LTM: encoding, retrieval

and Consolidation
Module 5
Encoding (transferring information from
STM/WM to LTM)
Three types of questions were designed
• Encoding methods to create different levels of processing
• Maintenance rehearsal
• Elaborative rehearsal

• Levels of processing model: memory

depends on the depth of processing that
an item receives
• Shallow processing (little attention to
meaning - maintenance rehearsal)
• Deep processing (close attention to item’s
meaning and its relationship - elaborative
rehearsal)
• Deep processing results in better memory
than shallow processing (Craik, 2002)
• Encoding is very crucial for memory
• What are the effective encoding Deeper processing is associated with
techniques that can increase the retrieval better memory.
 Effective encoding techniques
• Forming visual images
• Two groups [1- silently repeat the pairs; 2- form a mental
picture in which the two items were interacting]
• Linking Words to Yourself - Self-referent effect
• Memory is better if you are asked to relate a word to yourself
• Presented a list of adjectives
• Two conditions, the self condition, in which participants indicated
whether the adjective described themselves (yes or no); common
condition, in which participants indicated whether the word was
commonly used (yes or no)
• Generating material yourself, rather than passively
receiving it (includes retrieval cues as well, discussed in
the next section)
• Organizing information
(remembering words in a particular category may serve as a
retrieval cue—a word or other stimulus that helps a person
remember information stored in memory)
• for e.g., apple, plum, cherry; shoe, coat, pants
• Relating words to survival value
Retrieval Practice
• Elaboration that results in better memory can also be
achieved by testing memory:-practice memory retrieval
• AKA retrieval practice effect or testing effect
• Demonstrated by Karpicke and Roediger’s (2008) study
• Demonstrated in a large number of experiments, both in Why testing improves the
the laboratory and in classroom settings (Karpicke et al., retrieval?
Testing provides a way of
2009).
• For example, testing resulted in better performance than elaborating the material
rereading for eighth-grade students’ performance on a
history test (Carpenter et al., 2009) and for college
students’ performance on an exam in a brain and behavior
course (McDaniel et al., 2007)
• Techniques for effective studying
• Read it yourself (homework)
Retrieval: Getting
Information Out of Memory
many of our failures of memory are failures of retrieval—the information
is “in there,” but we can’t get it out
 Retrieval cues
• Retrieval cues helps in retrieving memories
• Retrieval cues are significantly more effective
when they are created by the person whose
memory is being tested (Mantyla, 1986)
• Timo Mantyla (1986) presented participants
with a list of 504 nouns, such as banana,
freedom, and tree
• Three conditions:
• Self generated words (write three words they
associated with each noun); other-person generated
words (For e.g., three words for banana might be
yellow, bunches, and edible);control group
• Task – report the noun seen during the study phase
Is this result sound similar to
• Retrieval can be increased by matching the
conditions at retrieval to the conditions that any incident/scenarios?
existed at encoding - Context and mood What about preparing for
dependent memories exams from someone else’s
• Encoding specificity principle: we encode
information along with its context. notes?
Consolidation: How
memories are stored
 Two type of consolidation (they work
simultaneously) (Nader & Einarsson, 2010)

(1) Synaptic consolidation

• Structural changes at synapses
• Rapid; occurs within first few minutes
(2) Systems consolidation
• Gradual reorganization of neural circuits within
the brain
• Slow – occurs over period of weeks or years

Synaptic and systems consolidation occur simultaneously—one that works

rapidly, at the level of the synapse, and another that works more slowly, at the
level of neural circuit.
Synaptic • Memory is represented in the
brain by physiological changes
consolidation that occurs at many synapses.
• These changes provide a
(neural) record of experiences.
• Repeated activity can
strengthen the synapse by
causing structural changes,
greater transmitter release, and
increased firing

• Long-term potentiation (LTP) - Structural changes at the synapse leads to the strengthening
of synaptic transmission (one of the major cellular mechanism underlying memory and
learning)
System consolidation
• Role of hippocampus in the encoding and consolidation of
memories
• Different theories describes the role of hippocampus in
somewhat different manner
• The Standard Model of Consolidation
• hippocampus is crucial during early stages of memory
• The Multiple Trace Model of Consolidation
• Hippocampus is required during the retrieval of episodic memory but not the
semantic memory
The Standard Model of
Consolidation

• Hippocampus replays the neural

activity associated with a memory and
sends this information to the cortex
• After consolidation has taken
place – Hippocampus is no more
required ➤ Figure 7.13 standard model of
consolidation
• This model resulted from studies
of brain damage
• E.g., case of H.M. and graded nature
of amnesia
• amnesia is more severe for events
that were closer in time leading up
to the injury
The Multiple Trace Model of
Consolidation

• Questions the standard model’s

assumption that the hippocampus is
important only at the beginning of the
consolidation
• As the time passes, intercortical
connections strengthen (green) and
hippocampus–cortical connections
remain (Nadel & Moskovitch, 1997)
• Gilboa et. al., (2004) measured various
remote and recent memories of
participants by showing participants
photographs of themselves engaging in
various activities ranging from very
recently to the distant past (when they
were 5 years old)
• Hippocampus remained active during
retrieval of both recent and remote episodic
memories
• Responses of hippocampus changes
over time (Viskontas el.al., 2009)
The hippocampus response remained high for RR pairs (the ones that remained
episodic at 1 week), but dropped to near zero for RK pairs (the ones that had lost their
episodic character at 1 week). This supports the idea that the hippocampus response
changes over time, but only for stimuli that have lost their episodic character
(Hippocampus stop responding when episodic memories become semantic memories)
 Sleep enhances Consolidation
• Memory consolidation is strong during the
sleep (Steffan et. al., 2006)
• Students who memorized a list of word-pair
were able to recall much more (forget less), if
they slept shortly after learning the list
• Sleep group - studied the words and slept within
3 hours
• Awake group - studied the words and remained
awake for 10 hours before getting the night’s
sleep (sleep-wake timing were control by having
multiple groups)

• Consolidation is also influenced by the

expected material to be tested (Wilhelm et.
al., 2011)
• memories that are more important are more
likely to be strengthened by consolidation
Reconsolidation – updating memories
 Nader et al., (2000a) - Reconsolidation in
Rats

Reactivated memories
are fragile and subject
to change
 Reconsolidation can help alleviate the
symptoms of PTSD
• Reactivation of a memory followed by reconsolidation can help
alleviate the symptoms of PTSD (Brunet et al., 2008)
• PTSD patients listened to a 30-second recording describing the
circumstances of their traumatic experience and received propranolol (a
drug that blocks activation of stress hormone receptors in the amygdala
• Another group listened to the recording describing their
experience but received a placebo, which had no active
ingredients

• Recalling the event one week later - Physiological responses were

significantly smaller in the subjects who had received post-reactivation
propranolol a week earlier
• reactivating the person’s memory for the traumatic event and then administering
the drug propranolol - blocks activation of stress hormone receptors in the
amygdala - reduced the emotional reaction associated with remembering the
trauma
https://www.ted.com/talks/amy_milton_can_we_edit_memori
es/transcript?language=en&subtitle=en
Next module: Episodic and
Semantic Memory