09-01-2025

PH-1201
Unit 1: Vector
Week-1 and 2 Lecture-outline

• What we learned in the last class?

– Recapitulations on vector preliminaries

• What we are going to learn today?

– The 𝛻 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
– 2nd order operations with 𝛻
– Integration in 3D

Vector Lecture Notes- Dr. Sourav Pramanik 1

Prelude
• Physics is all about expressing physical phenomena in mathematical language.

• We shall have a course on basic mathematics, specifically vector calculus as a

prelude to electromagnetic theory and other subjects like waves and
oscillations ,Quantum mechanics, optics and relativity.

Forces
• Physics Deals with Four types of Forces
– Strong: Responsible for holding neutrons and protons together
– Electromagnetic: This is our topic of discussion
– Weak: Responsible for some kind of radioactive decay
– Gravitational: Responsible for the apple falling on newton’s head

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Unit 1 (5 L)
• Pre requisite for unit 2 (EMT)
– Deals with vector calculus
• Vector and scalar fields
• Gradient, divergence and curl
• Line, surface and volume integrals
• Divergence and Stoke’s Theorem
• Curvilinear coordinate system
• Transformation between Cartesian, Spherical and
Cylindrical coordinate system

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Starting Point
• What is a field?
• A physical quantity that varies in space and in time is a field

Time independent-> Static field

Time dependent-> Dynamic field

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Types of Field Continued

Physical Quantity-> Vector Vector Field
Physical Quantity-> Scalar Scalar Field

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Recap: What is a Vector?

• A physical quantity that has both magnitude and direction and
obeys vector addition law

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Recap: What is a Vector?

• A physical quantity that has both magnitude and
direction and obeys vector addition law

• Magnitude 𝐴 = 𝐴 +𝐴 +𝐴

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Vector Addition
• 𝐴⃗ = 𝚤̂𝐴 + 𝚥̂𝐴 +𝑘𝐴
𝐵 = 𝚤̂𝐵 + 𝚥̂𝐵 +𝑘 𝐵

𝐴⃗ + 𝐵 = 𝚤̂(𝐴 +𝐵 )
+𝚥̂(𝐴 +𝐵 )+ 𝑘 (𝐴 +𝐵 )

𝐴⃗ − 𝐵 = 𝚤̂(𝐴 −𝐵 ) + 𝚥̂(𝐴 −𝐵 )+
𝑘(𝐴 −𝐵 )
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Product of Vectors
• Product with a Scalar
𝑐𝐴⃗=𝐴⃗𝑐 = 𝑐 𝐴 𝐴
• Scalar or Dot Product
Product of Two vectors results in a scalar
For example: work done 𝑊 = 𝐹⃗ .𝑟⃗
• Vector or cross Product
Product of Two vectors results in a vector
For example: torque𝑇 = 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗

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Dot product
• 𝐴⃗ 𝐵 = 𝐴 𝐵 cos 𝜃 𝑨

• =𝐴 𝐵 +𝐴 𝐵 +𝐴 𝐵 𝑩

• Scalar Projection

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Cross Product
• 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵 = 𝐴 𝐵 sin 𝜃

𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘
• 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵 = 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
𝐵 𝐵 𝐵

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• Null Vector
– Vector with zero magnitude
• Unit Vector
– Vector with unit magnitude

𝐴⃗ 𝚤̂𝐴 + 𝚥̂𝐴 + 𝚥̂𝐴

𝐴= =
𝐴⃗
𝐴 +𝐴 +𝐴

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Triple product
• Scalar Triple Product

Volume of a parallelopiped defined

by three vectors a, b, c

• Vector Triple Product

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Pseudo Vectors
• A pseudovector (or axial vector) is a quantity that transforms
like a vector under a proper rotation, but in three dimensions
gains an additional sign flip under an improper rotation such
as a reflection.
• Geometrically it is of equal magnitude but in the opposite
direction, of its mirror image. This is as opposed to
a true or polar vector, which on reflection matches its mirror
image.
• In three dimensions the pseudovector p is associated with
the cross product of two polar vectors a and b
• Example: Torque

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Pseudo Scalar
• A pseudoscalar is a quantity that behaves like
a scalar, except that it changes sign under
an improper rotations while a true scalar does not.
• Any scalar product between a pseudovector and an
ordinary vector is a pseudoscalar.
• The example of a pseudoscalar is the scalar triple
product.

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A scalar field in 1D

𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥

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Scalar field in 3D
• How to find change
• 𝑑𝑇?

