Pressure due to a fluid column; Pascal's law and its

applications (hydraulic lift and hydraulic brakes),

effect of gravity on fluid pressure.
Viscosity, Stokes' law, terminal velocity, streamline
and turbulent flow, critical velocity, Bernoulli's
theorem and its simple applications.
Surface energy and surface tension, angle of contact,
excess of pressure across a curved surface,
application of surface tension ideas to drops, bubbles
and capillary rise.
 FLUIDS

A fluid is a substance that can flow.

Fluid statics (hydrostatics): study of fluid at rest
Fluid dynamics (hydrodynamics): study of fluid in motion
PINS AND NAILS HAVE POINTED ENDS .WHY?
Liquid always exert force
perpendicular to the surface of
the container at every point
NUMERICAL
1. The two thigh bones (femurs), each of cross-
sectional area10 𝑐𝑚2 support the upper part of a
human body of mass 40 kg. Estimate the
average pressure sustained by the femurs.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
VARIATION OF PRESSURE WITH DEPTH
Imagine a cylindrical element of the liquid
(static)
 PASCAL’S VASES
HYDROSTATIC PARADOX

• Pressure exerted by a liquid column depends only on

the height of the liquid column and not on the shape
of the containing vessel
• The liquid pressure is the same at all points at the
same horizontal level (same depth)
 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

• The pressure exerted by the atmosphere is called atm Pressure

• The force exerted by the vertical air column of air on a unit area
of the earth’s surface is equal to the atmospheric pressure.
• The atm P at sea level is 1.013x 105 Pa
MERCURY BAROMETER
• A long glass tube closed at one end and
filled with mercury is inverted into a
trough of mercury. As the thumb is
removed, the mercury level in the tube
falls down a little and come to rest, at a
vertical height of 76cm.
• The space above mercury in the tube is
almost vacuum (Torricellian vacuum)

1 torr = 133 Pa.

The mm of Hg and torr are
used in medicine and
physiology.
In meteorology, a common
unit is the bar and millibar.
Vacuum pressure, PA= 0
PB = Pc = Pa
PB-PA = hρg
Pa = hρg
For a mercury barometer ,
h= 76cm= 0.76m
ρ= 13.6x103 kg/𝑚3
g= 9.8 m/𝑠 2
Pa = hρg= 0.76mx 13.6x𝟏𝟎𝟑 kg/𝑚3 x 9.8 m/𝑠 2
=1.013x𝟏𝟎𝟓 Pa = 1atm
 OPEN-TUBE MANOMETER
pressure at position A= pressure at
position B

• An open tube manometer is a useful instrument for measuring pressure

differences.
• It consists of a U-tube containing a suitable liquid i.e., a low density liquid (such
as oil) for measuring small pressure differences and a high density liquid (such
as mercury) for large pressure differences.
• One end of the tube is open to the atmosphere and the other end is connected
to the system whose pressure we want to measure
 HEIGHT OF ATMOSPHERE
• The density of the atmosphere at sea level is
1.29 kg/m3. Assume that it does not change
with altitude. Then how high would the
atmosphere extend?
• ρ gh = 1.013 × 105 Pa
1.29 kg 𝑚−3 × 9.8 m 𝑠 −2 × h =1.013 × 105 Pa
h = 7989 m » 8 km
At a depth of 1000 m in an ocean
(a) what is the absolute pressure?
(b) What is the gauge pressure?
(c) Find the force acting on the window of area
20 cm × 20 cm of a submarine at this depth, the
interior of which is maintained at sea level
atmospheric pressure.
(The density of sea water is 1.03 × 10^3 kg m^-3,
g = 10 m s^–2.)
WHY THE OBJECT SINK AND FLOAT?
PASCAL’S LAW

Whenever an external
pressure is applied on any
part of a fluid contained in a
vessel, it is transmitted
undiminished and equally in
all directions.
 PROOF OF PASCAL’S LAW

