidal axis is donoted as line X. When
calculating for the location of the centroid, there are perpendicular lines selected and used as
reference lines. These are called the Reference Axes.

Properties of Centroid
The properties of the centroid are as follows:

 The centroid is the centre of the object.

 It is the centre of gravity.
 It should always lie inside the object.
 It is the point of concurrency of the medians.
Centroid Formula
Let’s consider a triangle. If the three vertices of the triangle are A(x 1, y1), B(x2, y2), C(x3, y3),
then the centroid of a triangle can be calculated by taking the average of X and Y coordinate
points of all three vertices. Therefore, the centroid of a triangle can be written as:
Centroid of a triangle = ((x1+x2+x3)/3, (y1+y2+y3)/3)

Location of Centroid of Composite Figures

In engineering, numerous figures are composed of different geometric figures combined to
create a composite section. There are structural elements with predetermined location of
centroids which are available on different references. In some cases, these figures can be divided
into finite shapes, in which respective centroid is known. The moment of the total area is equal to
the summation of the moments of each part along a reference axis. This is very similar to that of
Varignon’s Theorem, only this time, we are dealing with the component regular shapes instead

equations: 𝑨𝒙̄ = ∑ , for centroid with respect to x – axis and 𝑨𝒚̄ = ∑ 𝒂𝒚 , for centroid with
of the component forces. The centroid of composite figure is determined using the following

respect to y – axis
Centroid of an Area
The centroid of an area can be thought of as the geometric center of that area. The
location of the centroid is often denoted with a 'C' with the coordinates being x̄ and ȳ, denoting
that they are the average x and y coordinate for the area.
Centroid of a Line

The centroid of a straight line is located at its midpoint. However, for a shape made up of
multiple straight-line segments, its centroidal location can be found as

where xi yi zi represent the centroidal coordinates of the i th line segment. In applying Eq. (1), we
are free to choose any reference coordinate system that simplifies the calculation of the centroid.
Using the moment-of-a-force analogy, the numerator in Eq. (1) represents the sum of "moments"
produced by the individual line segments, and the denominator represents the total line length.

Centroid Formula For Different Shapes

Here, the list of centroid formula is given for different geometrical shapes.
Illustrative Problems

Example 1
Find the centroid of the triangle whose vertices are A(1, 1), B(3, 2), and C(4,0).
 Solution

Given:
A (x1, y1) = A (1, 1)
B (x2, y2) = B (3,2)
C (x3, y3) = C (4,0)
Required: Centroid of the triangle
Solution:
We know that the formula to find the centroid of a triangle is = ((x 1+x2+x3)/3,
(y1+y2+y3)/3)
Now, substitute the given values in the formula
Centroid of a triangle = ((1+3+4)/3, (1+2+0)/3)
= (8/3, 3/3)
= (8/3, 1)
Therefore, the centroid of the triangle for the given vertices A(1, 1), B(3,2), and C(4,0) is
(8/3, 1)
Example 2
If the vertices of a triangle PQR is (2, 1), (3, 2) and (-2, 4). Then find the centroid of it.

Solution

Given:
S (x1, y1) = S (2, 1)
T (x2, y2) = T (3,2)
U (x3, y3) = U (-2,4)
Required: Centroid of the triangle
Solution:
We know that the formula to find the centroid of a triangle is = ((x 1+x2+x3)/3,
(y1+y2+y3)/3)
Now, substitute the given values in the formula
Centroid of a triangle = ((2+3+(-2))/3, (1+2+4)/3)
O = (3/3, 7/3)
O = (1, 7/3)
Therefore, the centroid of the triangle for the given vertices S(2, 1), T(3,2), and U(-2,4) is
(1, 7/3)
Example 3
Determine the coordinates of the centroid of the area shown in figure below.

Solution

Given:
Height of the triangle = 2 units
Diameter of the semicircle = 1 unit
Required: Centroid of the figure
Solution:
We know that in finding the area of a composite figures, it should be divided into parts.
In the shown figure above, it can be divided into two parts the triangle part and the
semicircle part.
This table show the division and the values solved in finding the centroid of the figure.
Parts Area x y xA yA

Triangle 1 1/3 or 0.33 1.33 1/3 1.33

Semicircle 0.3927 ½ or 0.5 2.318 0.19635 0.911

Total 1.3927 0.52635 2.241

Where,
𝑥̄= ∑ 𝑎𝑥/𝐴
𝑥̄= 0.52635/1.3927
𝑥̄= 0.3803 units
𝑦̄= ∑ 𝑎𝑦/ 𝐴
𝑦̄= 2.241/1.3927
 𝑦̄= 1.6 units
Therefore, the centroid of the figure given is at 𝑥̄= 0.3803 and 𝑦̄= 1.6.

Example 4
Determine the coordinates of the centroid of the area shown in figure below.

Solution

Given:
Side of the square = 2 units
Height and base of the triangle = 2 units
Required: Centroid of the figure
Solution:
We know that in finding the area of composite figures, it should be divided into parts. In
the shown figure above, it can be divided into two parts the square part and the triangle
part.
This table show the division and the values solved in finding the centroid of the figure.
Parts Area x y xA yA

Square 4 1 1 4 4
 Triangle 2 2.67 1.33 5.34 2.66

Total 6 9.34 6.66

Where,
𝑥̄= ∑ 𝑎𝑥/𝐴
𝑥̄= 9.34/6
𝑥̄= 1.557
𝑦̄= ∑ 𝑎𝑦/ 𝐴
𝑦̄= 6.66/6
𝑦̄= 1.11
Therefore, the centroid of the figure given is at 𝑥̄= 1.557 and 𝑦̄= 1.11

Example 5
Determine the coordinates of the centroid of the area shown in figure below.

Solution
 Given:
Length of the rectangle = 6 units
Height and base of the triangle = 3 and 2 units respectively
Required: Centroid of the figure
Solution:
We know that in finding the area of composite figures, it should be divided into parts. In
the shown figure above, it can be divided into three parts the rectangle part, semicircle
part and the triangle part.
This table show the division and the values solved in finding the centroid of the figure.
Parts Area x y Ax Ay

Rectangle 18 5 1.5 90 27

Triangle 3 4/3 1 4 3

Semicircle 3.53 8.64 1.5 30.5 5.295

Total 24.53 124.5 35.295

Where,
𝑥̄= ∑ 𝑎𝑥/𝐴
𝑥̄= 124.5/24.53
𝑥̄= 5.08 units
𝑦̄= ∑ 𝑎𝑦/ 𝐴
𝑦̄= 35.295/24.53
𝑦̄= 1.439 units
Therefore, the centroid of the figure given is at 𝑥̄= 5.08 units and 𝑦̄= 1.439 units
Solve for the following problems.
Problem 1
Triangle ABC has vertices A=(3,4), B=(5,12), C=(8,15). What are the coordinates of the centroid
of triangle ABC? Ans. Centroid=(16/3,31/3)

Problem 2
Triangle QRS has vertices A=(2,4), B=(6,9), C=(7,11). What are the coordinates of the centroid
of triangle QRS? Ans. Centroid=(5,8)

Problem 3
The centroid of a triangle is (- 1, - 2) and co-ordinates of its two vertices are (4, 6) and (- 8, - 12).
Find the co-ordinates of its third vertex. Ans. (1, 0)

Problem 4
Solve for the x and y components of the centroid of this figure.

Ans. x= 2.63 and y=1.7

Problem 5
Solve for the x and y components of the centroid of this figure using the centroid of the five lines
given.
 Ans. x= 5 units and y=6 units at point (3,4)

Problem 6
Solve for the x and y components of the centroid of this figure.

Ans. x= 56.87m and y=25.76m

Problem 7
Solve for the x and y components of the centroid of this figure.
 Ans. x=15mm and y=10.96

Problem 8
Solve for the x and y components of the centroid of this figure.

Ans.x=14.24m and y=23.38m

References
Retrieved from https://byjus.com/maths/centroid/#:~:text=The%20centroid%20is%20the
%20centre,opposite%20vertex%20of%20the%20triangle retrieved November 18, 2020
Retrieved from https://www.geogebra.org/m/nbexg5v9#:~:text=This%20applet
%20illustrates%20computation%20of,average%20of%20its%20corner%20points%2C
%20. . retrieved November 18, 2020
Retrieved from http://exampleproblems.com/wiki/index.php/Centroid retrieved November
18, 2020

VI.
 VI. THEOREMS OF PAPPUS

OBJECTIVES:

o To use the theorems of Pappus and Guldinus for finding the area and volume for a
surface of revolution.

 Pappus of Alexandria, a Greek geometrician who lived in the 3rd century A.D. discovered
two theorems for determining the surface area or volume generated by revolving a plane
curve or a plane area about an imaginary axis in the plane. The name of Guldinus (Paul
Guldin, 1577-1643) was also associated in these theorems after the Swiss mathematician
claimed its authorship.

 The theorems of Pappus-Guldinus provide relatively simple methods for calculating surface
areas and volumes of bodies of revolution, utilizing first moments of curves and areas.

