LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Title: Introduction to Soil Mechanics

Topic: Behavior of Coarse grained and Fine grained soils as affected by geology, composition,

time, grainsize and normal pressures.

Time frame: 9 hours

INTRODUCTION

Soil mechanics began around 1960 after Terzaghi’s theory of Consolidation. Terzaghi’s theory
of bearing capacity of soil became the foundation of the modern model for evaluating the allowable
capacity of soil based on the concept of shear strength and settlement behavior of soil. Through soil
mechanics a constitutive model of geotechnical materials can be developed which consider factors that
affect soil strength such as time, geology, grain size distribution and normal pressure. Knowledge in
soil mechanics is very essential in developing good judgement on solving problems related to soil used
as a foundation and as a construction materials. The key to understanding the soil behavior requires
mastery in soil mechanics and its theories so that one can learn to assess the basic properties of soil,
know the origin of soil and its formation processes and its composition. Principles of soil mechanics
are important to predict soil response against structural loadings and help identify problematic soil
which is detrimental to structures.

Objectives

a.)Distinguish soil mechanics from soil engineering/geotechnical engineering;

b.)Explain the origin and formation stages of soil;

c.)Discuss the properties and possible behavior of soil based on geologic history, nature/type and/or
composition.

Pretest.

Instruction: Test your knowledge about the course to know your readiness and
preparation. Give the keyword/(s) or phrases that fit the test stem.

1-3 Major types of Rocks

4-10 Type of Soil according to origin and/or geologic deposits
11-12 important personalities that contribute the development of Soil Mechanics
13-17 Factors influencing the formation of soil
18-22 Types of soil according to texture and sizes
22-30 Application of Soil mechanics

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Essay:

1.) Why it is that knowledge of geology is important in geotechnical engineering?

2.) Explain the cause of foundation failures commonly encountered in the community. Why such
phenomenon are happening?
3.) Based on experience, what type of soil you will recommend for foundation, fine grained or
coarse-grained soils?
LEARNING ACTIVITIES

ACTIVITY: RECIPROCAL QUESTIONING

Guided by these “question stems” investigate the subject Soil mechanics and its
application to Civil engineering. Come up with own discussion topics related to the
questions in order to gather enough evidence that justifies the relevance of Soil mechanics
and other allied sciences.

What drive people in the past to formalized study of soil mechanics? How and in what way soil
is formed? What is the importance of geologic history of soil? Can you identify the factors that
directly influence the formation of soil?

A.)Background of Soil Mechanics

Soils are cheap and readily available construction materials. All structures may it be vertical or
horizontal structures, located offshore or onshore are founded on soil with extreme variability.
Properties of soils vary widely because of its varied sources and formation history. This is the reason
why soil becomes one of the most complex material to deal with. Thus, civil engineers must study soil
its properties, its origin, grain-size distribution, ability to drain water, compressibility, shear strength,
and the load-bearing capacity to efficiently understand and predict the behavior of soil.

Soil mechanics is the branch of science that deals with the study of the physical properties of
soil and the behavior of soil masses subjected to various type of forces. Soil mechanics, also called
geotechnique or geotechnics or geomechanics, is the application of engineering mechanics to the
solution of problems dealing with soils as a foundation and as a construction material. Soils engineering
is an art of the application of the principles of soil mechanics to practical problems. While geotechnical
engineering is a sub discipline of civil engineering (CE), which involves the application of soil
mechanics and rock mechanics, geology, and hydraulics to the analysis and design of earth structures
such as dams and embankments. This branch of CE also focus on stability of slopes; foundation
supports; lateral pressures against structures; prediction of water movement through soils; and/ or
improvement of soil properties through chemical and mechanical methods. Figure 1 shows different
structures founded on the ground from upstream down to the coastal area.

Stability and economy are two tenets of engineering design. Stability should never be
compromised for economy. An unstable structure compromised to save a few dollars can result in death
and destruction. In geotechnical engineering, the uncertainties of the performance of soils, the
uncertainties of the applied loads, and the vagaries of natural forces nudge us to compromise between
sophisticated and simple analyses or to use approximate methods.