• 𝑑𝑇 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧

• = 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ +𝑘 . 𝚤̂𝑑𝑥 + 𝚥̂𝑑𝑦 + 𝑘𝑑𝑧

• = 𝛻𝑇. 𝑑𝑙

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The Gradient Operator

• 𝛻𝑇 = 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ +𝑘 𝛻𝑇

• = 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ +𝑘 𝑇 𝑑𝑙

• 𝑑𝑇 = 𝛻𝑇. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝛻𝑇 𝑑𝑙 cos 𝜃
• =maximum when 𝜃=0
• i.e. when 𝑑𝑙 points in the direction of 𝛻𝑇

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The Gradient Operator: Example

Do yourself: Calculate Gradient : (1) r2 , (2) 1/r

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Examples

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Significance of Gradient
• 𝛻𝑇 points in such a direction when dT becomes
maximum
• Gradient T points in the direction of maximal change
of T
• 𝛻𝑇 = is the rate of change in space along
the direction of maximal change

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Gradient on a surface
• Say a surface is defined by the equation:
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑐

• If we move on the surface value

of f(x,y,z) does not change.

• If we move from P to Q on the

surface, df=0.
𝑑𝑓 = 0
𝛻𝑓. 𝑑𝑟 = 𝛻𝑓 𝑑𝑟 cos 𝜃 = 0

• Points P and Q are very close and they are on the surface, so, 𝑑𝑟 is on the surface
• 𝜃=90 degree
• Hence, 𝛻𝑓 should be normal to the 𝑑𝑟 or normal to the surface at P(x,y,z)

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Examples

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Let’s check it
• Consider a spherical surface
• Equation: 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 3
• 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧
• 𝛻𝑓 ( , , )
= 2𝑥𝚤̂ + 2𝑦𝑗 + 2𝑧𝑘 = 2𝑟⃗
• 𝑛 = 2𝑟⃗/2r=𝑟̂
• 𝛻𝑓 ( , , )
= 2𝚤̂ + 2𝚥̂ + 2𝑘

• 𝑛= 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ + 𝑘
• Normal unit vector is along radial direction

Do yourself: Find the normal unit vector to the plane surface defined by the
equation, 2x+3y-5z=6

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The Operator
• When operated on a Vector field:
𝛻? 𝐴⃗

• We have two options

– either put a dot or a cross in between

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Divergence of a Vector
• When we put a dot in between
– The result is a scalar quantity
𝛻. 𝐴⃗ = 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ +𝑘 . (𝚤̂𝐴 + 𝚥̂𝐴 +𝑘𝐴 )
𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴
= + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

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Example

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Divergence of a Vector

𝛻. 𝐴⃗ = 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ +𝑘 . (𝚤̂𝐴 + 𝚥̂𝐴 +𝑘𝐴 )

𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴
= + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

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What does it mean?

• As the name suggests…
• It’s a measure of how much a vector diverges from a point
• Let’s Check it with some vector fields

~𝑟⃗ 𝑐⃗
~ − 𝑟⃗
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Geometrical Interpretation

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Do yourself: Calculate divergence

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Vector field character

• When divergence of a vector vanishes it is called solenoidal

vector field.

• For non-zero divergence vector field is non-solenoidal.

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Curl of a Vector
𝛻 × 𝐴⃗ = 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ +𝑘 ×(𝚤̂𝐴 + 𝚥̂𝐴 +𝑘𝐴 )
𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝚥̂
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴

𝐹⃗ = −𝑦𝚤̂ + 𝑥𝚥̂
𝐹⃗ = 𝑥𝚥̂

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Example

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What does it mean?

• As the name suggests…
• It’s a measure of how much a vector rotates or curls (spatial rotation)
around a point
• Let’s Check it with vector field
• 𝐹⃗ = −𝑦𝚤̂ + 𝑥𝚥̂ (see drawing of this field in previous slide)
• Speculate a result
• Verify the speculation
• Nonzero curl means rotational vector field
• Zero curl means irrotational vector field

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• Irrotational vector field • Rotational vector field

• Example: 𝐹⃗ = 𝑥𝚤̂ + 𝑦 𝚥̂ • Example: 𝐹⃗ = −𝚤̂𝑦 + 𝑥 𝚥̂

𝛻 × 𝐹⃗ = 0 (irrotational field) 𝛻 × 𝐹⃗ =2𝑘 (rotational field)

𝛻. 𝐹⃗ = 2 (non-solenoidal field) 𝛻. 𝐹⃗ = 0 (solenoidal field)

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2nd Order operations

• We already have Gradient of a scalar field
𝛻𝑇 a vector field itself

So, if we want to apply 𝛻 from left side on 𝛻𝑇, we shall have

two options: either put dot or cross in between.
Option 1.  𝛻. 𝛻𝑇
Option 2. 𝛻 × 𝛻𝑇

Vector Lecture Notes- Dr. Sourav Pramanik 37

2nd Order operations cont…

• We already have divergence of a vector field
𝛻. 𝐴⃗ a scalar field itself

So we are left with only one option

Option 3.  𝛻(𝛻. 𝐴⃗)

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2nd Order operations cont…

• We already have curl of a vector field
𝛻 × 𝐴⃗ a vector field itself

So we two more options

Option 4.  𝛻. (𝛻 × 𝐴⃗)
Option 5.  𝛻X(𝛻 × 𝐴⃗)

