EC3301 - ELECTRON DEVICES AND CIRCUITS

PART A
UNIT I - PN JUNCTION DEVICES
1.With necessary diagram explain the structure and operation of PN junction diode.
(April /May 24)
Definition: A P-N junction is an interface or a boundary between two semiconductor
material types, namely the p-type and the n-type, inside a semiconductor.

In a semiconductor, the P-N junction is created by the method of doping. The p-side or
the positive side of the semiconductor has an excess of holes, and the n-side or the negative side
has an excess of electrons. The process of doping is explained in further detail in the next
section.

Formation of P-N Junction: As we know, if we use different semiconductor materials

to make a P-N junction, there will be a grain boundary that would inhibit the movement of
electrons from one side to the other by scattering the electrons and holes and thus, we use the
process of doping. We will understand the process of doping with the help of this example. Let
us consider a thin p-type silicon semiconductor sheet. If we add a small amount of pentavalent
impurity to this, a part of the p-type Si will get converted to n-type silicon. This sheet will now
contain both the p-type region and the n-type region and a junction between these two regions.
The processes that follow after forming a P-N junction are of two types – diffusion and drift.
There is a difference in the concentration of holes and electrons at the two sides of a junction.
The holes from the p-side diffuse to the n-side, and the electrons from the n-side diffuse to the
p-side. Thesegive rise to a diffusion current across the junction.

FORWARD BIAS

When the p-type is connected to the battery’s positive terminal and the n-type to the negative
terminal, then the P-N junction is said to be forward-biased. When the P-N junction is forward
biased, the built-in electric field at the P-N junction and the applied electric field are in opposite
directions. When both the electric fields add up, the resultant electric field has a magnitude
lesser than the built-in electric field. This results in a less resistive and thinner depletion region.
The depletion region’s resistance becomes negligible when the applied voltage is large. In
silicon, at the voltage of 0.6 V, the resistance of the depletion region becomes completely
negligible, and the current flows across it unimpeded.

Reverse Bias
 When the p-type is connected to the battery’s negative terminal and the n-type is
connected to the positive side, the P-N junction is reverse biased. In this case, the built-in
electric field and the applied electric field are in the same direction. When the two fields are
added, the resultant electric field is in the same direction as the built-in electric field, creating a
more resistive, thicker depletion region. The depletion region becomes more resistive and
thicker if the applied voltage becomes larger.

2.Briefly explain about PN junction capacitances. (April /May 24)

PN junction capacitances refer to the capacitance that occurs at the junction of a p-type and
n-type semiconductor material. This junction creates a depletion region, which acts as a capacitor
plate, separating the two types of materials.

There are two types of PN junction capacitances:

1. Depletion capacitance (CD): This is the capacitance due to the depletion region, which varies
with the reverse bias voltage applied across the junction.

2. Diffusion capacitance (CT): This is the capacitance due to the excess minority carriers in the
junction, which is present only when the junction is forward-biased.

These capacitances play a crucial role in the performance of semiconductor devices, such as
diodes, transistors, and solar cells, affecting their frequency response, switching speed, and
overall efficiency.

3. Explain Zener diode working principle and its applications. (April /May 24)
Zener diodes are more heavily doped than ordinary diodes, resulting in an exceptionally
thin depletion region. Applying voltage above the Zener breakdown voltage (ranging from 1.2 to
200 volts) causes this region to vanish, prompting a large current flow through the junction. There
is a crucial difference between an ordinary diode and a Zener diode. The depletion region regains
its original position after removal of the reverse voltage in Zener diode whereas in regular diodes,
they don’t, and hence they get destroyed.

A Zener Diode, also referred to as a breakdown diode, is a specially doped semiconductor

device engineered to function in the reverse direction. When the voltage across a Zener diode’s
terminals is reversed and reaches the Zener Voltage (also known as the knee voltage), the junction
experiences a breakdown, allowing current to flow in the opposite direction. This phenomenon,
known as the Zener Effect, is a key characteristic of Zener diodes.
4. Explain how Zener diode acts as voltage regulator? (April /May 24)

Zener diodes are diodes that act as regulators. By using the reverse breakdown state of the
PN junction, the current of the Zener diodes can be changed within a wide range while the voltage
is unchanged. This diode is a semiconductor device with very high resistance up to the critical
reverse breakdown voltage. At this critical breakdown point, the reverse resistance is reduced to a
very small value. In this low resistance region, the current increases while the voltage remains
constant. The Zener diode is binned according to the breakdown voltage. Because of this
characteristic, the Zener is mainly used as a voltage regulator or voltage reference element. Zener
diodes can be connected in series for use at higher voltages, and higher stable voltages can be
obtained by connecting in series.