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Many significant contributors to what is now known as the soil mechanics today. One of notable person
is Coulomb a member of the French Royal Engineers in 1773 who was the one first credited to use soil
mechanics to solve soil problems. Coulomb attempted to determine the lateral force of the soil against
a fortress so that he could evaluate the stability of the fortress. Coulomb assumed that the soil resistance
was provided by friction between the particles, and the problem became one of a wedge sliding on a
rough (frictional) plane, which you may have analyzed in your physics or mechanics course. Coulomb
tacitly defined a failure criterion for soils. Today, Coulomb’s failure criterion and method of analysis
still prevail. Another important personality is Karl Terzaghi (1883–1963). He was the undisputed father
of soil mechanics. The publication of his book Erdbaumechanik in 1925 laid the foundation for soil
mechanics and brought recognition to the importance of soils in engineering activities. His research
work on the behavior of soils, settlement of clays and on the failure due to piping in sand under dams
were the content on his book Erdbaumechanik.

Figure 1. Different Structures founded on the ground

Now you know the little background of soil mechanics development. Next is to
understand the formation of soil. Where soil come from and what formation
processes responsible of soil deposits?

B.) Soil Forming Processes

One of the primary tasks of a geotechnical engineer is to understand the property of soil at a
site. The engineer must possess knowledge in soil mechanics and geology coupled with experience and
value engineering to be able to solve problems related to soil. Geology is important for successful
geotechnical engineering practice. Geotechnical engineers should evaluate first the geology of soil
deposits, understand the processes that makes up the soil and investigate what minerals that constitute
soil particles in order to perform foundation analysis and design. In so doing a geotechnical engineer
can predict possible problems and in anticipation of problems solutions can be laid out ahead of time.

There are three (3) major types of rocks where soil are derived from these are the igneous
rock, sedimentary rock and metamorphic rock as shown in figure 2. Naturally igneous rock is a by-
product of solidification of volcanic materials after a volcanic eruption. Some known type of igneous
rocks are andesite, basalt, granite, gabbro, ash, pumice, rhyolite and diorite. Other rocks such as
sedimentary rocks originated through settling in a transporting medium and cemented through time at
lower elevation. Rocks such as sandstone, limestone, mudstone and shale are well known types of
sedimentary rocks. The third type of rock is formed usually at deepest part of the earth layers where

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

there are extreme pressure and heat that causes modification of preexisting rocks. Preexisting rocks turn
into new kind of rocks called metamorphic rocks. Commonly identified metamorphic rocks are marble,
quartzite, Gneiss, slate and schist.

Depending on the natural processes prevailing in the environment soil is derived from a
certain parent rock. In general, soils are formed from weathering of rocks. The physical properties of
soil are dictated primarily by the minerals that constitute the soil particles and, hence, the rock from
which it is derived. Thus it is so important to assess the origin of soil to understand the properties of
soil since there are rocks after a weathering process will contain weak and problematic properties. Soils,
derived from the weathering of rocks, are very complex materials and vary widely. There is no certainty
that a soil in one location will have the same properties as the soil just a few centimeters away.
Unrealized geological formations and groundwater conditions have been responsible for failures of
many geotechnical systems and increased construction costs.

Figure 2. Three Different Types of Sources of Soil

In geotechnical engineering soils are classified into four called gravel, sand, silt, or clay,
depending on the predominant size of particles within the soil mass. These soils are also grouped into
two (2) major types coarse-grained (gravel and sand) and fined grained soils (silt and clay). Each group
of soil exhibits different characteristics hence strength and behavior may vary. Some rocks weathered
to produce mixture of coarse grained and fine grained soil while other rocks are sources of vast amount
of fine grained soils. Thus the source of soil can be determined through assessing the type of rock
formation present.

Soils are formed from the physical and chemical weathering of rocks. Physical weathering
involves reduction of size without any change in the original composition of the parent rock. The main
agents responsible for this process are exfoliation, unloading, erosion, freezing, and thawing. Chemical
weathering causes both reductions in size and chemical alteration of the original parent rock. The main
agents responsible for chemical weathering are hydration, carbonation, and oxidation. Often, chemical
and physical weathering take place in concert. In figure 3 shows the byproducts of weathering of two
different rocks limestone (sedimentary rock) and granite (igneous rock). An igneous rock granite may
produce bigger mineral grains of quartz, granite, feldspar, mica flakes through physical changes, other
parts upon chemical reaction produce mixture of solution and clay minerals. Weathered materials
expected therefore from a granite rock are a combination of bigger fragments (gravel, boulders and
sand) and smaller particle sizes (silt and clay). Limestones a type of sedimentary rock are sources of

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

majority of clay which is compose of smaller particle sizes of soil. Weathering process in limestone
produce more on clay/silt – constituents of fine grained soils. Usually smaller particle sizes are weaker
and problematic compared to bigger particle sizes.

