OXYGEN AND ITS COMPOUNDS

INTRODUCTION
Oxygen is a chemical element with the symbol O and atomic number 8. It is a member of the chalcogen group on the periodic
table. It is the most abundant element in the earth’s crust and the third-most abundant element in the universe, after hydrogen
and helium.
Oxygen is the most abundant element on earth. It is prepared in the laboratory by catalytic decomposition of Potassium
trioxochlorate(V) or hydrogen peroxide. Industrially, it is prepared by the liquefaction of air followed by fractional distillation of
liquefied air.
Oxygen, being strongly electronegative, is chemically very reactive. It reacts with most metals to form basic oxides which are
ionic, they also react with most non- metals to form acidic oxides which are covalent molecules and they react with hydrocarbons,
fuels [to form CO2 and H2O. It rekindles a glowing splint to indicate its presence in any place.
The oxides of oxygen can be classified into basic, acidic, amphoteric and neutral oxides. Peroxide is prepared by the action of a
dilute acid on the peroxides of certain metals. It is a strong oxidizing agent. However, in the presence of more powerful oxidizing
agents, ozone, O3, is an unstable allotrope of oxygen. The ozone layer in the atmosphere acts as a protective shield by preventing
too much ultra-violet radiation from falling on earth and harming living organism.
Electronic Structure and Bonding Capacity of Oxygen
Oxygen is an element in group (VIA) of the periodic table. Its atomic number is 8, and has an electronic configuration of 1 S2 2S2 2P4
-------------Electronic structure
Thus, oxygen forms a complete octet by either accepting two electrons from a donor (electropositive element) to form O 2-in an
ionic substance (formation of ionic compound), or by sharing two electrons with other atoms (non-metals) to form a covalent
substance. At room temperature and pressure, oxygen exists as a discrete gaseous diatomic molecule, O 2 the two toms are joined
together by double covalent bond, O=O. it is the only element of group VI which forms multiple bonds with itself.
LABORATORY PREPARATION
There are two general and common methods for the laboratory preparation of oxygen
1. Thermal decomposition of salts containing anions rich in oxygen, e.g. Potassium trioxochlorate(v) KClO 3(s).

The equation for the reaction is given as shown below.

2KClO3(s)
MnO2 (s) KCl(s) + 3O2(g)
→
When potassium trioxochlorate(V) (KClO 3) is heated above 380°C, it decomposes to produce potassium chloride (KCl) and oxygen
gas (O2). However, the addition of manganese(IV) oxide (MnO 2) as a catalyst lowers the activation energy of the reaction, allowing
the decomposition to occur at a lower temperature and significantly increasing the reaction rate, making the release of oxygen
faster and more efficient.
The oxygen collected using this process is collected over water. To dry it you pass it through anhydrous calcium chloride (CaCl 2) or
concentrated tetraoxosulphate (VI) (H2SO4) and then collected over mercury.
2. Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide (catalytic decomposition): In this case, no heat is applied to the decomposing
substance, H2O2, but immediately, the MnO2 (which acts as a catalyst) touches H2O2, effervescence occurs releasing the gas
oxygen as seen in the equation below.

2H2O(l)
MnO2 (s) 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
→
In cold environment Hydrogen peroxide also reacts with acidified potassium tetraoxomanganate (VII) solution to produce
oxygen (it is an oxidation-reduction reaction). The tetraoxomanaganate (VII) acts as the oxidizing agent while hydrogen peroxide
acts as a reducing agent.
5H2O2(l) + 2KMnO4(aq0 + 3H2SO4(aq) → K2SO4(aq) + 2MnSO4(aq) + 8H2O(l) + 5O2(g)
Ionically,
5H2O2(l) + 2MnO4-(aq0 + 6H+(aq) → 2Mn2+(aq) + 8H2O(l) + 5O2(g)

Dry oxygen gas is obtained by passing it through a woulff [not wash] bottle containing conc. H 2SO4; the gas is then collected by
downward delivery (or upward displacement of air), since pure oxygen is slightly denser than air.