The forward characteristic of the volt-ampere characteristic curve of the Zener diode is
similar to that of an ordinary diode. The reverse characteristic is that when the reverse voltage is
lower than the reverse breakdown voltage, the reverse resistance is very large and the reverse
leakage current is extremely small. However, when the reverse voltage approaches the critical
value of the reverse voltage, the reverse current suddenly increases, which is called breakdown. At
this critical breakdown point, the reverse resistance suddenly drops to a very small value.
Although the current varies in a large range, the voltage across the diodes is stable near the
breakdown voltage, thereby achieving the voltage stabilization of the diodes. Semiconductor
diodes prevent reverse current, but if the applied reverse voltage becomes too high, premature
breakdown or damage can occur.

5. Explain the V-I characteristics of PN junction diode. (Nov/Dec 2023) (April/May 23)
The V-I characteristics of a p-n junction diode can be used to find the relation
between voltage and current. The relationship between the voltage and the current will be non-
linear. The minority carriers in the junction will result in the current.
The V-I characteristics of p-n junction diode represents the relation between current and voltage
and the variations in current with respect to current is shown below

6. Explain the principle of operation of a full wave rectifier. (Nov/Dec 2023) (April/May 23)

The input AC supplied to the full wave rectifier is very high. The step-down transformer in
the rectifier circuit converts the high voltage AC into low voltage AC. The anode of the centre
tapped diodes is connected to the transformer's secondary winding and connected to the load
resistor.
7. How is Zener diode uesd as voltage regulator? Explain the principle of Zener voltage
regulator. (Nov/Dec 2023) (April/May 23)
A Zener diode is used as a voltage regulator by exploiting its reverse breakdown voltage
characteristic. Here's the principle
Zener Voltage Regulator Principle:
1. Reverse Bias: Connect the Zener diode in reverse bias, meaning the anode is connected to the
negative terminal and the cathode to the positive terminal.
2. Breakdown Voltage: When the reverse voltage exceeds the Zener voltage (Vz), the diode
breaks down and conducts current.
3. Stable Voltage: The Zener diode maintains a relatively constant voltage across its terminals,
regardless of changes in input voltage or current.
4. Regulation: By connecting a resistor (Rs) in series with the input voltage and the Zener diode,
the excess voltage is dropped across Rs, while the Zener diode maintains a stable output voltage.

Working
When the input voltage increases, the current through Rs increases, but the Zener diode maintains
its breakdown voltage, regulating the output voltage.
When the input voltage decreases, the current through Rs decreases, but the Zener diode continues
to conduct, maintaining the output voltage.
Advantages
 Simple and low-cost
 Fast response time
 Low power dissipation
Limitations
 Limited current handling capacity
 Not suitable for high-voltage applications
 Zener diode voltage regulators are commonly used in low-power applications, such as:
 Voltage reference circuits
 Low-voltage power supplies
 Audio equipment

8. The turns ratio of a transformer used in a bridge rectifier is 12.1.the primary is connected
to the power mains 220V,50 HZ, assuming the diode voltage drop to zero,
(i)calculate the DC voltage across the load resistor.
(ii)What is the PIV of the diode?
(iii)if the same dc voltage is obtained by using centre tapped FWR,what is PIV? (Nov/Dec
2022)
SOLUTION
Let's break down the problem step by step:

Bridge Rectifier

1. Turns ratio (n) = 12:1

2. Primary voltage (Vp) = 220V

3. Secondary voltage (Vs) = Vp / n = 220V / 12 = 18.33V

4. Since it's a bridge rectifier, the output voltage (Vdc) is the peak secondary voltage:

Vdc = Vs * √2 = 18.33V * √2 = 25.93V

PIV (Peak Inverse Voltage) of the diode:

PIV = Vs * √2 = 18.33V * √2 = 25.93V

Centre-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier (FWR):

To achieve the same DC voltage (25.93V), the secondary voltage (Vs) would be:

Vs = Vdc / √2 = 25.93V / √2 = 18.33V

Since it's a centre-tapped FWR, the PIV of the diode would be:

PIV = 2 * Vs = 2 * 18.33V = 36.66V

So, the PIV of the diode is higher in the centre-tapped FWR configuration.