Soils are further classified not just by source of parent rock but also according to its location,
grain sizes, mineral composition, type of rock deposits, agent of formation and structures as presented
in figure 4. Soils that remain at the site of weathering are called residual soils. These soils retain many
of the elements and properties that comprise the parent rock. While those soil which are transported
through erosion and the action of bodies of water form layers of soil at lowest elevation like in coastal
areas. Most of the residual soils are well distributed soil composed of boulders, gravel, sand and some
fines. Transported soils are usually form an alternate layers of soil mostly fine grained soil such as silt,
clay and sand or few gravels. Formation of soil is also influenced by the type of mineral that constitute

Figure 3. By Products of Weathering Process between Granite and Limestone

soil. Some minerals produced by chemical reaction of minerals fragments of rocks in the environment
are sources of many problematic conditions in soil. Quartz for instance turns into clay minerals and
some type of clay minerals are weak and expansive which are not good for foundation of structures.
Gypsum is also a type of mineral which is susceptible to expansive behavior and washed out when
expose to water. Also gypsum is not a dependable type of soil for foundation.

With the action of forces and chemical transformation happening in nature many kinds of rock
and soil deposits are formed. Alluvial soils, also called fluvial soils, are soils that were transported by
rivers and streams. The composition of these soils depends on the environment under which they were
transported and is often different from the parent rock. The profile of alluvial soils usually consists of
layers of different soils usually found near water bodies. Much of our construction activity has been and
is occurring in and on alluvial soils. Glacial soils are soils that were transported and deposited by
glaciers. Marine soils are soils deposited in a marine environment. Caliche consists of gravel, sand, and
clay cemented together by calcium carbonate. Collovial or talus soils (collovium) are soils found at the
base of mountains that have been eroded by the combination of water and gravity. Eolian or loess soils
are sand-sized/fined grained particles deposited by wind. Expansive soils are clays that undergo large
volume changes from cycles of wetting and drying. Gypsum is calcium sulfate formed under heat and

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

pressure from sediments in ocean brine. Lacustrine soils are mostly silts and clays deposited in glacial
lake waters. Lateritic soils are residual soils that are cemented with iron oxides and are found in tropical
regions. Loam is a mixture of sand, silt, and clay that may contain organic material. Marl (marlstone)
is a mud cemented by calcium carbonate or lime. Mud is clay and silt mixed with water into a viscous
fluid. Calcareous soil contains calcium carbonate and effervesces when treated with hydrochloric acid.
The importance of identifying these soil deposits in geotechnical engineering is to know which deposits
are suitable for foundation of structures. If encounter a problematic soil such as expansive soil, loam,
gypsum and alluvial soil to name a few may require thorough investigation and implementation of
improvement measures to avoid any damage to structures.

Figure 4. Type of Processes and By products of Rocks

Other factors may also affect the type of soil deposits, mineral composition and properties
of soil as outline in figure 5. These factors are climate, topography, time, geologic history and rock
type. Weather system controls the nature of formation process of soil. On arid or temperate regions
calcification of soil is dominant that is formation of alkaline soil which is mostly clay having
concentrated calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) carbonates. Too much pH value in soil like those of
alkaline soil has unfavorable physico-chemical properties mainly by dominating presence of sodium
carbonates which causes soil to swell when expose to water. At humid temperate places podsolization
process of soil formation is taking place whereby organic minerals and ions of iron and aluminum
(bases) are concentrated at deeper profile of soil layer leaving the upper part of soil acidic. Due to high
acidity of these soil it’s very unsuitable to foundation materials since it would enhance development of
corrosion and would damage concrete unless treatment is implemented. In places where humid-hot like
in tropical and subtropical regions are prone to extreme precipitation and hot temperatures a laterization
process of soil formation occurs to form layers of laterites. Laterites are impregnated with chemical
compounds of iron and aluminum which when dry becomes hard like bricks. But silicates the rock
forming minerals of soil are highly unstable in this type of climate where there is high temperature
regimes and rainfall. On the other hand where there is extreme humidity a cold climate system like in

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

mountainous areas those places are susceptible to strong decay of organic materials. Areas with rapid
decomposition of organic matters are very prone to significant movement of soil or development of
organic soils. This is also similar formation process to very cold areas which have greater likelihood of
accumulating organic constituents that constitute to what we have now peat soil. Peat and organic soils

Figure 5. Factors Influencing Soil Type

are regarded as problematic type of soil owing to their highly compressible behavior and unstable
composition.