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Other methods of preparation include the reaction between sodium peroxide and water, application of heat on oxides of metals
such as lead (PbO2), mercury oxide (HgO), silver oxide (Ag 2O), managanese (IV) oxide (MnO 2) e.tc. And also, the application of
heat on trioxonitrate (V) salt, electrolysis of water oxygen is produced at the anode.
2PbO2(s) 2PbO(s) + O2(g)
3MnO2(s) Mn3O4(s) + O2(g)
2Ag2O(s) 4Ag(s) + O2(g)
2NaNO3(s) 2NaNO2(s) + O2(g) (decomposition of trioxonitrate (V) salts)
2Na2O2(S) + 2H2O(l) 4NaOH(aq) + O2(g) (reaction of sodium peroxide and water)
Na2O2(s) + 2H2O(l) H2O2 + 2Na+ + 2OH-
2H2O2 2H2O + O2 (decomposition of hydrogen peroxide)

INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION
1. LIQUEFACTION OF AIR:
A. Purification of Air:
 Dust Removal: Atmospheric air is first filtered to remove any dust particles.
 CO₂ Removal: The air is passed through caustic soda (NaOH), which removes carbon dioxide (CO 2).
B. Compression and Cooling:
The air is then compressed by forcing it into a smaller space, which increases the pressure of the air molecules to about 200
atm. The air is then cooled and allowed to expand rapidly through a small opening (aperture), which causes it to cool further. The
rapid expansion causes the air to lose heat (Joule-Thomson effect), cooling it significantly.
Liquefaction:
The temperature of the air drops to about -200°C (73 K), at which point it becomes liquefied. This is the liquefaction stage, where
the gaseous air turns into liquid air.
Fractional Distillation:
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The liquefied air is then passed through a fractionating column, where the distillation process occurs. The liquid air is gradually
heated until it begins to boil. Nitrogen, with a boiling point of -196°C, vaporizes first, followed by argon at -186°C, and oxygen at -
183°C. As nitrogen and argon evaporate first, the remaining liquid is predominantly oxygen. This fractional distillation process
effectively separates pure nitrogen, argon, and oxygen, with the oxygen reaching a purity of approximately 99.5% after
separation.
By electrolysis of acidified water: Oxygen, like hydrogen is obtained during the electrolysis of dilute H 2SO4.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
1. Pure oxygen is colourless, odourless and tasteless.
2. It is slightly denser than air.
3. It is slightly soluble in water.
4. It is a diatomic (O2) gas that is neutral to litmus paper.
5. It boils (turn to gas) at -1830C and solidifies at -2250C
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
(A) Reaction with metals: Metals such as Na, K, Ca, Mg, Al, Zn burn brightly in oxygen. Metals such as silver, Gold and
platinum do not react with oxygen. Oxides of metals are generally basic. e.g.
When sodium reacts with an excess supply of oxygen, it does not form its basic oxide (Na 2O). Instead, it burns with a bright
yellow flame to produce sodium peroxide (Na2O2). Similarly, potassium burns with a lilac flame in excess oxygen to form a higher
oxide, potassium superoxide (KO2 rather than potassium oxide (K2O).
4Na(s)+ O2(g) 2Na2O(s)
→
2Na(s) +O2(g) → Na2O2(s)
4K(s)+O2(g)→2K2O(s)
When red-hot iron wire is held in a gas jar filled with oxygen, it slowly burns to produce a black iron (II, III) 0xide, Fe3O4.
3Fe(s) + 2O2(g) Fe3O4(s)
→
Magnesium burns in oxygen with a bright white flame, producing a white powder known as magnesium oxide (MgO). This
reaction is highly exothermic.
(B) Reaction with non-metals: Some burning non-metals when lowered into a jar of oxygen, burn to form acidic oxides or acid
anhydrides which when dissolved in water form acidic solutions. E.g.
CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq)
→
1. With carbon: When carbon reacts with oxygen, it undergoes combustion to form carbon dioxide (CO₂). The reaction is
exothermic, releasing heat.
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
→
If there is insufficient oxygen, carbon can form carbon monoxide (CO), a poisonous gas:
2C(s)+O2(g)→2CO(g)
2. With sulphur: When sulphur burns in oxygen, it reacts to form sulphur(IV) oxide (SO₂), a colourless gas with a pungent odour.
The reaction is exothermic, releasing heat.
S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)
→
If there is excess oxygen, sulphur dioxide can further react to form sulphur(VI) oxide (SO₃)
2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2SO3(g)
Sulphur(IV) is highly reactive and can dissolve in water to form sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄).

3. With phosphorus: When phosphorus reacts with oxygen, it forms white phosphorus pentoxide (P 2O5). This reaction is highly
exothermic, meaning it releases a large amount of heat energy
4P(s) + 5O2(g) P4O10(s)
→
Generally non-metals like
Sulphur, carbon and phosphorus burn in oxygen to form acidic oxides. These are also referred to as acid anhydrides, as they
dissolve in water to form acids. Acid anhydrides are oxides of non-metals that dissolve in water to form acidic solution.