 By understanding the main concept of these theorems one can substantially simplify some
problems involving volumes and areas, so the theorem in any case be valuable, particularly
when related with techniques from analytics.

 Let’s assume that we have a generic planar curve, which we’ll call the generator. This can be
a line section or a circular arc. As long as it lies on a plane, it will do something. The
generator can “sweep” an area in space if we rotate the generator around an axis lying on its
plane that does not cross the generator. The first theorem of Pappus states:
 Theorem I. Area.
The area A of a surface of revolution equals the product of the length of the generating
curve and the distance travelled by the centroid of the curve in generating the surface area.
That is:

A=∅ r L

Where θ is the angle of revolution (radians), r is the perpendicular distance from

the axis of revolution to the centroid of the generating curve and L is the total length of
the generating curve.

 The following table summarizes the surface areas and volumes calculated using Pappus’s
centroid theorem for various solids and surfaces of revolution. (Kern and Bland 1948, pp.
110-111).
 Solid Generating curve s x S

Cone Inclined line √ r 2 +h2 1

r πr √ r 2 +h 2
segment 2

Cylinder Parallel line h r 2 πrh

segment

Sphere Semicircle πr 2π 4πr

2

 Theorem II. Volume.

The volume V of a body of revolution equals the product of the generating area
and the distance traveled by the centroid of the area in generating the volume. That is:

V =∅ r A

where θ is the angle of revolution (radians), ), r is the perpendicular distance from the
axis of revolution to the centroid of the generating area and A is the generating area.

 The following table summarizes the surface areas and volumes calculated using Pappus’s
centroid theorem for various solids and surfaces of revolution. (Kern and Bland 1948, pp.
110-111).

Solid Generating lamina A x V

Cone Right triangle 1 1 1 2

hr r πr h
2 3 3

Cylinder Rectangle hr 1 πr h
2
r
2

Sphere Semicircle 1 2 4r 4 3
πr πr
2 3π 3

 Composite Shapes. These two theorems may also be applied to lines or areas that may be
composed of a series of composite parts. In this case, the total surface area or volume
 generated is the sum of the surface areas of volumes generated by each of the composite
parts:
where ~r is the distance from the axis of revolution to the centroid of each composite part
(remember that each part undergoes the same angle of revolution θ).

Illustrative Problems

Example 1
Identify the volume of steel extracted during the
countersinking process as the hole countersunk on a piece of
steel.

SOLUTION:

The required volume can be generated by rotating the area

shown about the y-axis. By an angle of revolution ∅ =360 ° apply
the second theorem of Pappus-Guldinus, we have V =∅ r A where
θ is the angle of revolution (radians), r is the perpendicular
distance from the axis of revolution to the centroid of the
generating area and A is the generating area. Fig. a is used to locate
the centroid for a triangle and the area of the given figure. Hence,
the volume of the steel extracted during the countersinking process is, (a)

V =∅ r A

[ 1
=2 π 0.9525+ ( 0.635 ) cm
3
1
2 ][ ]
( 0.635 ) ( 0.635 ) cm = 1.4747 c m3

3
V =1.4747 c m
3
Ans. V =1.4747 c m

Example 2
The outside diameter of a pulley is 0.8 m,
and the cross section of its rim is as shown.
Knowing that the pulley is made of steel and that
the density of steel is determined the mass and
weight of the rim. ρ=7.85× 1 03 kg/m3
SOLUTION:

•Apply the theorem of Pappus-Guldinus to evaluate the volumes or

revolution for the rectangular rim section and the inner cutout
section. By applying Theorem II, this states that the volume equals
the product of the given cross-sectional area and the distance
traveled by its centroid in one complete revolution. However, the
volume can be more easily determined if we observe that the cross
section can be formed from rectangle I, whose area is positive, and
rectangle II, whose area is negative.

Fig. Area, cm2 y , cm Volume, cm3

I 40.5 47.75 2 π ( 47.75 )(40.5)=12087.27773

II -12.5 46.75 2 π ( 46.75 )(-12.5)=

-3652.10146

Volume of rim= 8435.17627 cm3

•Multiply by density and acceleration to get the mass and acceleration.

3 kg 3
m=ρV =(7.85 ×1 0 3
)( 8435.17627 c m )¿
m

W =mg ( 66.21613372 kg )
( 9.81s m )=W =649.5802718 N
2

m=66.2161 kg

W =649.5803 N
Example 3
A steel wheel has a diameter of 840 mm and a
cross section as shown in the figure. Determine the total
MG
mass of the wheel if ρ=5 3 .
m

SOLUTION

Volume: The FBD in fig. a shows Applying the Theorem II of Pappus and
Guldinus, which states that the volume equals the product of the given cross-sectional
area and the distance traveled by its centroid in one complete revolution

2
r 1=0.095 m, r 2=0.235 m , r 3=0.39 m , A 1=0.01 ( 0.03 )=0.003 m
2 2
A2=0.025 ( 0.03 )=0.0075 m ∧ A 3=( 0.1 ) ( 0.06 ) =0.006 m

we have,

V =∅ ∑ r A=2 π [ 0.095 ( 0.003 ) +0.235 ( 0.0075 )+ 0.39 ( 0.006 ) ] =8.775 π ×1 0 m

−3 3

The mass of the wheel is

m=ρV =5 ( 10 3 ) [ 8.775 × 10−3 π ]=¿ 138 kg

Example 4 138 kg
Answers:
The circular tube and flange was formed
in a die by impacting an aluminum slug with a
punch. Determine the amount of aluminum
necessary to make it. The tube is a full circular
part. Its cross section is shown in the figure.
SOLUTION:

We will break the cross section into three

rectangles shown.

A=( 6∈. ) ( 0.4∈. ) +¿

y A=( 6 ∈. )( 0.4 ∈. ) (2.2 )+ ¿

Applying the Theorem II of Pappus and Guldinus, states that the volume equals the product of
the given cross-sectional area and the distance traveled by its centroid in one complete
revolution. The total volume needed is

V =2 π y A=2 π ( 65.512 i n3 )=411.6240358i n3

3
411.6240 in

Example 5
Determine the surface area of the
concrete sea wall, excluding its bottom.

SOLUTION

Surface Area:Applying Theorem of

Pappus and Guldinus. According to Theorem I of Pappus-Guldinus, the area generated is
equal to the product of the length of the arc and the distance traveled by its centroid.

∅= ( 180
50
) π = 185 πrad ,L ¿ 9.2 m ,L ¿ 2.5 m ,L ¿ √ 2.1 + 9.2 =9.4366 m
1 2 3
2 2
 r 1=22.9 m , r 2=21.65 m∧r 3=19.35 m

5
A1=∅ ∑ r L= π [ 22.9 ( 9.2 )+ 21.65 ( 2.5 ) +19.35 ( 9.3466 ) ] =388.9132m
2
18

The surface area of two sides of the wall is

1 2
A2=2[ ( 2.5+ 4.6 ) ( 9.2 ) ]=65.32 m
2

Thus the total surface area is

2 2
A ¿ A1 + A2=388.9132 m +65.32 m
2
¿ 454.2332 m
2
¿ 454.2332 m

Ans. A=454.2332 m 2

Solve for the following problems.

Problem 1
A ring is formed by rotating the area 360° about the x –
x axes. Determine its volume.

Problem 2
Determine the surface area A and volume V of the solid
body generated by revolving the shaded are through an angle of
360 ° about the y-axis.

Problem 3
 Determine the outside surface area and the volume of the storage tank.

Problem 4
The water tank has a paraboloid-shaped roof. If one
liter of paint can cover 3 m 2 of the tank, determine the number
of liters required to coat the roof.

Problem 5
Determine the height h to which liquid should be poured
into the cup so that it contacts three-fourths the surface area on the
inside of the cup. Neglect the cup’s thickness for the calculation.

Problem 6
Three different drive belt profiles are to be studied.
If at any given time each belt makes contact with one-half
of the circumference of its pulley, determine the contact
area between the belt and the pulley for each design.

Problem 7
 The escutcheon (a decorative plate placed on a pipe where the pipe exits from a wall)
shown is cast from brass. Knowing that the density of brass is 8470 kg/m 3, determine the mass of
the escutcheon.

Problem 8
Determine the volume and the surface area of the solid
obtained by rotating the area about (a) the line y = 0.23 ft., (b) the x-
axis.

A= 0.03 ft2, x=0.118 ft , y=0.157

ANSWER KEY

1 7
V =1.026 × 1 0 mm
3

2 A=780.3012i n
2

3
V =122.3260 i n

3 A=396.1572409 m 2∨3.96 ×1 02 m2

V= 824. 6680716 m 3∨8.25 ×1 02 m3

4 144.769 liters

5 h= 4.33 m

6 (a). 54.1607 c m2
(b) 42.5257 c m2
(c). 47.249 c m2
−4
7 3.3101607 ×1 0 kg

8 Volume=0.02959 f t
3

2
Area=0.76758 f t

References:
Beer, F. P., Johnston, E., & Mazurek, D. F. (2013). Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics 10th
Edition. McGraw-Hill Education.