Geologic history is the guide to understanding the story recorded of rocks in any the region.
By understanding the historical context of the rocks and geologic processes observed in any region one
can better understand the type of rocks that are in a certain place and why they are there. Throughout
the geologic history of rock and soil deposits one can deduce which deposits exists over a longer time
period or just a fresh deposits. Fresh deposits of soil were formed not so distant time in the past around
several years ago which is unconsolidated and undergoing weathering. Careful investigation must be
done in fresh deposits to assess the suitability of these soils for foundation of structures. The topographic
features which are shaped and built by ongoing geological processes may also contribute to the existing
of a variety of grain sizes because it enhances weathering and distribution of soil. Many steep slope
topographies are susceptible to mass movement thereby producing collovial soils with varying sizes of
soil particles. Collovial soils are produced after a landslide which is basically a loose soil. Loose soil
can be described as weak and prone to settlement whereby will pose a challenge to designing foundation
on this area. When observe a flat terrain near coastal area, beware of the soil in this area it might be
made up of alluvial soil of marine in origin. In most cases most problematic soil are found near the
coastal area. Many collapsible soils like quick sand and clays are deposited on this kind of environment.
There in this area fine grained particles of soils are accumulated as they are transported by river and
oceans quickly.

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

As a review there are three sources of soil, but not just type of rock deposits influences
the type of soil formed but also environmental conditions and hydrogeological
processes. Make a reflection about the different types of soil and explain to the group
atleast one type of soil, its formation process and its possible behavior.

After knowing the different type of soil, next is to understand the characteristics of soil….

C.) Characteristics of Soil Deposits

a.) Soil does not possess a linear or unique stress – strain relationships

An elastic material normally when subjected to an applied force stress increases

proportionately with strain as it deforms. As long as the material is within its elastic range limit the
material always assumes its original shape and position and may not deform even at unloading. The
straight line portion over curve OB in figure 6 is the linear stress strain relationship of the material and
defines the elastic range of the material. Further increase of force on the elastic material, notice that a
point in the curve OB is reach where there is no more increase of stress but the material continuously

Figure 6. Linear and Non-linear stress strain relationship of an Elastic material

deforms as the strain increase further. The portion of curve OB that bends is showing non-linearity of
stress and strain which is the point when the soil behaves plastically. This stress strain behavior of soil
captures the case of soil formation at first during deposition the soil is elastic, as the soil is formed layer
by layer adding more pressures to existing soil the soil deforms until reaching an over consolidation
state. This deformation at the state of over consolidation cannot be recovered anymore because soil has
achieved plastic state over time. Soil material follows a non-linear stress strain behavior that is why soil
by nature is an elasto-plastic material.

b.) Soil behavior depends on pressure, time and environment

Soil as an elasto-plastic material is affected with normal pressures, time and the environment
whereby it is formed. As soil is loaded by normal pressures in the past because of additional soil layer
that is formed or weight from superstructures, the soil experiences the maximum pressures. When
present pressure or load on soil do not exceed the maximum past pressure the deformation of soil is

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

recoverable meaning the soil would not settle significantly. However putting more load on soil beyond
its maximum pressure the soil could continue to deform which would result to further settlements. This
settlements if significant would damage damaging structures built on soil. Time of loading is another
important element to consider when analyzing the response of soil. Coarse soils when loaded may be
compressed quickly and soil has achieve the required strength in short span of time. But in fine soil it
takes time to gain strength because it’s needed longer time to attain the complete consolidation state.
Lastly, because soils form at different environment they also have different properties. Soil that is
formed in marine environment tend to be weaker and prone to instability due to its unstable composition.
While those soil formed in fresh water environment has higher strength and tend to resist higher
pressures placed on them. Further explanation on this is under section of soil fabric. The effect of
underground water in soil must also be considered because saturated soil reduces the strength of soil.

c.) The soil at essentially every location is different

Basically, the soil in every location may vary because of the many factors that influence its
formation process. To understand the soil deposit, a thorough geotechnical investigation is needed to
be able to explore the type of soil formation and come up with an idealized model to analyze the soil
behavior.

d.) Soil is located underground and cannot be seen in its entirety but must be evaluated on the
basis of small samples obtained from certain locations.

There is a degree of uncertainty on evaluating the properties of soil since the evaluation of soil
is based only on testing of in-situ soil at chosen locations and the laboratory testing is performed on
small samples taken from the field. Result from the tests are subjected to error due to disturbances of
soil during testing and sampling. This will affect the correctness and accuracy of data collected. It is
because of variability of soil properties that analysis and design requires a lot of judgement and
scientific evidence

e.)Most soils are very sensitive to disturbance from sampling and thus behavior measured in
laboratory test may be different that of in-situ soil.