9. Explain the operation of PN junction diode under forward bias with its characteristics.
(Nov/Dec 2022)

Forward Bias

When the p-type is connected to the battery’s positive terminal and the n-type to the
negative terminal, then the P-N junction is said to be forward-biased. When the P-N junction is
forward biased, the built-in electric field at the P-N junction and the applied electric field are in
opposite directions. When both the electric fields add up, the resultant electric field has a
magnitude lesser than the built-in electric field. This results in a less resistive and thinner
depletion region. The depletion region’s resistance becomes negligible when the applied
voltage is large. In silicon, at the voltage of 0.6 V, the resistance of the depletion region
becomes completely negligible, and the current flows across it unimpeded.

10. What is meant by ripple factor in full wave rectifier? Draw the circuit of full wave w
rectifier and brief the operation. Find the ripple factor. (Nov/Dec 2022)
Ripple Factor:
The ripple factor (γ) is a measure of the AC component remaining in the output DC
voltage of a rectifier. It's defined as the ratio of the RMS (Root Mean Square) value of the
AC component to the average value of the DC output voltage.
Full-Wave Rectifier Circuit:
Here's the circuit: Vin (AC input) → Transformer → 4 Diodes (D1-D4) → Load (RL)
Operation:
1. During the positive half-cycle of Vin, D1 and D3 conduct, allowing current to flow
through RL.
2. During the negative half-cycle, D2 and D4 conduct, allowing current to flow through RL
in the same direction.
3. The output voltage (Vout) is a pulsating DC voltage with reduced AC components.
Ripple Factor Calculation:
For a Full-Wave Rectifier:

γ = √(2 - π/2) / (π/2) ≈ 0.482

This means the AC component is approximately 48.2% of the DC output voltage.

Formula
γ = √(Vrms^2 / Vdc^2 - 1)

where Vrms is the RMS value of the AC component and Vdc is the average DC output
voltage.
Note: The ripple factor is a measure of the quality of the rectifier's output. A lower ripple
factor indicates a smoother DC output voltage.

11. Derive the average voltage and RMS voltage of a full wave rectifier output. Also
compute the average voltage and RMS voltage when peak input voltage is 20v.
The peak inverse voltage across the diodes in a bridge full-wave rectifier, when the RMS
output voltage is 20V (neglecting the diode drop), is approximately 28.3V.

Once you have the RMS voltage on the low voltage side of the transformer, you can figure out
the peak voltage from the rectifier: AC peak to peak: Vpp=VRMS×2√2. Rectified peak:
VR=Vpp/2−2Vf. Peak current: IP=VR/R.

For AC from the wall, the rms voltage is approximately 120 V, and the average voltage is about
110 V. The peak voltage, then, is actually 120/0.707 = 170 V. This is half the amplitude of the
sinusoid.

For full wave rectified AC, average or DC = 2 * Vpeak / PI. For our example, we would expect
DC to be 2 times the peak voltage, less the 0.6V diode drop all divided by PI. DC = (2 * 29.1 –
0.6) / PI = 18.3VDC. For this case, the peak voltage of 28.5 and the DC equivalent of 18.3 are
both on the same range.

12. Explain the structure of LED.

A Light Emitting Diode (LED) consists of:
1. P-type Material (Positive): A semiconductor material with an excess of holes (positive
charge carriers).
2. N-type Material (Negative): A semiconductor material with an excess of electrons
(negative charge carriers).
3. P-N Junction: The interface between the P-type and N-type materials, creating a depletion
region.
4. Anode: The positive terminal, connected to the P-type material.
5. Cathode: The negative terminal, connected to the N-type material.
6. Substrate: The base material supporting the LED structure.
7. Emitting Layer: The region where light is produced, typically a thin layer of
semiconductor material.
8. Contacts: Metal connections for attaching wires or other components.

When a forward bias is applied (anode positive, cathode negative), electrons from the N-type
material recombine with holes in the P-type material, releasing energy as photons, which emit
light.
LEDs are typically made from semiconductor materials like:
Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) for red, orange, and yellow LEDs
Gallium Phosphide (GaP) for green LEDs
Silicon Carbide (SiC) for blue LEDs

The structure and materials used determine the LED's color, efficiency, and performance.