Kern, W. F. and Bland, J. R. “Theorem of Pappus.” Solid Mensuration with Proofs, 2 nd ed. New
York: Wiley, pp. 110-115, 1948.

Kraige, L.G., & Meriam, J.L. (2012). Engineering Mechanics Statics 7th Edition. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.

VII. MOMENT OF INERTIA

 The formula ∫ p dA is the basis of most mathematical and engineering formula
2

particularly those relating to strength of beams, columns, and deflection of beams. This formula,
where p is the perpendicular distance from dA to the axis of inertia appears so frequently that it
has been named moment of inertia. Moment of inertia is a quantitative measure of the rotational
inertia of a body in terms of physics. It is also considered as the second moment area, since the
first moment y dA is multiplied by the moment arm y to obtain the second moment of the element
dA.

The formula ∫ p dA which is the mathematical definition of moment of inertia indicates

2

that an area is divided into small parts such as dA, and each area is multiplied by the square of its
moment arm about the reference axis. Thus, as shown in the figure above, if the coordinates of
the center of the differential area dA are (x,y), the moment of inertia about the x axis is the
summation of the product of each area dA by the square of its moment arm y. This gives

I x =∫ y dA
2

Similarly, the moment of inertia about the y axis is given by

I y =∫ x dA
2

Polar Moment of Inertia

It is the moment of inertia for an area relative to a line or axis perpendicular to the plane
of the area. Since, the moment of inertia of dA about the point of origin (z) is Iz=r2 dA that can
also be ascribed as dJz=r2 dA, therefore the polar moment of inertia is

J z=∫ r dA
2

The equation of polar moment of inertia can also transcribed to

 J z=I x + I y

Since by Pythagorean Theorem, r2=x2+y2.

Radius of Gyration

It is the radial distance to a point which would have a moment of inertia identical as the
body’s actual mass distribution if the total mass of the body were concentrated on that point. It is
denoted by either the symbol k or the symbol r and is define by the relation

k=
√ I
A

or
2
I= A k

where I is the moment of inertia and A is the area.

Transfer Formula for Moment of Inertia

When having composite or irregular shapes, it is necessary to transfer the moment of

inertia from one axis to another parallel axis of the centroidal shape. Thus, the transfer formula is
2
I x =I x + A d

where I x is the moment of inertia with respect to any axis in the plane, I x is the moment of
inertia relative to a parallel centroidal axis, A is the transfer term composed of the product of the
area, and d 2 is the square of the distance between the axes.

The table below shows the moment of inertia for common geometric shapes.
 https://d2vlcm61l7u1fs.cloudfront.net/media%2Fa76%2Fa7661bbb-f8b8-4641-9792-
114267841682%2FphpPYrbie.png

Illustrative Problems
Example 1
A 200-gram ball, m1, and a 400-gram ball, m2, connected by a rod with a length of 90
cm. The mass of the rod is ignored. The axis of rotation located at the center of the rod. What is
the moment of inertia of the balls about the axis of rotation?

Solution:

This problem is associated with the measurement and significant figures in getting the
moment of inertia. With the given of two balls connected by a rod with the length of 90
centimeters, the mass of the first ball (m1) is 200 grams and the mass of the second ball (m2) is
400 grams. To calculate the moment of inertia, conversion of the given figures must be done
(grams to kilograms & centimeters to meters). The formula to be used is mass of the first ball
(m1) multiplied by the distance of ball 1 and the axis of rotation (rl) plus the mass of the second
ball multiplied to the distance of ball 2 and the axis of rotation (rl). (I = m1 r12 + m2 r22)

Given:
Mass of ball 1 (m1) = 200 gram = 200/1000 = 0.2 kg
The distance of ball 1 and the axis of rotation (r1) = 45 cm = 45/100 = 0.45 m
Mass of ball (m2) = 400 gram = 400/1000 = 0.4 kg
The distance of ball 2 and the axis of rotation (r2) = 45 cm = 45/100 = 0.45 m

Required:
Moment of Inertia of the balls

I = m1 r12 + m2 r22

I = (0.2 kg) (0.45 m)2 + (0.4 kg) (0.45 m)2

I = (0.2 kg) (0.2025 m2) + (0.4 kg) (0.2025 m2)

I = 0.0405 kg m2 + 0.081 kg m2

I = 0.1215 kg m2

Ans. I = 0.1215 kg m2

Example 2
 Two 4 kg masses are placed at either end of a rod that has a mass of .8 kg and a length of
6 m. What is the moment of inertia if the system it is rotated about (a) one end of the rod and (b)
the center of the rod?

Solution:

For both parts of this problem we will be summing the moment of inertia for each component
of the system based on the table above. We will treat the masses as satellites when calculating
their moment of inertia's.

a) For this part, we'll only add the value for the rod being rotated about one end and one of
the masses because one of the masses is at the axis of rotation.
1
I = ∑ I i = mL + ML
2 2
3

1
I= .8 kg × (6m)2 + 4 kg × (6m)2
3

I = 153.6 kg*m2

b) For the second part, we'll sum the moment of inertia's of both masses and the rod being
rotated about its center.

() ()
2 2
1 L L
I= m + 2m
12 2 2

.8 kg × ( ) + 2× 4 kg ×(
2 )
2 2
1 6m 6m
I=
12 2
I = 72.6 kg*m2

Ans. I = 72.6 kg*m2

Example 3
A 4-kg rectangular thin plate with a length of 0.8 m and width of 0.5 m. The axis of
rotation located at the center of the rectangular plate shown in the figure below. What is the
moment of inertia of the rectangular?

Solution:

The problem mainly focuses on the static electricity that also has real life applications. With the
given of 4-kg rectangular thin plate (M) with a length of 0.8 m and 0.5 m of width, the axis of
rotation is located in the center of the rectangular plate. To calculate the moment of inertia the
formula: ½ multiplied to the mass of rectangular plate then multiplied to the sum of the square of
the length of the plate and the square of the width of the plate.

Given:

Mass of rectangular plate (M) = 4 kg

The length of plate (a) = 0.8 m

The width of plate (b) = 0.5 m

Required:

Moment of inertia

Formula of moment of inertia when the axis of rotation located at the center of plate:

I = (1/12) M (a2 + b2)

I = (1/12)(4)(0.82 + 0.52)

I = (4/12)(0.64 + 0.25)

I = (1/3)(0.89)

I = 0.89/3 kg m2

Ans. I = 0.89/3 kg m2
Example 4
Determine the moment of inertia for a rectangle base b and depth h with respect to:

a) a centroidal axis parallel to the base;

b) an axis coinciding with the base

Solution:

Select the differential element as shown in the figure. All parts of the elements are the
same distance from centroidal xo axis. Applying the equation I x =∫ y dA , the centroidal moment
2

of inertia is

I x =∫ y dA
2

h /2
I x =∫ y b dy
2

h /2

( )
3
y h/2
I x =b
3 ¿−h /2
3
bh
I x=
12

The preceding result can be transferred through the distance h/2 to the parallel base axis
by applying the transfer formula as follows:

[ I =I + Ad 2 ]
 ()
3 2
bh ( ) h
I x= + bh +
12 2
3
bh
I x=
3

3
bh
Ans. I x =
3

Example 5
Determine the moment of inertia of a triangular area with respect to:

a) an axis coinciding with its base; and

b) a centroidal axis parallel to its base

Solution:

A differential strip parallel to the x axis is chosen for dA. Then, use the formula for
similar triangles to formulate the value/formula of dA.

dIx = y2dA dA = l dy

For similar triangles,

l h− y h− y h− y
= l=b dA = b dy
b h h h
 Integrate dIx from y=0 to y=h and substituting the value of dA formulated using the
formula of similar triangles. Then, the moment of inertia of the triangular area with respect to its
base will be the final answer.

[ ]
h h 3 4
h− y b b y y h
Ix = ∫ y dA = ∫ y b dy = ∫ ( hy − y ) dy = h −
2 2 2 3

0 h h0 h 3 4 0
3
bh
Ix =
12

To obtain the centoidal moment of inertia I x , transfer the known value of Ix from the base axis x
to the parallel centroidal axis xo. Since the transfer distance is h/3 as shown in the figure below,
we obtain

[ I x =I x + Ad 2 ]

( )( )
3 2
bh bh h
=I x +
12 2 3
3
bh
I x=
36

3
bh
Ans. I x =
36

Solve for the following problems.

Problem 1
What is the moment of inertia of a 4-kg long uniform
rod with length of 4 m. The axis of rotation located at the
center of the rod.

Problem 2
 A 20-kg solid cylinder with a radius of 0.8 m. The axis of rotational located at the center
of the solid cylinder, shown in the figure below. What is the moment of inertia of the cylinder?

Problem 3
The mass of each ball is 250 grams, connected by cord. The length of cord is 90 cm and
the width of cord is 45 cm. What is the moment of inertia of the balls about the axis of rotation?
Ignore cord’s mass.

Problem 4
Determine the moment of inertia of angle section about x-axis.