The actual behavior of soil in the field may deviate to some degree to the behavior measured in
the laboratory due to disturbance in sampling and handling of soil samples. ASTM standardized the
tools and methods for testing so that this degree of deviation between true and measured behavior of
soil can be minimized.

D.) The Particulate Nature of Soil

Soil is composed of discrete particles not strongly bonded together in the way that the metal
crystals are hence the particles can freely move relative to each other. According to Lambe and Whitman
(1979) the soil is solid that it cannot move easily as the particles in fluids. It is in this fact that soil
mechanics is different with solid mechanics and fluid mechanics.

D.1) Concept of Soil Fabric

How these soil particles are formed and what influences the formation of its structural
framework? This happen during early stage of deposition, the mineral particles are arranged into
structural frameworks that is called soil fabric. The environment under which deposition occurs

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

influences the structural framework that is formed. In particular, the electrochemical environment has
the greatest influence on the kind of soil fabric that is formed during deposition of fine-grained soils.

Figure 7. Soil Fabric in Salt and Freshwater Environment

Two common types of soil fabric—flocculated and dispersed—are formed during soil deposition of
fine-grained soils, as shown schematically in Figure 7. A flocculated structure, formed in a saltwater
environment, results when many particles tend to orient parallel to one another. High salt environment
tends to reduce the forces of repulsion among particles and the attractive force in particles attributed to
Van der waal’s forces will dominates causes parallelism type of structure. A flocculated structure,
formed in a freshwater environment results when many particles tend to orient perpendicular to one
another. The soil fabric formed in fresh water or at low salt environment is also attributed to attraction
between particles (positive at the edge and negative at the face). A dispersed structure occurs when a
majority of the particles orient parallel to one another. This dispersed structure takes place when the net
inter-particle forces between fined grained particles are repulsion causing particles to settle individually.
Among the three (3) types of soil fabric, the soil fabric in fresh water is more stable and stronger
structure by virtue of its configuration that is the particles are arranged in a way that support each other.
Soil with this structure has increase resistance to external forces which is good for a foundation.

Any loading (tectonic or otherwise) during or after deposition permanently alters the soil fabric
or structural arrangement in a way that is unique to that particular loading condition. Consequently, the
history of loading and changes in the environment is imprinted in the soil fabric. The soil fabric is the
brain; it retains the memory of the birth of the soil and subsequent changes that occur. Moreover it is
the reason why when testing the engineering properties of soil especially testing the strength and
settlement of soil an undisturbed soil sample must be used since the soil fabric is still intact. Testing
undisturbed soil sample the real properties and actual strength of soil including the strength of soil fabric
can be determined.

Particles of coarse-grained soils can be approximated by spheres, and the structural

configuration during deposition is likely similar to figure 8.The loosest packing has maximum voids
space would occur when the spheres are stacked one on top of another (Figure 8a). The densest packing
would occur when the spheres are packed in a staggered pattern, as shown in Figure 8b. Real coarse-
grained soils consist of an assortment of particle sizes and shapes, and consequently the packing is
random.

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Figure 8. Loose and dense packing of coarse grained soil

How soil fabric is formed? Does it affect the behavior of soil? Share the
knowledge you have gained.

D.2 Nature of Soil

Soil is composed of three parts solid particles, and water and gas that occupy the spaces (voids)
between the solid particles. Generally the soil is grouped into two major types’ coarse grained soils and
fine-grained soils as given in figure 9. Sand and gravel which are larger particles having sizes greater
than 75 microns. Fine grained soil are small particles consist of silt and clay having sizes smaller 75
microns and less.

Figure 9. Typical Classification of Soil

These two (2) types of soil behave differently under a given loading. Coarse grained soils have
volume greater than its contact area hence its behavior depends on gravitational forces. In order to
strengthen coarse grained soil, increase the normal pressure by compacting soil or by any other means
to improve the inter-particle contact thereby enhancing the frictional resistance between particles. In
physics, the friction between two surfaces in contact is high when the normal force is also high that is
just like soil particles in contact under high compressive loads must have also greater frictional strength.
It is in this idea that the soil a particulate matter cannot slide or deform or settle when the soil is in a
very compacted state because of the high friction between particles resisting the forces in soil.