ABC-DEF is an element of the The French scientist Blaise Pascal

interior of a fluid at rest. This observed that the pressure in a
element is in the form of a right fluid at rest is the same at all
angled prism. The element is points if they are at the same
small so that the effect of height. pressure exerted is same
gravity can be ignored. in all directions in a fluid at rest
Suppose the pressure were not equal in different parts of the fluid,
then there would be a flow as the fluid will have some net force
acting on it. Hence in the absence of flow the pressure in the fluid
must be same everywhere in a horizontal plane.
HYDRAULIC MACHINES
Hydraulic Lift
In a car lift compressed air exerts a force F1 on a
small piston having a radius of 5.0 cm. This
pressure is transmitted to a second piston of
radius 15 cm. If the mass of the car to be lifted is
1350 kg, calculate F1. What is the pressure
necessary to accomplish this task?
(g = 9.8 ms^-2).
Two syringes of different cross-sections (without
needles) filled with water are connected with a
tightly fitted rubber tube filled with water. Diameters
of the smaller piston and larger piston are 1.0 cm and
3.0 cm respectively.
(a) Find the force exerted on the larger piston when a
force of 10 N is applied to the smaller piston.
(b) If the smaller piston is pushed in through 6.0 cm,
how much does the larger piston move out?
• When we apply a little force on the pedal with our foot
the master piston moves inside the master cylinder,
and the pressure caused is transmitted through the
brake oil to act on a piston of larger area. A large force
acts on the piston and is pushed down expanding the
brake shoes against brake lining. In this way, a small
force on the pedal produces a large retarding force on
the wheel.
• An important advantage of the system is that the
pressure set up by pressing pedal is transmitted equally
to all cylinders attached to the four wheels so that the
braking effort is equal on all wheels.
 STREAMLINE FLOW
• The study of the fluids in motion is
known as fluid dynamics
• The flow of the fluid is said to be
steady if at any given point, the
velocity of each passing fluid
particle remains constant in time.
• The velocity of a particular particle
may change as it moves from one
point to another.
• The path taken by a fluid particle in its flow is
called its line of flow.
• The direction of motion of the particle is given
by the tangent and that particular point on the
line of flow
• The path taken by a fluid particle under a steady flow is
a streamline
• Every other particle which passes the second point
behaves exactly as the previous particle that has just
passed that point. Each particle follows a smooth path,
and the paths of the particles do not cross each other.
In a non viscous liquid the
effect of friction is neglected
 EQUATIONS OF CONTINUITY
The mass of liquid flowing in
equals the mass of liquid flowing out
• The cylindrical tube of a spray pump has a
cross-section of 8.0 cm2 one end of which has
40 fine holes each of diameter 1.0 mm. If the
liquid flow inside the tube is 1.5 m min–1,
what is the speed of ejection of the liquid
through the holes?
Area of cross-section of the spray pump, A1 = 8 cm2 = 8 × 10–4 m2
Number of holes, n = 40
Diameter of each hole, d = 1 mm = 1 × 10–3 m
Radius of each hole, r = d/2 = 0.5 × 10–3 m
Area of cross-section of each hole, a = πr2 = π (0.5 × 10–3)2 m2
Total area of 40 holes, A2 = n × a = 40 × π (0.5 × 10–3)2 m2
= 31.41 × 10–6 m2
Speed of flow of liquid inside the tube, V1 = 1.5 m/min = 0.025 m/s