Problem 5
Calculate the Moment of Inertia of shaded portion with respect to x-axis.
Problem 6
Find the moment of inertia (Ix) of the given beam figure below.

Problem 7
 Determine the moment of inertia of the area shown in figure below with respect to its
centroidal axes.

Problem 8
A girder is composed of four 150 × 150 × 13 mm angles connected to a web plate 600
mm by 20 mm, plus two flange plates each 460 mm by 20 mm, as shown in the figure below.
The properties of the angle are I x =I y =8.05 × 106 mm4 ; the area = 3730 mm2; and x= y =42.3 mm
. Compute the moment of inertia to the centroidal xo axis.

Answer Key:
 1. I = 5.33 kg m2
2. I = 6.4 kg m2
3. I = 0.2025 kg m2
6 4
4. I x =4.7457 ×10 ¿
6 4
5. I x =172.91 ×10 mm
6. Ic = 124.334
4 4
7. I x =1045.76 ¿ . , I y =272.33 ¿ .
6 4
8. I =3250 ×10 mm

References:

BIBLIOGRAPHY Andrew Pytel, F. L. (1987). Moment of Inertia. In F. L. Andrew Pytel, Strength of

Materials 4th Edition (pp. 519-522, 524-530). New York: House Of Best Tome Publications.

Moment of inertia particles and rigid body – problems and solutions. (2020, November 8).
Retrieved from Physics Gurumuda: https://physics.gurumuda.net/moment-of-inertia-particles-
and-rigid-body-problems-and-solutions.htm

Vert, J. (2020, November 8). moment of inertia. Retrieved from MATHalino:

https://mathalino.com/tag/reviewer/moment-inertia

VIII. MOMENT OF INERTIA OF BUILT-UP SECTION

Moment of Inertia of a built-up section

A built-up section includes of a number of sections such as rectangular sections, channel

sections, I-sections etc., A built-up section is generally made by a symmetrically placing and
then fixing the sections through welding or riveting. The moment of inertia of such a section
is to be found out by the given steps.
1.Find the moment of inertia of the various sections through their respective center of gravity
as usual.

2.After finding the moment of inertia, transfer now these moments of inertia about the
required axis (say X-X axis or Y-Y axis) by the Theorem of Parallel Axis.

Note: Most of the standard sections, the moments of inertia through their respective center of
gravity is given. However, if it is not given then it is needed to calculate it before transferring
to the required axis.

Built-up sections are often advantageous to combine a number of smaller members to be able to
create a beam or column with greater strength. The moment of inertia of such a built-up section
is found through adding the moments of inertia of the given component parts. This can be
finalized and done, if and only if the moments of inertia of each component area are taken bt a
common axis, and if, and only, if the resulting section acted as one unit.

Standard structural sections are welded together to form and have a built-up section. However, in
the section on moments of inertia for composite sections, it cannot algebraically add the given
moments of inertia. Since 'built-up' section is simply called as another term for composite
section, then finding the moment of inertia for a built-up section is no different.

Illustrative Problems
Example 1
The compound section is built up through welding the two plates 200 mm x 15 mm on two steel
beams ISJB 200 placed asymmetrically side to side. What can be the moment of inertia of the
compound section which an axis passing through its center of gravity and parallel to X-X axis?
Take Ixx for the ISJB section as 7.807 x 10^6 mm4.

Solution:

Given: Size of two plates = 200mmx15mm and moment of inertia of ISJB section as 7.807 x
10^6 mm4.

From the geometry of compound section, it is symmetrical about both the X-X axis and Y-Y
axis. The center of gravity of the section will lie at G, center of gravity of the beam section.

The moment of inertia of one plate section about an axis passing through the center of gravity
and parallel to X-X axis,
3
200 x 15 6 4
I G= =0.056 x 10 mm
12

and distance between the center of gravity of the plate and X-X axis.

15
h=100+ =107.5 mm
2

Thus, moment of inertia of the plate section about x-x axis is

¿ I G +a h2 =( 0.056 x 106 )+ ( 200 x 15 ) x (107.5)2 =34.725 x 10 6 mm4

and moment of inertia of compound section about x-x axis,

I XX =moment of inertia of two IJSB sections +moment of inertia of two plate sections

¿ [ 2 x ( 7.807 x 10 ) +2 x ( 34.725 x 10 ) ]=85.064 x 10 mm ( Answer)

6 6 6 4

Example 2
Calculate the moments of inertia Ix and Iy of the area shown with respect to the centroidal axes
respectively which is parallel and perpendicular to the side AB.

Solution:

First locate centroid C of the area.

A, mm2 x , mm y, mm xA, mm3 yA, mm3

1 72 x 10 = 720 36 5 25.92 x 10
3
3.6 x 10
3

2 10 x 76 =760 5mm 48mm 3.8 x 10

3
36.48 x 10
3

3 26 x20 =520 13mm 96mm 676 x 10

3
49.72 x 10
3

∑ 2000 36.48 x 10
3
90 x 10
3
Then

X ∑ A=∑ x A : X ( 2000 mm 2 )=36.48 x 10 3 mm3

X =18.24 mm

And

Y ∑ A=∑ y A :Y ( 2000 mm2 ) =90 x 103 mm3

Y =45 mm

Now

I x =(I ¿ ¿ X)1 +(I ¿¿ X)2 +(I ¿¿ X)3 ¿ ¿ ¿

Where

1
(I ¿¿ X )1= ( 72 )( 10 )3 + ( 720 )2 ¿ ¿ ¿
12

1
(I ¿¿ X )2= ( 10 ) (76 )3+ ( 760 )2 ¿ ¿ ¿
12

1
(I ¿¿ X )3= ( 26 ) ( 20 )3 + ( 520 )2 ¿ ¿ ¿
12

I x = ( 1158+ 372.6533+1369.8533 ) x 103 mm4 =2900.5066 x 10 3 m m4 ( Answer)

Also

I y =(I ¿¿ y )1+(I ¿¿ y)2 +(I ¿¿ y )3 ¿ ¿¿

Where

1
(I ¿¿ y)1= ( 72 ) ( 10 )3 + ( 720 )2 ¿ ¿ ¿
12

1
(I ¿¿ y)2= ( 76 )( 10 )3 + ( 760 )2 ¿ ¿ ¿
12

1
(I ¿¿ y)3 = ( 20 )( 26 )3+ ( 520 )2 ¿ ¿ ¿
12

I y = ( 538.14+ 139.5595+43.5713 ) x 10 3 m m 4=721.2708 x 103 m m4 ( Answer)

Example 3
A built-up section is made through welding the two stable and the two channel actions.
Calculate its moment of inertia of a built-up section about the X-X axis passing through center of
gravity of the section.

Solution:

As the section is symmetrical about X-X axis and Y-Y axis therefore center of gravity of the
section will coincide with the geometrical center of section.

The moment of inertia of one top or bottom plate about an axis through its center of gravity and
parallel to X-X axis,
3
90 x 10 4
I G 1= =7500 mm
12

and distance between the center of gravity of the plate and X-X axis,

h1=65−5=60 mm

Thus, moment of inertia of top and bottom plates about x-x axis,

¿ I G 1+ a h2=2 [ 7500+ ( 90 x 10 ) x 602 ] mm4

6 4
¿ 6.5 x 10 mm
Moment of inertia of one channel section about an axis through its center of gravity and parallel
to X-X axis

3
30 x 10 4
I G 2= =2500 mm
12

h2 =55−5−50 mm

Thus, moment of inertia of part (1) about X-X axis

¿ I G 2+ a k 2=4 [ 2500+ (30 x 10 ) x 502 ] mm4

Similarly, moment of inertia of part (2) of the channel about an axis through its center of gravity
and parallel to X-X axis

[ ]
2
10 x 90 6 4
I G 3=2 =0.6 x 10 mm
12

Now, the moment of inertia of the whole built-up section about an axis through its center of
gravity and parallel to X-X axis.

I XX =( 6.5 x 106 ) + ( 3.0 x 106 )❑ + ( 0.6 x 106 )=10.1 x 10 6 mm 4 ( Answer)

Solve for the following problems.

Problem No. 1
Calculate the moments of inertia Ix and Iy of the area with
respect to the centroidal axes respectively which is parallel
and perpendicular to the side AB.
Problem No. 2
The given structural steel built-up section is considered to
be fabricated. Determine its moment of inertia with respect
to the X and Y centroidal axes. Note: use a = 2 inch.

Problem No. 3
The compound beam is made through welding the two steel
plates 160 mm x 12 mm one on each flange of an ISLB 300
section. Determine its moment of inertia the beam section
about an axis passing through its center of gravity and
parallel to X-X axis. Take moment of inertia of the ISLB
300 section about X-X axis as 73.329 x 10^6 mm4.

Problem No. 4
Calculate its moment of inertia of the area with respect to
the centroidal axes.
 Problem No. 5
The two L76 x 76 x 6.4-mm angles are welded to the
C250 x 22.8 channel. Calculate its moments of inertia of
the combined section with respect to the centroidal axes
respectively which are parallel and perpendicular to the
web of the channel.