S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g) + H 2 O H 2 S O 4 (aq )

→ →

P4(s) + 3O2(g) P4O6(g) +6 H 2 O 4 H 3 p O3 (aq)

→ →

S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g) + H 2 O H 2 S O 4 (aq )

→ →
4. Formation of water: Hydrogen burns violently in oxygen with a pale –blue flame, to produce water.
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)
→

1. Formation of Ozone: When a silent electric discharge is passed through oxygen, gaseous ozone, O 3, (trioxygen) is formed.

⇌
The reaction is reversible:
3O2(g) 2O3(g)
Ozone is an allotrope of oxygen. Allotropes are two or more different forms of the same element, in the same physical state. The
phenomenon is called allotropy. Other elements that exhibit allotropy are sulphur, carbon and phosphorous.
Ozone can be produced from oxygen by passing an electric discharge through it. A silent discharge is essential in this process to
avoid sparking, as the heat generated by sparks would decompose the ozone formed. An apparatus called an ozonizer is used to
carry out this process efficiently.
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PROPERTIES OF OZONE
physical Properties:
1. State: Ozone is a pale blue gas at room temperature. It condenses into a dark blue liquid and forms a violet-black solid at very
low temperatures.
2. Odor: It has a characteristic sharp, pungent odour, noticeable during thunderstorms or near electrical equipment.
3. Solubility: Ozone is moderately soluble in water and more soluble in organic solvents like carbon tetrachloride and turpentine.
4. Density: Ozone is denser than air.
5. Boiling Point: −112∘C-and a melting Point: −193∘C
6. It is poisonous at concentration above 100 ppm.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
It has similar chemical properties as oxygen except that it is more reactive.
1. It decomposes into ordinary oxygen by heating or even on standing.
2O3(g)→3O2(g)
2. Ozone is highly reactive and a powerful oxidizing agent. It can oxidize metals and non-metals, such as lead (Pb), mercury
(Hg), and sulphur (S).
2KI(s) + H2O(l) + O3(g) →2KOH(aq)+I2(s)+O2(g)
PbS(s) + 4O3(g) → SO3(g) + O2(g)
USES OF OZONE
1. Disinfectant in water treatment.
2. Air purification.
3. Bleaching agent for oils, waxes, and textiles.
4. Industrial applications like ozonolysis.
COMPOUNDS OF OXYGEN (OXIDES)

Binary Compounds of Oxygen- Classification of Oxides

Based on their acid –base properties, there are four classes of oxides of elements in Periods 2 and 3: acidic, basic, amphoteric
and neutral.
Acid oxides: These are of non-metals which dissolve in water to form acidic solution. And react with base to form salt and water.
Examples of acid oxides are P5O10, NO2, SO2, SiO2 etc. They are called acid anhydride. E.g.
CO2 +NaOH Na2CO3 + H2O
→

SO3 + 2KOH K2SO4 + H 2O

→
NOTE: SiO2 is insoluble in water
Basic oxides: They are metallic oxides that are basic in nature because they react with acids to form salt and water only. These
compounds are usually ionic in nature. Group 1, 2 and lanthanides form basic compounds of oxygen when they react with
dioxygen. Examples are K2O, MgO, CaO, Li2O etc. Soluble basic oxides are called alkali. E.g.
Na2O(g) + H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq)
→

Na2O(s) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

→
Amphoteric oxides: These are oxides that behave both as acidic and basic oxides. They react with both acid and base E.g. ZnO,
Al2O3, PbO etc
ZnO(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4 + H2O(l)
→

ZnO + 2NaOH + H2O Na2Zn(OH)4

→
Neutral oxides: They are neither acidic nor basic in character. E.g. water, CO, N 2O
Peroxide oxides: These are higher oxides where (O-O) bond is present. Peroxides contain higher proportion of oxygen than the
ordinary oxides. They contain the peroxide ion (O-O)2 .They give hydrogen peroxide when reacted with a dilute acid. E.g. Barium
peroxide BaO2, Calcium peroxide CaO2, Sodium peroxide Na2O2, Hydrogen peroxide H2O2 (most common).
HYDROGEN PEROXIDE
Oxygen combines with hydrogen to form two major hydrides, water and hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide is prepared in the
laboratory by the action of dilute tetraoxosulphate(VI) acid on metallic peroxides (e.g barium peroxide). Barium peroxide is
preferentially used because barium tetraoxosulphate(VI) (baSO 4) is insoluble and can be easily filtered off.