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Fine grained soil has different behavior considering its nature and composition. Recall that
fine grained soil particles during formation process are held by inter-particle forces which bind the
particles together. This soil has negative ions and positive ions that attract and/or surrounding water

Figure 10. Nature of Coarse grained and Fine-grained soil

particles forming a double layers of water around particles surfaces. Thus the contact between soil
particles is between double layers. The volume of clay/silt particles is less than the surface area of soil
due to the widening surface area of double layer. In this case the strength that determines stability of
this soil relies with the strength of the contact between double layers hence the surface force governs
behavior. When the double layer dilates or expands soil particles repel and if the particles contract the
particles are attracted. The issue here is that because of the weak resistance of the inter-particle contact
between double layers it has a weaker strength compared to coarse grained soil. The key to increasing
strength of fine grained soil is to remove the layers of water through drainage or removal of water to
enhance particle contact. It takes to remove water in fine grained soil because of its small sizes that’s
why this soil will undergo gradual settlement and this behavior is detrimental to structures over time.

ACTIVITY: INQUIRY BASED APPROACH

Knowing that the soil has a complex formation process that made possible the variety
of its composition and its characteristics, the question is what type of geologic
deposits or soil formation in your place?

Conduct an Investigation in your area, gather relevant information such as geologic maps
and other related information and/or interview local residents and experts (geologist).
Identify the type of soil deposits in your area and research the history of its formation.
Add to your research the nature and properties of that soil and point out if this soil is
suitable for construction purposes! Make a case study report and present it in class as a
group output.

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

D.3 The Consequences of the Particulate nature of Soil

a.) First Consequence: Nature of Soil deformation

The deformation of mass of soil is highly controlled by interaction between individual particles
especially sliding (or adhesion) between particles. Sliding is a non-linear and irreversible deformation
thus it is expected that the stress-strain behavior of soil will also be non-linear and irreversible. Various
constitutive soil models consider this behavior of soil. Various ground improvement techniques has
been developed also recognizing this concept to strengthen the soil prior to construction.

b.) Second Consequence: Role of pore phase – Chemical Interaction

Soil is multiphase, and the constituents of the pore phase will influence the nature of mineral
surfaces and hence affect the processes of force transmission at the particle contacts. This interaction
between the phases is called chemical interaction. Chemical interaction give rise to properties of soil
such as double layers, plasticity of soils, swelling potential, compression, strength and fluid
conductivity. Clayey soil for instance depending on the type of mineral present when contain various
amount moisture in its pores it will transform to solid or plastic like material – this is a plasticity property
of soil.

c.)Third Consequence: Role of Pore Phase – Physical Interaction

Water can flow through soil and it interact mineral skeleton, altering the magnitude of the forces
at the contact of particles and influencing the compression and shear resistance of soil. This is reason
behind the effective stress concept and consolidation theory. Consolidation process is the slowly
removal of water out from the void spaces of soil because of the action of normal pressure (compressive
stress) which will result to irreversible deformation or settlement of soil.

d.) Fourth Consequence: Role of Pore phase – Sharing the Load

When the load applied to soil is suddenly changed, this change is jointly carried by the pore
fluid and by the mineral skeleton. The change of pore pressure will cause water to move though the soil
hence the properties of soil will change with time. This is another basis of Consolidation theory of
Terzaghi the father of modern soil mechanics.

Explain the behavior of soil being a particulate material. What engineering

properties are affected by deformation and pore pressure?

Behavior of fine grained soil is greatly influenced by its plasticity and structure. The next section
discusses this nature of soil.

E.) Plasticity and Structural Frameworks of Fined grained soils

The term plasticity is normally applied to fine grained soils. Plasticity is a property of clayey
soil due to the double layer that is attracted to the surface of the clay particles. This plasticity property
of soil is reflected from an index test called Atterberg Limits. Plasticity behavior of fine grained soil is

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entirely attributed to the structural units and mineral types that composed the fine grained soil. Next is
the discussion of the structural units of clay minerals.

E.1 Basic Structural Unit of Clay minerals

a.)Basic Silicate Unit: Silicon Tetrahedron

Clays are composed of clay minerals. Clay minerals are crystalline materials comprising
oxygen and silica. The structural unit of silicates is a tetrahedron consisting of a silica cation (+charged)
surrounded by four oxygen (-charged). Silicates combine to form sheets as in figure 11.

Figure11. Structural Unit of Silicates

b.) Basic Silicate Unit: Aluminum or Magnesium Octahedron

Silicate sheets may contain other structural units such as alumina sheets. Alumina sheets are
formed by combination of alumina minerals which consist of an alumina ion surrounded by six (6)
oxygen of hydroxyl atoms in an octahedron. If the cations attached to silicates are aluminum it forms
gibbsite sheets and brucite sheets are formed when cations are mainly Magnesium.