Speed of ejection of liquid through the holes = V2

According to the law of continuity, we have:
A1V1=A2V2
V2= A1V1/ A2
= (8 × 10–4x0.025)/31.41x10-6
= 0.633 m/s
Therefore, the speed of ejection of the liquid through the holes is
0.633 m/s.
According to law of conservation of energy,
• Bernoulli’s equation is a
general expression that
relates the pressure
difference between two
points in a pipe to both
velocity changes (kinetic
energy change) and
elevation (height)
changes (potential energy
change).
• The Swiss Physicist Daniel
Bernoulli developed this
relationship in 1738
Net work done = net change in energy,
• when fluids flow, some energy does get lost due to
internal friction. This arises due to the fact that in a fluid
flow, the different layers of the fluid flow with different
velocities. These layers exert frictional forces on each
other resulting in a loss of energy.
• Bernoulli’s equation ideally applies to fluids with zero
viscosity or non-viscous fluids.
• Another restriction on application of Bernoulli theorem is
that the fluids must be incompressible, as the elastic
energy of the fluid is also not taken into consideration
• Bernoulli’s equation also does not hold for non-steady or
turbulent flows, because in that situation velocity and
pressure are constantly fluctuating in time.
 Speed of Efflux: Torricelli’s Law
The word efflux means fluid out flow. Torricelli discovered that the
speed of efflux from an open tank is given by a formula identical to
that of a freely falling body.
Speed of Efflux: Torricelli’s Law
 Blood Flow and Heart Attack
• Bernoulli's Principle states that the faster a fluid moves, the
lower the pressure of the fluid
• Bernoulli’s principle helps in explaining blood flow in artery.
• The artery may get constricted due to the accumulation of
plaque on its inner walls. In order to drive the blood through
this constriction a greater demand is placed on the activity of
the heart.
• We know if the cross sectional area decreases, the velocity of
the blood will increase.
• The speed of the flow of the blood in this region is raised
which lowers the pressure inside and the artery may collapse
due to the external pressure. The heart exerts further
pressure to open this artery and forces the blood through. As
the blood rushes through the opening, the internal pressure
once again drops due to same reasons leading to a repeat
collapse. This may result in heart attack.
 Venturi-meter
• The Venturi-meter is a device to measure the flow speed of
incompressible fluid. It consists of a tube with a broad diameter
and a small constriction at the middle as shown in Figure.
Manometer in the form of a U-tube is also attached to it. The
manometer contains a liquid of density ρm.
This pressure difference causes the fluid
in the U-tube connected at the narrow
neck to rise in comparison to the other
arm. The difference in height h measure
the pressure difference
 APPLICATIONS
• The carburetor of
automobile has a Venturi
channel (nozzle) through
which air flows with a high
speed. The pressure is then
lowered at the narrow neck
and the petrol (gasoline) is
sucked up in the chamber to
provide the correct mixture
of air to fuel necessary for
combustion.
• Filter pumps or aspirators
• Bunsen burner
• atomisers or sprayers used
for perfumes or to spray
insecticides.
 Dynamic Lift
• Dynamic lift is the force that acts on a body, such as
airplane wing, a hydrofoil or a spinning ball, by virtue of
its motion through a fluid.
 Ball moving without spin

• Fig. shows the streamlines around a non-spinning ball

moving relative to a fluid. From the symmetry of
streamlines it is clear that the velocity of fluid (air) above
and below the ball at corresponding points is the same
resulting in zero pressure difference. The air therefore,
exerts no upward or downward force on the ball.
 Ball moving with spin

• A ball which is spinning drags air along with it. If the surface is
rough more air will be dragged.
• The ball is moving forward and relative to it the air is moving
backwards. Therefore, the velocity of air above the ball relative to
the ball is larger and below it is smaller.
• The stream lines, thus, get crowded above and rarified below. This
difference in the velocities of air results in the pressure difference
between the lower and upper faces and there is a net upward
force on the ball. This dynamic lift due to spinning is called Magnus
effect.
 Aero foil or lift on aircraft wing

• When the aero foil moves against the wind, the orientation of the
wing relative to flow direction causes the streamlines to crowd
together above the wing more than those below it.
• The flow speed on top is higher than that below it.
• The air pressure above the upper surface decreases below atm P and
that on the lower surface increases above the atm P .The difference
in pressure provides an upward force resulting in a dynamic lift of the
wings and this balances the weight of the plane.
 VISCOSITY