13. Explain the Structure of Laser Diodes.

A Laser Diode consists of
1. P-type Material (Positive): A semiconductor material with an excess of holes (positive
charge carriers).
2. N-type Material (Negative): A semiconductor material with an excess of electrons
(negative charge carriers).
3. P-N Junction: The interface between the P-type and N-type materials, creating a depletion
region.
4. Active Region: A thin layer of semiconductor material where light amplification occurs.
5. Optical Cavity: A mirrored structure that confines light within the active region.
6. Mirrors: Reflective coatings on the facets of the laser diode to create a resonant cavity.

Structure of Laser Diodes

Working of Laser Diodes
1. Forward Bias: Applying a voltage across the P-N junction injects electrons and holes into
the active region.
2. Recombination: Electrons and holes recombine, releasing energy as photons.
3. Stimulated Emission: Photons interact with excited electrons, stimulating the emission of
more photons.
4. Amplification: Photons are amplified as they pass through the active region.
5. Lasing: When the gain exceeds the losses, the optical cavity resonates, producing coherent
laser light.
6. Output: The laser light is emitted through one of the mirrors, which is partially
transparent.

Key Characteristics:

Threshold Current: The minimum current required to achieve lasing.

Gain: The amplification of light within the active region.
Wavelength: The specific frequency of light emitted, determined by the semiconductor
material.

Applications

Optical Communication: Laser diodes are used in fiber optic communication systems.
CD/DVD Players: Laser diodes read and write data to optical discs.
Medical Applications: Laser diodes are used in surgical procedures and medical imaging.
Industrial Applications: Laser diodes are used in material processing, cutting, and welding.

14. Explain with neat sketch about bridge rectifier circuit.

Vin (AC input) → D1 → R1 → D3 → Vout (DC output)

| |
| |
D2 → R2 → D4

Components:
Vin: AC input voltage
D1-D4: Diodes (rectifiers)
R1-R2: Resistors (load)
Vout: DC output voltage

Working

1. Positive Half-Cycle
D1 and D3 conduct (forward biased)
D2 and D4 do not conduct (reverse biased)
Current flows through R1 and R2
Vout is positive

2. Negative Half-Cycle
D2 and D4 conduct (forward biased)
D1 and D3 do not conduct (reverse biased)
Current flows through R1 and R2
Vout is positive (same as positive half-cycle)

Output:
Vout is a pulsating DC voltage with reduced AC components
The bridge rectifier converts both half-cycles of the AC input to a positive DC output
Advantages
Efficient use of AC input (both half-cycles are utilized)
Smoother DC output compared to half-wave rectifiers
Higher output voltage and current

Applications
Power supplies
Motor control circuits
Audio equipment
DC power systems

15. Describe Zener diode characteristics.

The Zener diode is a type of diode that allows current to flow in the reverse direction
when the voltage reaches a specific threshold, known as the Zener voltage (Vz). Here are the
key characteristics:

Reverse Breakdown Voltage (Vz)

The voltage at which the Zener diode starts conducting in the reverse direction
Typically ranges from 2.4 to 200 volts

Reverse Current (IR)

The current flowing through the Zener diode in the reverse direction
Increases rapidly as the voltage approaches Vz

Forward Voltage (VF)

The voltage drop across the Zener diode when forward-biased
Typically around 0.6-0.7 volts

Leakage Current (IL)

The small current flowing through the Zener diode when reverse-biased below Vz
Typically in the range of microamperes

Power Dissipation (Pz)

The maximum power the Zener diode can handle without damage
Depends on the device's rating and thermal resistance

Temperature Coefficient (TC)

The change in Vz with temperature
Typically around -0.05 to -0.1% per degree Celsius

Dynamic Resistance (Rz)

The resistance of the Zener diode when conducting in the reverse direction
Typically around 1-10 ohms

These characteristics make Zener diodes suitable for applications like

Volttage regulation
Surge protection
Clamping circuits
Reference voltage generation
16. Explain zener diode Reverse characteristics
When a Zener diode is reverse-biased, it exhibits the following characteristics:

1. Reverse Breakdown Voltage (Vz): The voltage at which the Zener diode starts
conducting in the reverse direction.

2. Reverse Current (IR): The current flowing through the Zener diode in the reverse
direction, which increases rapidly as the voltage approaches Vz.

3. Reverse Resistance (Rz): The resistance of the Zener diode when conducting in the
reverse direction, typically around 1-10 ohms.

4. Leakage Current (IL): A small current flowing through the Zener diode when reverse-
biased below Vz, typically in the range of microamperes.