Problem No. 6: The two L102 x 102 x 12.7-mm angles are

welded to the steel plate. Calculate the moments of inertia of the
combined section with respect to the centroidal axes respectively
which are parallel and perpendicular to the plate.

Problem No. 7: Determine the centroidal

moment of inertia of the given built-up column
section. It is said to be composed of two 400 mm
by 20 mm plates which is connected to the two
C310x31 channels. Use the following properties
that are applicable for each channel.
 2
Area=3920 mm
6 4
Ix−x=53.5 x 10 mm
6 4
Iy− y=1.59 x 10 m m

Problem No. 8: The strength of the rolled W section is

increased through welding a channel to the upper flange.
Calculate the moments of inertia of the combined section with
respect to the centroidal x and y axes.

Exercises Key:

1. I X =¿ 30.608 x 106 m m4, I y =12.032 x 10 m m

6 4

4 4
2. I x =1004.61 in , I y =59.86 i n

6 4
3. I XX =166.825 x 10 mm

4 4
4. I x =855.3 ¿ , I y =163 ¿

5. I x =¿ 3.55 x 106 m m 4 , I y =49.821 x 10 mm

6 4

6 4 6 4
6. I x =33.049 x 10 mm , I y =10.9072 x 10 m m

6 4 6 4
7. I x =107.621 x 10 m m , I y =216.51 x 10 m m

6 4 6 4
8. I x =745 x 10 mm , I y =91.3 x 10 mm

References:
Moment of Inertia (n.d.) Retrieved from https://www.slideshare.net/salmanJailani/oment-of-
inertia.
MOMENT OF INERTIA OF BUILT-UP SECTIONS (n.d.) Retrieved from
http://statics.marcks.cc/mi/pdf/mi4.pdf.
 IX. METHOD OF JOINTS

TRUSS ANALYSIS: METHOD OF JOINTS

Truss: A framework composed of members joined at their ends to form a rigid structure.

Joints (Connections): Welded, Riveted, Bolted, Pinned

The method of joints is one of the simplest methods for determining the force acting on
the individual members of a truss because it only involves two force equilibrium equations. The
free-body diagram of any joint is a concurrent force system in which the summation of moment
will be of no help. Recall that only two equilibrium equations can be written. If a truss is in
equilibrium, then each of its joints must be in equilibrium. The method of joints consists of
satisfying the equilibrium equations for forces acting on each joint.

Fx  0 Fy  0

The line of action of a force acting on a joint is determined by the geometry of the truss
member and is formed by connecting the two ends of each member with a straight line. Since
direction of the force is known, the remaining unknown is the magnitude of the force.

When a force points toward the

joint, the member is said to be in
compression. If the force points away from
the joint, the member is said to be in
tension. It is often important to know
whether a truss member is in tension or in
compression because some building materials have different strengths in compression versus
tension.

The following is a procedure for analyzing a truss using the method of joints:

1. If possible, determine the support reactions

2. 2. Draw the free body diagram for each joint. In general, assume all the force member
reactions are tension.
3. Write the equations of equilibrium for each joint: Fx  0; Fy  0
4. If possible, begin solving the equilibrium equations at a joint where only two
unknown reactions exist. Work your way from joint to joint, selecting the new joint
using the criterion of two unknown reactions.
5. Solve the joint equations of equilibrium simultaneously, typically using a computer or
an advanced calculator.

The real-life application of method of joints in truss analysis is simply in the application
of truss itself in a broad range of buildings, mainly where there is a requirement for very long
spans, such as in airport terminals, aircraft hangers, sports stadia roofs, auditoriums and other
leisure buildings. Trusses are also used to carry heavy loads and are sometimes used as transfer
structures therefore it is significant to know how to solve the forces acting on every part of a
truss.

Illustrative Problems

Example 1
Step 1: Determine the support reactions for the truss.

↶+MA  0 = -500 lb. (10 ft) + Cy (10 ft)

Cy = 500 lb.
↑+Fy = 0 = Ay + Cy
Ay = -500 lb.
→+Fx = 0 = Ax + 500
lb.
Ax = -500 lb.

Step 2: Solve the

equations of
equilibrium for Joint A.
 →+Fx = 0 = FAC – 500 lb.
FAC = 500 lb.
↑+Fy = 0 = FAB – 500 lb
FAB = 500 lb.

Step 3: Solve the equations of equilibrium for Joint B.

→+Fx = 0 = FBC cos45° + 500lb.

FBC = -707.2 lb.

Step 4: Summarize the forces of the members.

Members Forces

AC 500lb.

AB 500lb.

BC 707.2lb.

Example 2
All members are 1m long with 60° angle.

Step 1: Determine the support reactions for the

truss.

Fx = Ax = 0

↶+MA = -200 (1.5m) + Ey (2m) = 0

Fx = -200N + Ay + Ey = 0

300
Ey = = 150N ↑
2
Ay = 50N

Step 2: Draw the Free-Body Diagram.

Step 3: Solve the forces of each members.

Fy = 57.7Nsin60° -
Fy = 50N + ABsin60° = 0
BCsin60° = 0
50
AB = - = -57.7N (C) BC = 57.7N (T)
0.866

Fy = -57.7cos60° + AC Fx = 57.7cos60° +

AC = 28.85N (T) 57.7cos60° + BD = 0
BD = -57.7N (C)

Fy = 57.7sin60° + Fy = 57.7Nsin60° -

DCsin60° = 0 200N – DEsin60 = 0
CD = -57.7N (C) −150
DE =
0.866
Fx = -28.85N – DE = -173.2N (C)
57.7cos60° –
57.7cos60° + CE
CE = 86.55N (T)

Step 4: Check if the forces are correct using the joint E.

Fy = -173.2sin60 + 150 = 0

-150 + 150 = 0
Fx = 173.2cos60 – 86.55 = 0
86.55– 86.55 = 0

Step 5: Summarize the forces of the members.

 Members Forces Nature

AB 57.7N C

AC 28.85N T

BC 57.7N T

BD 57.7N C

CD 57.7N C

CE 86.55N T

DE 173.2N C

Example 3
Determine the force in each member of the truss, and state if the members are in tension or
compression.

Cx = 0

Cy = -150 lb.

Ay = 1650 lb.

Step 1: Draw the free-body diagram.

Step 2: Solve for the force value of members using method of joints.

4
x: EF + AF = 0
5 x: EF = ED
3
y: 900 + AF = 0 y: AE = 0
5
AF = -1500 lb.

4
EF + (-1500 lb.)
5

4 4
x: AF = AD + AB
3 3
3 3
y: Ay + AF + AD = 0
5 5
4 4 3
(-1500 lb.) = AD + AB
5 5 5
3 3
1650 lb. + (-1500 lb.) + AB = 0
5 5

x: AD = 1250lb
3 3
y: 600 + AD + CD =
5 5
0 AB = BC
AB = -200 lb.
BC = -200 lb.
Step 3: Summarize the forces of the members.

Members Forces Nature

AF 1500 lb. C

EF 1200 lb. T

AC 0

DC 1200 lb. T

AD 1250 lb. C

AB 200 lb. C

BD 0

BC 200 lb. C

CD 250 lb. T

Solve the following truss analysis using method of joints.

Problem 1
Find the force acting in all members of the truss shown in Figure below. Answer:

Problem 2
The structure in Figure below is a truss which is pinned to the floor at point A, and supported by
a roller at point D. Determine the force to all members of the truss.

Problem 3
Find the force in each member of the truss shown in Figure.

Problem 4
Determine the forces in the members of the roof truss shown in Figure below.
Problem 5
Determine the force in each bar of the truss shown in the figure below caused by lifting the 120
kN load at a constant velocity of 8 m per sec. What change in these forces, if any, results from
placing the roller support at D and the hinge support at A?

Problem 6
The cantilever truss in Figure below is hinged
at D and E. Find the force in each member.

Problem 7
Determine the force in members AB, BD, BE, and DE of the Howe roof truss shown in Figure
below.
Problem 8
Determine the force in each member of the Pratt roof truss shown in Figure below.

References:

Takebaya. Method of Joints (Retrived from: http://www2.hawaii.edu/~takebaya/lessons/method-

of-joints.pdf )
(Retrieved from:http://www.ce.memphis.edu/3121/notes/notes_03b.pdf )

X. METHOD OF SECTIONS

Procedure for analysis - the following is a procedure for analyzing a truss using the method of
sections:
 1. Decide how will you be needed to cut the truss. This can be based on where you need to
determine forces, and, where the total number of unknowns must not exceed three.
2. Decide which of the side of the cut truss will be easier to work with. Also, minimize the
number of reactions you have to find.
3. If needed, determine any of the necessary support reactions by drawing the FBD of the
entire truss and applying the E-of-E.
4. After determining the support, draw the FBD of the selected part of the cut truss. Indicate
the unknown forces at the cut members. Assume all the members are in tension, like when
using the method of joints. Upon solving, if the given answer is positive, the member is in
tension as per our assumption. While if the answer is negative, the member must be in
compression.
5. Finally, apply the scalar equations of equilibrium (E-of-E) to the selected cut section of
the truss to solve for the unknown member forces.
Moments should be summed about points that lie at the intersection of the lines of action of
two unknown forces, so that the remaining force may be determined.