• Viscosity is the property of

the fluid (liquid or gas) by
virtue of which an internal
frictional force comes into
play when the fluid is in
motion in the form of layers
having relative motion. It
opposes the relative motion
of the different layers.
Viscosity is also called as
fluid friction.
• The backward dragging force
is called viscous drag or
viscous force.
 Coefficient of viscosity
The coefficient of viscosity for a fluid is defined as the ratio of
shearing stress to the strain rate.
Consider AEFD after short interval of
time (dt), the liquid has undergone a
shear strain of dx/l. Since, the strain
in a flowing fluid increases with time
continuously.
‘Rate of change of strain’ or ‘strain
rate’ i.e. dx/(l dt) or v/l instead of
strain

The SI unit of viscosity is poiseiulle (Pl). Its other units are N s m-2 or
Pa s. The dimensions of viscosity are [ML-1T-1].
The viscosity of liquids decreases with temperature, while it increases
in the case of gases
 Stokes’ Law
• It is seen that the viscous force is proportional to the velocity
of the object and is opposite to the direction of motion.
• According to Stokes’ law the backward dragging force acting
on a small spherical body of radius ‘a’ moving with a velocity v
through a viscous medium of coefficient of viscosity ή is given
by
• It gives viscous drag on a body falling through a fluid.
 Terminal velocity
• When a body falls through a viscous fluid, it produces
relative motion between its different layers. As a result
,the body experiences a viscous force which tends to
retard its motion.
• The velocity of the body increases the viscous force
also increases
• A stage is reached , when the weight of the body
become equal to the sum of the up thrust and viscous
force. Then no net force acts on the body and it begins
to move with a constant velocity
• The maximum constant velocity acquired by the body
while falling freely in a viscous medium is called Vt
 SURFACE TENSION

Surface Tension: "The property of the surface of a liquid that

allows it to resist an external force, due to the cohesive nature
of its molecules.“
Surface tension is the property by virtue of which the free surface
of a liquid at rest behaves like a elastic stretched membrane tries
to minimize its free surface area.
Surface tension of a liquid is measured as the force acting per
length on an imaginary line drawn tangentially on the free surface
the liquid.
Surface tension S = Force/Length = F/l Its SI unit is Nm-1
• The molecules well inside the liquid are attracted equally in all
directions by the other molecules.
• The molecules on the surface experience an inward pull. So, a net
work is formed against the inward pull. It results in a greater
potential energy on surface molecules.
• For a system to be stable, P.E must be minimum. In order to attain
minimum potential energy and hence stable equilibrium, the free
surface of the liquid tends to have the minimum surface area
(by decreasing number of molecules on the surface) and thereby it
behaves like a stretched membrane.
 Surface Energy
• To increase the free surface area, molecules have to be brought
from interior to the surface then work has to be done against
the force of attraction. This work done is stored as the potential
energy of the molecules on the surface .so the molecule on the
surface have extra energy compared to the other molecules.

• Surface energy= Work done / increase in surface area

Relation between surface energy and surface tension
A fluid will stick to a solid surface if the surface
energy between fluid and the solid is smaller
than the sum of surface energies between solid-
air, and fluid-air. Now there is attraction
between the solid surface and the liquid.
 Measuring surface tension
A flat vertical glass plate, below which
a vessel of some liquid is kept, forms
one arm of the balance.
• The plate is balanced by weights on
the other side, with its horizontal
edge just over water.
• The vessel is raised slightly till the
• The surface tension of
liquid just touches the glass plate and
the liquid-air interface is
pulls it down a little because of
surface tension.
• Weights are added till the plate just
clears water.
• Where m is the extra
mass and l is the length of
the plate edge.
 a) if the surface is plane, the
molecule A on the surface is
attracted equally in all
directions. The resultant
force due to surface tension
is zero. Pressure on both
sides of the surface is same
b) if the surface is convex, there
is a resultant downward force F
on molecule A. For the surface to
remain in equilibrium, the
pressure on the liquid side must
be greater than the pressure on
the vapour side
c)if the surface is concave, there is a resultant upward
force F due to surface tension on the molecule A. For
the surface to remain in equilibrium, the pressure on
the vapour side must be greater than the pressure on
the liquid side