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Option 1
• 𝛻. 𝛻𝑇= 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ +𝑘 . 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ +𝑘

𝜕 𝑇 𝜕 𝑇 𝜕 𝑇
= + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

=𝛻 𝑇 Is called the Laplacian operator

Laplacian of a vector field

𝛻 𝐴⃗ = 𝚤̂𝛻 𝐴 + 𝚥̂𝛻 𝐴 + 𝑘 𝛻 𝐴

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Option 2
• 𝛻 × 𝛻𝑇

𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘

• 𝛻 × 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ +𝑘 =

• Note the fact that =

• 𝛻 × 𝛻𝑇 = 0 (always)

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Option 3
• 𝛻(𝛻. 𝐴⃗) This 2nd derivative does not occur frequently in
physical systems

• It does not have any special name

• It is called gradient of divergence

• In short Grad div..

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Option 4
• 𝛻. (𝛻 × 𝐴⃗)

𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘
• = 𝚤̂ + 𝚥̂ +𝑘 .
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
• Note the fact that =

• 𝛻. (𝛻 × 𝐴⃗)= 0 (always)

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Option 5
• 𝛻X(𝛻 × 𝐴⃗)
• Use BAC-CAB rule
• 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵 × 𝑐⃗ = 𝐵 𝐴⃗. 𝐶⃗ − 𝐶⃗ 𝐴⃗. 𝐵
• 𝛻X(𝛻 × 𝐴⃗)= 𝛻(𝛻. 𝐴⃗) − 𝛻 𝐴⃗
No new operator!

Effectively we can have two 2nd order derivatives

(i) Laplacian and (ii) grad div

• Do yourself:
(1) For the ∅ = 𝑥𝑦 𝑧 , calculate 𝛻 ∅.
(2) If 𝐴⃗ = 𝑥 𝚤̂ + 3𝑥𝑧 − 2𝑥𝑧𝑘 , find 𝛻 (𝐴⃗)

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Try yourself

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Examples

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Examples

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Examples

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Examples

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Examples

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Example

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Integral calculus in 3D
• The case of 1D
• 𝐼 = ∫ 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑎 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒!
• Over the x-axis
• In case of a field in 3D, we need to specify a curve over which the area has
to be calculated. This integral is called Line integral.

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The line/path integral

𝐼= 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑙
,
For a closed path it is defined as

𝐼= 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑙

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Example

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Example: Vector integration

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Example: path integral -1

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Example: path integral -1

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Example: path integral -2

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Example: path integral -3

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Try yourself

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Surface integration
• Field lines of a vector can intersect a surface at any orientations.
• Blue arrows: unit vectors of small area vectors
• Red arrows: Field lines of a given vector along the
given surface.

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Surface Integral
• A closed line bounds a surface. Consider a surface in a vector field. Take an
elementary area “ds” at P(x,y,z).

𝐼= 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑠

For volume under a closed

surface

𝐼= 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑠
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Surface integral-significance: flux of a vector through a given

surface

𝐼= 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑠

• Example

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Surface integral….
• Hence, the surface integral depends on the
• (i) choice of the surface
• (ii) and the vector given

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Surface integral: Example-1

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Surface integral: Example 2

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Surface integral for arbitrary surface

Take a elementary area ‘ds’ on

the given surface and take a
projection on any Cartesian
plane. Let’s take the projection of
ds on on x-y plane.

Find the relation between ‘ds’

and ‘dxdy’.

Vector, F=F(x,y,z). And Eq. of the surface (say): f(x,y,z)=c, or, z=g(x,y).

As one move through the surface ‘S’, it’s ‘z’ coordinate changes following
z=g(x,y) relation. Replace ‘z’ in F-vector as ‘g(x,y)’ and perform the integration
over x-y plane.
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Surface integral for arbitrary surface:

α is the angle between the unit

vector k in the z-direction and
the unit normal n to the surface
at P.

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Example-1

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Example-2

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Example-2

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Volume integral
• In a similar way we can define a volume integral of a scalar
T(x,y,z):

𝐼= 𝑇 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑑𝑉; 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧

• Depends on-
(i) the choice of the volume
(ii) the choice of the integrand

• A vector can also be integrated over a volume to get another

vector as result

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Volume integral

Example: Density of a cube T(x,y,z)= xyz2. Find the mass of the cube of unit side lengths.

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Example

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Conservative field and scalar potential:

Also, 𝛻 × 𝛻φ = 0 (always)

If we have a conservative vector 𝐹⃗ then 𝛻 × 𝐹⃗ = 0

So for an irrotational or conservative field we can associate the field vector 𝐹⃗ with a
scalar quantitity φ so that 𝐹⃗ = 𝛻𝜑. The scalar function φ is called scalar potential of
the field vector 𝐹⃗ .

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Path integral of a conservative field is path independent:

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Conservative field: Example 1

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Conservative field: Example 1

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Conservative field: Example 1

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Scalar potential: Example

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Scalar potential

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Try Yourself

3xz2
(correction)

86

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