Illustrative Problems
Example 1
Determine the forces BC, HG, and HC in the following truss.

Solution:
Typically, the section with the fewest forces or with section with the most convenient geometry
is selected.

In this example the left-hand side.

Apply the three equations of equilibrium to the section.

If possible, attempt to develop an equation in just one unknown.

Look for points where the lines of action of several forces are concurrent.

∑ MH = 0 = FBC (20ft.) - 30k(20ft.) - 50k(15ft.)

FBC = 67.5k(T)

∑ MC = 0 = FHG (20ft.) - 30k(20ft.) - 50k(30ft.) + 40K(15ft.)

FHG = -75k(C)

∑ FY = 0 = -4/5 FHC – 40K + 50k

FHC = 12.5k(T)
Example 2
Given the internal drag truss for the wing of a airplane is subjected to the forces shown. Find the
force in members IH, BH, and BC.

Solution:

- Take a cut through the members IH, BH, and BC.

- Analyze the right section

- Draw the FBD of the right section.

- Apply the equations of equilibrium

↑+∑ F Y =80+60+ 40−F BE sin 45=0 ;

F BE=225 lb ( T )

↺+∑ M H =−F BC ( 2 )+ ( 60 ) ( 2 )+ 40 ( 3.5 )=0 ;

F BC =130 lb ( T )

→+∑ F X =F IH −130−255 cos 45=0 ;

Example 3
Find the forces in members CD, Cd and cd.
Solution:

First draw a line, such as the dashed line above, through as many as possible of the members in
question. Then draw a free body of everything on one side or the other, replacing the cut
members by the forces acting in them. Guess a sense for any force whose sense is unknown.
Then solve by taking the sum of the moments about a convenient point or by summing forces.

To find CD
∑Md = 0 gives
CD = - 3000 (wrong guess about sense, but that's
OK) CD = 3000 lb C

Now write ∑MC = 0 and find cd.

cd = 4000 lb T

(-15j × cdi) + (-20i × 4500j) + (-10i × -3000j) = 0

(15cd – 90000 + 30000) k = 0

cd = 6000 – 2000

cd = 4000

cd = 4000 lb T

Solve for the following problems.

Problem 1
Find the forces on members AC, BC and BD
150N
120N B D F

15N 135N 3m
120N
A C E G H

4m 4m 4m 4m

Problem 2
Find the forces on members BD, CD and CE
150N
120N B D F

15N 135N 3m
120N
A C E G H

4m 4m 4m 4m

Problem 3
Find the forces on members DF, DG and EG
150N
120N B D F

15N 135N 3m
120N
A C E G H
4m 4m 4m 4m

150 N

Problem 4
Find the forces on members DF, FG and GH
150N
120N B D F

15N 135N 3m
120N
A C E G H
4m 4m 4m 4m

Problem 5
Determine the forces in the members in the following truss.

Problem 6
Find out the internal forces in members FH, GH, and GI.

Problem 7
Find the force in FG.

Problem 8
Find the forces acting on members BD and CE. Indicate if the forces are tensile or compressive.

Exercises Key:

1. F BC =15 N (tension), F AC =140 N (tension) , F BD=¿140N (compression)

2. F CD =¿ 25N (compression), F CE=¿160N (tension)

3. F DG =25 N (tension) , F DF =180 N (compression) , F EG=160 N (tension)

4. F FG=¿15N (compression), F GH =180 N (tension)

 5. FBC =−10.62kN, FAB = 8.84kN, FAC =−2.13kN

6. F FH =13.82 kN C , F GH =1.371 kN C , F GI =+13.13 kN T

7. F FG=¿ 12k T

8. F BD=201.48 kN C , F CE=183.16 kN T

References:

The Method of Sections. (n.d.). Retrieved from

http://adaptivemap.ma.psu.edu/websites/5_structures/method_of_sections/
methodofsections.html#:~:text=The method of sections is,as a separate rigid body.

3.6 The Method of Sections. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://learnaboutstructures.com/Method.-of-

Sections.

PDF4PRO. 2020. Unit 19 Trusses: Method Of Sections Download / Unit-19-Trusses-Method-Of-

Sections.Pdf / PDF4PRO. [online] Available at: <https://pdf4pro.com/download/unit-19-trusses-
method-of-sections-1193fc.html> [Accessed 24 November 2020].

Www2.hawaii.edu. 2020. [online] Available at:

<http://www2.hawaii.edu/~takebaya/lessons/method-of-sections.pdf> [Accessed 26 November
2020].
 XI. GRAPHICAL TRUSS ANALYSIS

 Graphical Method also known as Maxwell’s diagram greatly facilitates the graphical
analysis of truss problems.

 The graphical analysis was developed by force polygons drawn to scale for each joint,
and then the forces in each member were measured from one of these force polygons.

 Graphic truss analysis is a method to find bar forces using graphic vectors as in the
following steps:
1. Draw the force body diagram of the truss. Solve the reactions at the supports by
solving the equation of equilibrium of the entire truss.
2. Move clockwise around the outside of the truss; draw the force polygon to scale for
the entire truss. Designate all spaces between forces and truss members with an
identifying letter,
3. Plot each of the forces [magnitude and direction] according to a scale. Also, follow
the slope of each web member.
4. Measure the magnitude of the forces in each member from the diagram.

Illustrative Problems

Example 1
Using the Graphical Method determine the bar forces in each member of the truss shown.

Since, all
reactions are already given in the diagram, all the letters are
already plotted as shown in the figure above. We will now,
plot all the forces in a given scale. Assume 1 cm = 5kN,
thus
Then, tabulating all the forces, we have,

Member Forces
s

PS 7cm = 35kN

SR 3.5cm = 17.5kn

SQ 4.0cm = 20.0kN

Example 2
Determine the bar forces graphically of the truss shown below:

Note: Use P,Q,R,S as force Notations

Step 1. Draw the Free body diagram of the truss:

Compute the reactions.

∑ Fx=0 A x =0
Step 2. Designated all spaces between forces and truss members with an identifying letter.

Thus in figure above, we number the areas between all forces, both internal an d external; the
reason for this will become clear when the force diagram for the complete structures is
constructed. Therefore, PQ has 10kN force, the 7.5kN force is name RP, while RQ has 2.5kN
force.

Step 3 Plot each of the forces [magnitude and direction] according to a scale. Also, follow the
slope of each web member.

Using 1cm: 1kN

Fist we draw the first force notation Q of 10cm that is vertically downward. The force notation R
of 2.5cm is vertically upward while force notation P with 7.5cm is vertically upward as shown in
the diagram.

Draw bar force AB at 240° counterclockwise and bar force

AC at 150° counterclockwise. Lastly, draw horizontal line
that connects the force notations R and formed force
notation S.
Step 4. Measure the magnitude of the forces in each member from the diagram.

When the diagram is complete, the force is found from the length of the appropriate line.

Using 1cm: 1kN

Members Length(cm) Force(kN)

AB 8.7347cm 8.7347 kN

BC 4.2872cm 4.2872kN

AC 4.9668cm 4.9668kN

PR 7.5cm 7.5kN

RQ 2.5cm 2.5 kN

Example 3
Determine the bar forces graphically of the truss shown below:
Step 1. Draw the Free body diagram of the truss:

Compute the reactions.

∑ Fx=0 A x =0
Because of the symmetry of the truss and loading,

1
Ay=E= ( 400 )
2

Ay=Hy=200 ↑

Step 2. Designated all spaces between forces and truss members with an identifying letter.
Thus in figure above, we number the areas between all forces, both internal
an d external; the reason for this will become clear when the force diagram
for the complete structures is constructed. Therefore, Bar AB and EF has
50kN force, the 100kN force is name BC, CD and DE, while FG and AG has
200kN force.

Step 3 Plot each of the forces [magnitude and direction] according to a

scale. Also, follow the slope of each web member.

Using 1cm: 2kN

Fist we draw the vector AG of 200kN

that is vertically upward. The force
member AB of 50kN, BC, CD, DE, and
EF of 100kN are vertically downward
while fore member FG with 200kN force
is vertically upward as shown in the
diagram.

Draw a GH, GJ, and GL horizontally.

BH and EL at 30° , IJ and JK at 60°

Plot CI and DK by drawing a line passing through point

G.

Step 4. Measure the magnitude of the forces in

each member from the diagram.

When the diagram is complete, the force is found

from the length of the appropriate line.

Using 1cm: 2kN

 Member Length(cm) Force(kN)
s

AB 25cm 50 kN

BC 50cm 100kN

CD 50cm 100kN

DE 50cm 100kN

EF 25cm 50 kN

FG 100cm 200kN

GH 128.581cm 257.162kN

GJ 85.7798cm 171.5596kN

GL 128.581cm 257.162kN

KL 43.1852cm 86.3704kN

JK 42.957cm 85.914kN

EL 148.8773cm 297.7546kN

DK 123.8193cm 247.6386kN

IJ 43.1621cm 86.3242kN

CI 124.0385cm 248.077kN

BH 148.8415cm 297.683kN

Solve for the following truss analysis using graphical method

Problem 1
Determine the forces acting on all the members of the truss using graphical method
Problem 2
Determine the forces acting on all the members of the truss using graphical method.