Thus we find that whenever a liquid surface is curved, the

pressure on its concave side is greater than the pressure o the
convex side
Angle of Contact
• The liquid surface is
usually curved when it is in
contact with a solid. The
particular shape that it takes
depends on the relative
strengths of cohesive and
adhesive forces.
• Adhesive force > Cohesive
force: concave meniscus
• Adhesive force < Cohesive
force: convex meniscus
• Adhesive force = Cohesive
force: Liquid surface is plane
Angle of contact is defined as the angle between the
tangent to the liquid surface at the point of contact and
the solid surface inside the liquid

The value of angle of

contact depends on the
following factors:
(i) Nature of the solid and
the liquid in contact.
(ii) Cleanliness of the
surface in contact.
(iii) Medium above the
free surface of the liquid.
(iv) Temperature of the
liquid.
We consider the three interfacial
surface tensions at all the three
interfaces, liquid-air, solid-air and
solid-liquid denoted by Sla, Ssa
and Ssl , respectively.

At the line of contact, the surface

forces between the three media
must be in equilibrium.
From the Fig. (b) the following
relation is easily derived.
The following three cases are possible :

(i) If Ssa > Ssl, cos θ is positive and θ < 90° i.e., angle of
contact is acute. The liquid meniscus is concave upwards.
This happens in the case of water taken in a glass vessel.

(ii) If Ssa < Ssl, cos θ is negative and θ > 90° i.e., angle of
contact is obtuse. The liquid meniscus is convex upwards.
This happens in the case of mercury taken in a glass
vessel.

(iii) When Ssa = Ssl, Cos θ=0 and θ =90°. The liquid
meniscus is plane. This happens in the case of pure water
taken in a silver vessel.
• Soaps, detergents and dying substances
are wetting agents. When they are added
the angle of contact becomes small so
that these may penetrate well and
become effective.

• If angle of contact is acute the liquid wet

solid surface.

• Water proofing agents on the other hand

are added to create a large angle of
contact between the water and fibres.

• When angle of contact is obtuse, the

liquid do not wet the solid surface.
 EXCESS PRESSURE INSIDE A LIQUID DROP
Consider a spherical
liquid drop of radius r.
Let S be the surface
tension of the liquid.
Due to its spherical
shape, there is a an
excess pressure Pi
inside the drop over
that on outside. This
excess pressure acts
normally outwards.
EXCESS PRESSURE INSIDE A SOAP BUBBLE

Thus the value of

excess pressure is high
for a bubble, so that it
is difficult to make
a bubble than a drop.
 Capillary Rise
• water rises up in a narrow tube in spite of gravity.
• The word “capilla” means hair in Latin; if the tube were hair
thin, the rise would be very large.
• Capillarity is due to surface tension.
“The phenomenon of rise or fall of a
liquid in a capillary tube in comparison
to the surrounding is called capillarity”
 Ascent Formula
(Expression for capillary rise)

consider a vertical capillary tube of circular cross section

(radius a) inserted into an open vessel of water. The contact
angle between water and glass is acute. Thus the surface of
water in the capillary is concave. This means that there is a
pressure difference between the two sides of the top surface.
 Applications of capillarity
• Kerosene rises through the wick of a stove.
• The ploughing of land at the end of monsoon is to
reduce the loss of water from the surface by capillary
rise.
• Cotton dresses are preferred in summer because they
have fine pores which act as capillaries for sweat.
• The absorption of ink by a blotting paper
• The supply of water to the leaves in a plant.
Detergents and Surface Tension
• Washing with water does
not remove grease stains.
This is because water does
not wet greasy dirt; i.e.,
there is very little area of
contact between them.
• The molecules of
detergents are hairpin
shaped
• This kind of process using
surface active detergents
or surfactants is important
not only for cleaning, but
also in recovering oil,
mineral ores etc.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F7-ie4uWX04