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BaO2(s) + H2SO4(aq) BaSO4(s) + H2O2(aq)
→
Industrially hydrogen peroxide can be prepared by oxidation of propan-2-ol with oxygen under slight pressure.
(CH3)2CHOH(l) + O2(g) (CH3)2C=O(l) H2O2(l)
→
It can can also be prepared by oxidation anthracene-9,10-diones. The solution of hydrogen peroxide obtained is concentrated by
distillation and kept in a dark glass bottle or in aluminium containers, as it easily decomposes by light.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF HYDROGEN PEROXIDE
1. State: At room temperature, hydrogen peroxide is a clear, colourless liquid, but it can appear pale blue in its purest form.
2. Density: The density of hydrogen peroxide is approximately 1.45 g/cm³ at 25°C, which is slightly higher than that of water (1.0
g/cm³).
3. Boiling Point: Hydrogen peroxide has a boiling point of around 150.2°C (302.4°F), which is higher than that of water (100°C
or 212°F).
4. Melting Point: It has a melting point of around -0.43°C (31.2°F), just below freezing, meaning it can freeze into a solid at
temperatures slightly below 0°C.
5. Solubility: Hydrogen peroxide is highly soluble in water. It also dissolves in many organic solvents, such as alcohols and
ethers.
6. Viscosity: Hydrogen peroxide has a viscosity slightly higher than water, but it is still relatively low.
7. Odor: It has a faint, sharp, and somewhat pungent odour, especially in concentrated forms.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF HYDROGEN PEROXIDE
1. Decomposition:
Hydrogen peroxide is unstable and decomposes into water and oxygen, especially in the presence of light, heat, or catalysts like
manganese dioxide (MnO₂), This reaction is exothermic and releases oxygen gas. The decomposition can be accelerated by
- heating
- addition of alkalis
- the introduction of finely divided metals, such as gold, platinum, and MnO2 which acts as catalyst
2H2O2(g)→2H2O(g)+O2(g)
Mineral acids and propane-1,2,3-triol retard the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide. It is usually added to commercial hydrogen
peroxide to minimize its decomposition
2. Reduction Properties: Hydrogen peroxide can also act as a reducing agent in the presence of stronger oxidizers.
It reduces potassium permanganate (KMnO₄) in acidic medium: It reduces acidified potassium tetraoxomanganate(VII) solution.
5H2O2(l) + 2KMnO4(aq)+3H2SO4(aq)→2K2SO4 + 2MnSO4(aq)+8H2O(l)+5O2(g)
5H2O2(l) + 2MnO4−(aq)+6H+(aq)→2Mn2+(aq)+8H2O(l)+5O2(g)
It reduces chlorine to hydrochloric acid: H2O2(g) + Cl2(g)→2HCl(aq) + O2(g)
It reduces silver oxide to its metal 2Ag2O(s) + 2H2O2(g) → 4Ag(s) + 2H2O(l) +2O2(g)
3. Oxidizing Properties:
Hydrogen peroxide acts as a strong oxidizing agent in acidic and basic media.
 In acidic medium, it oxidizes substances like iodide (I⁻) to iodine (I₂): H2O2(l)+2I−(aq)+2H+(aq)→I2(g)+2H2O(l)
It reacts with acidified potassium iodide solution to release iodine. In this process, sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) provides the acidic
environment, allowing iodide ions (I⁻) to be oxidized directly to iodine (I₂) by hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide acts as the
oxidizing agent, accepting electrons from the iodide ions and being reduced to water in the process.
H2O2(l)+2KI(aq)+H2SO4(aq)→K2SO4(aq)+ I2(g)+2H2O(l)
 In basic medium, it oxidizes Fe²⁺ to Fe³⁺: H2O2 (l)+2Fe2+(aq)+2H+(aq)→2Fe3+(aq)+2H2O(l)
USES OF HYDROGEN PEROXIDE
Superoxides are compounds that contain the superoxide ion (O2-). Tey are a type of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and are toxic.
Superoxides are formed when an electron is added to molecular oxygen (O 2) which fills one of its two unpaired electrons. Alkali
metals form superoxides with the general formula (XO2).
Examples of superoxides include Potassium superoxide (KO2), Cesium superoxide (CsO2), Rubidium superoxide (RbO2), and
Sodium superoxide (NaO2).