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Figure11. Structural Unit of Gibbsite/Brucite Sheets

E.2 Main Group of Clay Minerals

Silicates combined with gibbsite sheets or brucite sheets form the crystalline structure of clay.
There are three (3) main group of crystalline structure of clay – kaolinite, illite and montmorillonite. It
is important to understand the nature of the structure of clay to identify internal problematic behavior.

a.) Kaolinite, (OH)8 Al4 Si4 O10 – has a structure

that consists of one silica sheet and one alumina
sheet bonded together into a layer about 0.72 nm
thick and stacked repeatedly. The layers are held
together by hydrogen bonds and Van der Waals
attraction. Kaolinite is a clay group characterized by
low activity. This clay group is common in clays
in humid tropical regions.

b.) Illite (OH)4 Ky (Si8-y Aly) (Al4 Mg6 Fe4 Fe6)O20 – consists
of repeated layers of one alumina sheet sandwiched
by two silicate sheets. The layers, each of thickness
0.96 nm, are held together by potassium ions (K).
Values of y varies between 1 and 1.5.

c.) Montmorillonite, (OH)4 Si8 Al4O20 nH20O – has similar

structure to ellite, but the layer are held together by
weak van der waals forces and exchangeable ions.
Water can easily enter the bond and separate the
layers resulting in swelling. Isomorphous substitution
is the process through which some ions are substituted
by other ions of the same or different valence
without changing the crystal structure. Montmorillonite
is often called the swelling clay. This is normally found
in the more arid regions of the world.

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Engr. Richard A. Badiola
LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

E.3 The Diffused Double Layer water

The surface on fine grained soils has gained a negatively charged ions (anions) after an
isomorphous substitution process. These negative surfaces attract cations and the positively charged
side of water molecules from surrounding water. Consequently, a thin film or layer of water, called
adsorbed water is bonded to the mineral surfaces. The thin film or layer of water is known as the diffuse
double layer. The largest concentration of cations occurs at the mineral surface and decreases
exponentially with distance away from the surface.

Figure 12. Cations and Anions concentration in the Double Layer

There are three (3) possible mechanisms that water molecules can be electrically attracted toward the
surface of clay particles to form the double layer. First, the negatively charged face of clay is attracted
to the positive ends of dipoles of water particles. Second, it might be cations (positively charged) in the
double layer are also attracted to negatively charged ends of dipoles and the cations are in turn attracted
by the negatively charged faces of clay particles. Third, sharing of the hydrogen atoms in the water
molecules by hydrogen bonding between the oxygen atoms in the clay particles and the oxygen atoms
in the water molecules. The inner layer of this double layer is strongly bonded in the clay particles so it
is referred to as

Figure 13. Mechanism of Double layer Formation

adsorbed water. Comparing kaolinite and montmorillonite clay particles, montmorillonite has the
thicker double layer. This means that montmorillonite has higher capacity to absorb water. The greater
the water absorbed, the higher chances to react with other ions and water particles. The consequence of
this thicker double layer are: first, montmorillonite clay particles have the highest cations exchange

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Engr. Richard A. Badiola
LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

capacity when it reacts with other charges particles the soil will swell; Swelling in soils causes
settlement due to reduction of the capacity of the soil to carry load; second montmorillonite clay is very
compressible; as the clay is compressed by a load water dissipates or is removed from the double layer
hence the water in the double layer is temporary.

Figure 14. Characteristics of Double layers

How do we explain the existence of double layers in fined grained soils? What is
the effect of this double layers to the properties of soil?

E.4 Origin of Clay Minerals

1.) Inheritance. The clay minerals was formed by reactions that occurred in another area, was
transported to tis present site, and is stable enough to remain inert in its present environment.

2.) Neoformation. The clay has precipitated from solution or has formed from reaction of amorphous
material.

3.)Transformation. An inherited clay has undergone chemical reaction. Two reactions are possible
namely, ion exchange and layer transformation. In layer transformation, the arrangements of octahedral,
tetrahedral, or fixed interlayer cations are modified.

F. Importance of Soil Mineralogy in Geotechnical Engineering

In geotechnical engineering mineralogy test or determining the types of minerals is not required
unless it is needed for further classification and study of the properties of soil. However, in geotechnical
engineering basic routine tests such as specific gravity test, mechanical analysis and Atteberg’s limits
tests are conducted to understand the properties of soil and detect the presence of clay minerals.
Especially those clay minerals which have weak properties and unstable behavior should be identified
so that proper recommendation will be given for improvement of the soil condition.