Problem 3
Using Graphical method, determine the bar force in each member of the truss shown.
Problem 4
Determine the forces acting on all the members of the truss using graphical method.

Problem 5
Using Graphical method, determine the bar force
in each member of the truss shown.

Problem 6
 Determine the bar forces acting on all the members of the truss. Use the graphical method
in solving.

Problem 7
Determine the bar force of the members of the truss shown below using Graphical Method.

Problem 8
Determine the bar forces acting on all the members of the truss. Use the graphical method
in solving.

References:
Beer, F. P., Johnston , E., & Mazurek, D. F. (2013). Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
10th Edition. McGraw-Hill Education.
XII. PARABOLIC CABLES

Cable is carrying a horizontally distributed load, the cable form a parabola or is

called parabolic cable
Cables - flexible members capable of withstanding only tension, designed to support
concentrated or distributed loads.

The load carried by the cable being uniformly distributed along the horizontal is the main
distinguishing aspect for parabolic cable analysis

The figure above shows a cable ACB, its lowest point at point C, supported at points A
and B carrying a distributed load W

Taking the FBD of one side of the figure

Taking the FBD of one side of the cable it is shown that different variables can be
identified upon taking the FBD of the figure.
T is the tension, with a slope of θ at support B To is the tension at point C x and y Are the
horizontal and vertical distances between point C and support B
We denote by w the load per unit length (measured along the cable) and express it in N/m
or in lb/ft.
Parabolic Cable Analysis

Look at figure above, the magnitude W of the total load carried by a portion of cable of
length s (arc length of the cable) extending from the lowest point C ,W= wx. T is the
tension, with a slope of θ at support B; T o= tension at point C or the lowest tension point
in the entire cable.

These three forces in equilibrium can be illustrated as a force triangle above, from which
we can, derived for the following formula for each variables included

If we sum those points it will look like what is shown in figure above.
T =√ T 2o+ ¿ ¿

For the length of the cable is given by the equation

 Where it is derived from

Therefore parabolic equations are:

Illustrative Problems

Example 1
A wire weighing 4 N/m is attached to a fixed support at A and B, of the same elevation.
When h is 6m and the distance from point A and B is 10m long, find the following
a. value tension at point C and;
b. tension at point B

SOLUTION
Given: x=10m/2
y= 6m
w= 4N/m
Required:

Tension at point C and B

Draw the free-body diagram of the right half of the cable.

W=wx
W=(4N/m)(5m)
W=20N
Then, summation of the forces counterclockwise is equal to 0 therefore:

W(x/2)-T o(y)=0
(20N)(2.5)-T o(6m)=0
50Nm/6m=T o(6m)/6m
T o=8.33N
Lastly, in finding the tension at point B

2 2 2
T =W +T o

T =√ W 2 +T o2

T =√ (20 N )2 +(8.33 N )2
T =21.67 N

Example 2
A wire weighing 25 N/m is attached to a fixed support at P and R, of the same elevation. When h
is 20m and the distance from point P and R is 60m long, find the following

a. value tension at point Q;

b. tension at point R and;
c. slope of cable at point R

SOLUTION

Given: x=(60m)/2
y= 20m
w= 25N/m

Required:

Tension at point Q and R and the slope of cable at point R

Draw the free-body diagram of the right half of the cable.

W=wx
W=(25N/m)(30m)
W=750N

Then, summation of the forces counterclockwise is equal to 0 therefore:

W(x/2)-T o(y)=0
(750N)(15m)-T o(20m)=0
11250Nm/20m=T o(20m)/20m
T o=562.5N

Then in finding the tension at point R

2 2 2
T =W +T o

T =√ W 2 +T o2

T =√ (750 N )2+(562.5 N )2

T =937.5 N

Lastly, the force triangle also tell us that

tanθ = W/T o
−1
tan ¿750/562.5)
o
θ=53.13
Example 3
A cable is attached to a support at point A passes over a small frictionless pulley at point B and
supports a load P. The sag of the cable is 10N/m. Determine the following

a. magnitude of the load P

b. slope of the cable at B
c. Total length of the cable from point A to B

SOLUTION

Given: span=(40m), x=20m

sag= 2m, y=2m
w= 10N/m

Required:

Magnitude of the load P, slope of the cable at B and Total length of the cable from point A to B

Draw the free-body diagram of the right half of the cable.

W=wx
W=(10N/m)(20m)
W=200N
Then, summation of the forces counterclockwise is equal to 0 therefore:

W(x/2)-T o(y)=0
(200N)(10m)-T o(2m)=0
2000Nm/2m=T o(2m)/2m
T o=1000N

Then in finding the tension at point R

2 2 2
T =W +T o

T =√ W 2 +T o2

T =√(200 N )2 +(1000 N )2

T =1,019.8 N

The force triangle also tell us that

tanθ = W/T o
−1
tan ¿200/1000)
o
θ=11.309

Lastly for the length of the cable we are going to use the formula

S= 20[1+2/3(2m/20m) raise to 2
 =20.1333m

The total length of the cable between A and B is twice the value of S which is equal to 20.1333m
therefore the length of the cable is equal to 40.26m.

Example 4
A cable attached to two different fixed support (A and B) weighs about 200 lb/ft and was
uniformly distributed in the entire cable. If h is 10 ft and the total distance between point A and
point B is 200 ft, solve the following:

a) Total load (W);

b) The horizontal tension component (To);
c) Tension in point B

SOLUTION

Given: x= 200 ft/2 = 100 ft

y= 10 ft
w= 200 lb/ft

Required:

Total load (W), horizontal tension component (To), and Tension in point B
Draw the free body diagram of the right half cable.

a) Solve the total load by multiplying the weight per unit length to the length.
W = wx

W= ( 200ft lb )( 100 ft )
W = 20,000 lb

b) To calculate the horizontal tension component (T o), solve the sum of the moments about
point B being equal to zero.

∑ M B=0
= W (50 ft) – To (10 ft)

(To) (10 ft) = W (50 ft)

W ( 50 ft )
To = ; where W = 20,000 lb
10 ft

( 20,000 lb )( 50 ft )
T o=
10 ft

T o=100,000 lb

c) To calculate the tension in point B, perform the Pythagorean method then insert the
values of To and W.
2 2 2
T =T o +W

T =√ T o +W
2 2
 T =√ 1000002 +200002

T =101980.3903 lb

Example 5
A wire attached to two different fixed support (R and C) weighs about 10 N/m and was
uniformly distributed in the entire wire. If h is 8 m and the total distance between point R and
point C is 40 m, solve the following:

a) Total load (W);

b) The horizontal tension component (To);
c) Tension in point C

SOLUTION

Given: x= 40 m/2 = 20 m
y= 8 m
w= 10 N/m

Required:

Total load (W), horizontal tension component (To), and Tension in point C
Draw the free body diagram of the right half cable.

a) Solve the total load by multiplying the weight per unit length to the length.
W = wx

W= ( 10mN ) ( 20 m )
W = 200 N

b) To calculate the horizontal tension component (T o), solve the sum of the moments about
point B being equal to zero.

∑ M B=0
= W (10 m) – To (8 m)

(To) (8 m) = W (10 m)

W ( 10 m)
To = ; where W = 200 N
8m

( 200 N ) (10 m )
T o=
8m

T o=250 N

c) To calculate the tension in point B, perform the Pythagorean method then insert the
values of To and W.
2 2 2
T =T o +W
 T =√ T o2+W 2

T =√ 2502 +2002

T =√ 102500

T =320.1562 N

Solve for the following exercises.

Items 1-3 Refer to the Figure A below

Problem 1
A wire weighing 12 N/m is attached to a fixed support at A and B, of the same elevation. When h
is 3m and the distance from point A and B is 18m long, find the tension at point B.

(Ans. 194.7N)

Problem 2
A wire weighing 15 N/m is attached to a fixed support at A and B, of the same elevation. When h
is 5m and the distance from point A and B is 10m long, find the tension and slope at point B
(Ans. T=212.13N, Slope=45 degrees)

Problem 3
A wire weighing 15 N/m is attached to a fixed support at A and B, of the same elevation. When h
is 5m and the distance from point A and B is 10m long, find the total length of the cable.

(Ans. length= 23.34m)

Items 4-5 Refer to the Figure B below

Problem 4
A cable is attached to a support at point A passes over a small frictionless pulley at point B and
supports a load P. The sag of the cable is 1kg/m. Determine the magnitude P and slope at point
B.

( Ans. T=48.83N and Slope= 53.47)

Problem 5
A cable is attached to a support at point A passes over a small frictionless pulley at point B and
supports a load P. The sag of the cable is 1kg/m. Total length of the cable.