Most importantly identification of minerals in soils are essential factors to determine sizes,
shape and surface characteristics of particles of soil, plasticity, swelling potential, compressibility,
strength and fluid behavior. These factor should be considered in the selection and design for
foundation/barriers of disposal and containment sites. Compositional characteristics of soil and their
relation to the long term physical and chemical properties are of most concerned.

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Engr. Richard A. Badiola
LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

The basic importance of information of geology, history of soil formation,

characteristics of soil, structural composition and mineralogy is for geotechnical
engineers to be able to evaluate the integrity of soil.

SELF – EVALUATION

Direction: Check your knowledge gained in this topic if you can still remember important concepts and
application of Soil Mechanics and geotechnical engineering in your chosen field.

4.) List down at least 3 important role or contributions of Soil mechanics in Geotechnical
Engineering. Why?
5.) Why it is that geotechnical engineers will review first the information on the geologic history
and other factors that influence the formation of soil deposits prior to any testing and
explorations?
6.) If you happen to encounter fine grained and coarse-grained soils what can you recommend in
your report on how to deal with these soil?

REVIEW OF CONCEPTS

Soil mechanics is the branch of science that deals with the study of the physical properties of soil and
the behavior of soil masses that is subjected to various type of forces.

Soils engineering is an art of the application of the principles of soil mechanics to practical problems.

Geotechnical engineering is a sub discipline of civil engineering (CE), which involves the application
of soil mechanics and rock mechanics, geology, and hydraulics to the analysis and design of earth
structures.

In geotechnical engineering soils are classified into four called gravel, sand, silt, or clay, depending
on the predominant size of particles within the soil mass

Physical weathering involves reduction of size without any change in the original composition of the
parent rock.

Chemical weathering causes both reductions in size and chemical alteration of the original parent
rock.

Alluvial soils, also called fluvial soils, are soils that were transported by rivers and streams.

Glacial soils are soils that were transported and deposited by glaciers. Marine soils are soils deposited
in a marine environment.

Caliche consists of gravel, sand, and clay cemented together by calcium carbonate.

Collovial or talus soils (collovium) are soils found at the base of mountains that have been eroded by
the combination of water and gravity.

Eolian or loess soils are sand-sized/fined grained particles deposited by wind.

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Engr. Richard A. Badiola
LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Expansive soils are clays that undergo large volume changes from cycles of wetting and drying.

Gypsum is calcium sulfate formed under heat and pressure from sediments in ocean brine. Lacustrine
soils are mostly silts and clays deposited in glacial lake waters.

Lateritic soils are residual soils that are cemented with iron oxides and are found in tropical regions.

Loam is a mixture of sand, silt, and clay that may contain organic material.

Marl (marlstone) is a mud cemented by calcium carbonate or lime.

Mud is clay and silt mixed with water into a viscous fluid.

Calcareous soil contains calcium carbonate and effervesces when treated with hydrochloric acid.

Soil does not possess a linear or unique stress – strain relationships.

Soil behavior depends on pressure, time and environment.

The soil at essentially every location is different.

Soil is located underground and cannot be seen in its entirety but must be evaluated on the basis of
small samples obtained from certain locations.

Most soils are very sensitive to disturbance from sampling and thus behavior measured in laboratory
test may be different that of in-situ soil.

The mineral particles are arranged into structural frameworks that is called soil fabric.

Coarse grained soils have volume greater than its contact area hence its behavior depends on
gravitational forces.

In fine grained soil the strength that determines stability of this soil relies with the strength of the contact
between double layers hence the surface force governs behavior.

Plasticity is a property of clayey soil due to the double layer that is attracted to the surface of the clay
particles.

POST TEST

Concept Recall
List down the following:

1-3 Major Types of Rocks

4-7 Four types of soil according to sizes and texture
8-17 Types of soil deposits according to origin
18-22 Environmental Factors influencing formation of soil
23-25 Type of clay minerals

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Engr. Richard A. Badiola
LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Essay
1.) What are the factors that influence the formation of soil? How these factors affect strength
and behavior of soil?
2.) What controls the behavior of fine grained and coarse grained soil in terms of strength and
deformation? Justify your answer.
3.) How soil fabric is form? What influences the soil fabric formation of montmorillonite clay?

Note:

REFERENCES

Budhu, Muni. 2000. Soil Mechanics and Foundations.

Das, Braja. 1999. Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering.

Bowles, Joseph. 1997 .Foundation Analysis and Design. 5th Edition.

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Engr. Richard A. Badiola