(Ans. 10.43m

Items 6-8 Refer to the Figure below

Problem 6
The parabolic cable, with the vertex at B is loaded with 17kN/m. Determine the location of the
vertex at B.
 (Ans. 22.474m)

Problem 7
The parabolic cable, with the vertex at B is loaded with 17kN/m. Determine the tensions at point
A,B and C.

(Ans. Ta=574.703kN,Tb=429.319kN,Tc=635.045kN)

Problem 8
The parabolic cable, with the vertex at B is loaded with 17kN/m. Determine the total length of
the cable.

(Ans. 58.415m)

References

Beer, F. P., Johnston, E., & Mazurek, D. F. (2016). Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics 11th
Edition. McGraw-Hill Education.
XIII. CATENARY CABLES

 Cables - flexible members capable of withstanding only

tension, designed to support concentrated or distributed
loads.
 Most cable do experience a load but let us now consider a
cable AB carrying a load uniformly distributed along the
cable itself.

 Fig. (a) shows a cable, where its lowest point at point (a)
C, supported at points A and B carrying a load of
itself; c denoted the catenary constant, the distance
between the origin and the lowest point of the cable.

 We denote by w the load per unit length (measured

along the cable) and express it in N/m or in lb/ft.

(b)
 Look at fig. (b), the magnitude W of the total load carried by a
portion of cable of length s (arc length of the cable) extending
from the lowest point C to a point D is W= ws. T is the tension,
with a slope of θ at support B; T o= tension at point C or the
lowest tension point in the entire cable.

 If we sum those points it will look like what is shown in figure c.

T =√ T 2o+ ¿ ¿ eq.1
(c)
 Looking at fig. b to relate horizontal distance x to cable length s,
T ds
dx ds cos  0 cos 
T q  s2 c2
s
ds s x
x  c sinh  1 and s c sinh eq.2
0 q  s2 c2 c c
 To relate x and y cable coordinates,

W s x
dy =dx tan θ= dx= dx=sinh dx
T0 c c
x
x x
y−c=∫ sinh dx=c cosh −c
0
c c
x
y=c cosh eq.3
c
which is the equation of a catenary.

 This is the equation of a catenary with vertical axis.

The ordinate c of the lowest point C is called the
parameter of the catenary. Squaring both sides of
Eqs. (2) and (3), subtracting, and taking (1) into account, we obtain the following relation
between y and s:
2 2 2
c = y −s
 When the supports A and B of the cable have the same elevation, the distance L between
the supports is called the span of the cable and the vertical distance h from the supports to
the lowest point C is called the sag of the cable. These definitions are the same as those
given in the case of parabolic cables, but it should be noted that because of our choice of
coordinate axes, the sag h is now
h= y−c

Therefore catenary equations are:

h= y−c
x
s=c sinh
c
x
y=c cosh
c
2 2 2
c = y −s
T o=wc ; W =ws ; T =Wy ; T 2=T o + W 2 ; T =w √ c 2+ s2
2

T =√ T 2o+ ¿ ¿
Illustrative Problems

Example 1
The maximum tension of the cable is 400lb. if the cable is 150ft long and has a mass of 75kg.
Determine the span sag possible.

SOLUTION

Because the loading is distributed along the cable, the shape of the cable is a catenary. The cable
is obviously symmetric about the midpoint of AB, which means that the location of the lowest
point O of the cable is known.

Draw the free-body diagram of the right half of the cable.

This equation must be solved numerically. Solving using catenary equation:

Solving for Y, given that the Tension of the cable is 400 lb., 150 ft. long and has a mass of 75kg
and we have;

T =w Y B

T
Y=
w
 For computing x we will use this formula

Y=
400 Y =c cosh
x
c ()
(
(
75 kg
9.81 m
s
2)) ( cx )=cosh ( Cx )
−1

150 ft

Y =81.54943935 ft
x ¿ c cosh
−1
( YC )
Then compute for c, we have;

Y2−S2= c 2 x=32.020 ft cosh −1 ( 81.54943935

32.020 ft )
ft

¿
x=50.81613911
c=32.020 ft
x=50.816

Thus,

x=2 X B h= y−c

x=2 ( 50.81613911 ) 81.54943935 ft−32.020 ft =h

x=101.6322782 ft (SPAN ) h=49.52943935 ft (SAG )

Example 2
A uniform cable weighing has a mass of
30N/m is held in the position shown by a
horizontal force. The cable is suspended
between two points on the same level of
200m apart. Consider, h= 40m, and
Y B=30+ c. Find the minimum and
maximum tension, and the length of the
cable.

SOLUTION
With a load distributed uniformly along the length of the cable, and we have a catenary shape of
cable. For the length and tension both involve the minimum tension T o at midlength. Thus, for
w=30N/m, X B=¿100 m ,¿ h= 40m, and Y B=30+ c.

Y =c cosh ( xc )
40+ c=c cosh ( 100c )
40
c
+1=cosh
100
c ( )
We need to figure out the value of c, using some trial and error. This can be done by assuming
some possible value of c until values of both y’s become the same.

c
cosh ( )
100
c
40
c
+1

40 6.132 2

80 1.888 1.5

90 1.683 1.444

100 1.543 1.4

120 1.3678 1.3333

130 1.3107 1.30769

130.5 1.308 1.307

130.931 1.306 1.306

Therefore, c= 130.931m. Solving for y, substitute the value,

y=h+c

y=40+130.931

y=170.931 m

Now that we have y, we can find s by using the equation

 2 2 2
c = y −s
2 2 2
s = y −c

s= √ y 2 −c 2

s= √170.931 m2−130.9312

s=109.8839388 m

Therefore, for computing the total length of the cable multiply by two, thus

Length= 2 s=2(109.8839388 m)

Length=219.7679 m

Finding the minimum tension;

T o=wc
Answers:
T o= ( )
30 N
m
( 130.931 m )=3927.93 N
Length=219.7679 m

T o=3927.93 N T o=3927.93 N

While in the maximum tension; T =5127.93 N

T =Wy

T= ( 30mN ) ¿ y=170.931 m ¿=5127.93 N

T =5127.93 N

Example 3

A uniform cable weighing 5 lb/ft is held in the position shown by a horizontal force P
applied at B. Knowing that P = 150 lb and θ A = 60°, determine (a) the location of Point B, (b)
the length of the cable.
SOLUTION
Given: w= 5lb/ft
P=150 lb
θ A = 60°
computing for c we have,
T o=P=cw
P 100 lb
c= = =20 ft
w 5 lb
ft
At A:
(a)
P
T m=
cos 60 °

cw
¿ =2 cw
0.5

T m=w ( h+c )
2 cw=w ( h+ c )
2 c=h+ c h=c=b

Y XA
A =ccosh
c

XA
h+ c=c cosh
c
XA
( 20 ft + 20 ft )= (20 ft ) cosh
c
XA XA
cosh =2 =1.3170
c c
X A =1.3170 ( 20 ft )=26.34 ft

x
s=c sinh
(b) Determining the length of the cable using c , we have
 XA 26.34 ft
S A =c sinh =( 20 ft ) sinh
c 20 ft
Answers
S A =34.643 ft (b). 20 ft

(a) 26.34 ft

Length = S A =34.643 ft

Solve for the following problems.

Problem 1
A 10ft rope is attached to two supports A and B as shown.
Determine (a) the span of the rope for which the span is equal to
the sag, (b) the corresponding angleθ B.

Answer: h=4.2176 ft ; θ B=80.297 °

Problem 2
Knowing that the mass per unit length of the cable is
0.5 kg/m, determine the maximum tension in the cable
when h = 25 m.

Answer: T max=198.500 N

Problem 3
A cable is weighing 60N/m is suspended between two poles on the same level at 300m apart. If
the sag is 60m, obtain the catenary constant. Answer: c=196.8 m

Problem 4
A transmission cable having a mass per unit length of 10N/m is strung between two insulators at
the same elevation that are 50 m apart. Knowing that the sag of the cable is 1.7 m, determine the
length of the cable. Answer: 25.0769 m

Problem 5
A small ship is tied to a pier with a 7.5-m length of rope. Knowing that the current exerts on the
hull of the ship a 150-N force directed from the bow to the stern and that the mass per unit length
of the rope is 1.2 kg/m, determine the sag h. Answer: h=0.3627 m=362.7 mm

Problem 6
A 60m chain weighing 120N is suspended between two points at the same elevation. Knowing
that the sag is 24m, determine the distance between the supports. Answer: 29.66 m

Problem 7
A cable of length 100 m and mass per unit length of 2.5 kg/m is suspended between two
points at the same elevation. Knowing that the sag is 10 m, determine the maximum
tension. Answer: T max=3.25 kN

Problem 8
A 2 N/m chain with a length of 30 m is suspended between two points at the same
elevation. Knowing that the sag is 10 m, determine (a) the distance between the supports,
(b) the maximum tension in the chain. Answer: T m=32.5 N ; L=20.118 m

References

Beer, F. P., Johnston , E., & Mazurek, D. F. (2016). Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics
11th Edition. McGraw-Hill Education.