5. Reverse Recovery Time (trr): The time taken by the Zener diode to recover from the
reverse-biased state to the forward-biased state.

6. Reverse Avalanche Breakdown: A phenomenon where the Zener diode's reverse current
increases rapidly due to avalanche multiplication, leading to a sharp increase in voltage.

7. Zener Knee Voltage (Vk): The voltage at which the Zener diode's reverse current starts
increasing rapidly, marking the onset of the Zener region.

These reverse characteristics make Zener diodes suitable for applications like:
Voltage regulation
Surge protection
Clamping circuits
Reference voltage generation

17. Describe Diffusion and Transition capacitance.

Diffusion Capacitance and Transition Capacitance are two types of capacitances that occur in
semiconductor diodes, including Zener diodes.
Diffusion Capacitance (CD)

Caused by the storage of charge carriers (electrons and holes) in the depletion region.
Results from the diffusion of minority carriers across the junction.
Proportional to the square root of the forward bias voltage.
Typically dominant in forward-biased diodes.

Transition Capacitance (CT)

Caused by the change in the depletion region width with reverse bias voltage.
Results from the movement of the depletion region boundaries.
Proportional to the square root of the reverse bias voltage.
Typically dominant in reverse-biased diodes.

Key differences
Diffusion capacitance occurs in forward bias, while transition capacitance occurs in reverse
bias.
Diffusion capacitance is proportional to the square root of forward bias voltage, while
transition capacitance is proportional to the square root of reverse bias voltage.

These capacitances affect the diode's frequency response, switching speed, and overall
performance. Understanding them is crucial for designing and optimizing diode-based
circuits.

18.Explain the Clipping circuits.

Clipping and Clamping circuits are used to modify or limit the amplitude of a signal.

Clipping Circuits
Limit the amplitude of a signal to a specific level
Remove or "clip" the portion of the signal above or below the set level
Used for:
Signal limiting
Distortion reduction
Waveform shaping

Types of Clipping Circuits

Series Clippers: Use a diode in series with the signal path
Shunt Clippers: Use a diode in parallel with the signal path
Bias Clippers: Use a biased diode to clip the signal

19.Explain the Clamping circuits.

Shift the amplitude of a signal to a specific level
"Clamp" the signal to a fixed reference point
Used for:
Signal level shifting
DC offset removal
Waveform synchronization

Types of Clamping Circuits:

Positive Clamper: Shifts the signal upwards
Negative Clamper: Shifts the signal downwards
AC Clamper: Removes DC offset from AC signals
Diodes are commonly used in Clipping and Clamping circuits due to their non-linear current-
voltage characteristics.

19. Explain Zener diode characteristics.

Zener diodes are a type of diode that allows current to flow in the reverse direction
when the voltage reaches a specific threshold, known as the Zener voltage. Here are some
key characteristics of Zener diodes:

1. Reverse Breakdown Voltage: The voltage at which the diode starts conducting in the
reverse direction.
2. Zener Voltage (Vz): The voltage at which the diode's reverse current increases sharply.
3. Reverse Current (Iz): The current flowing through the diode when it's in the reverse
breakdown region.
4. Forward Voltage Drop (Vf): The voltage drop across the diode when it's forward-biased.
5. Power Rating (Pz): The maximum power the diode can handle without damage.
6. Temperature Coefficient: The change in Zener voltage with temperature.
7. Dynamic Resistance (rd): The resistance of the diode when it's in the reverse breakdown
region.
8. Leakage Current (Il): The small current that flows through the diode when it's reverse-
biased below the Zener voltage.
These characteristics are important for designing and using Zener diodes in voltage
regulation, surge protection, and other applications.

20.Describe Zener diode as regulator.

Zener diodes can be used as voltage regulators due to their ability to maintain a
constant voltage across their terminals when reverse-biased. Here's how:
Basic Configuration
1. Connect the Zener diode in reverse bias (anode to ground, cathode to the positive supply).
2. Add a series resistor (Rs) to limit the current through the diode.
3. Connect the load across the Zener diode.
Operation:
1. When the input voltage increases, the Zener diode's reverse current increases, but its
voltage remains constant at the Zener voltage (Vz).
2. The excess voltage is dropped across the series resistor (Rs), keeping the output voltage
constant.
3. When the input voltage decreases, the Zener diode's reverse current decreases, but its
voltage remains constant, maintaining the output voltage.

Advantages:
1. Simple and low-cost
2. Fast response time
3. Low noise

Disadvantages:
1. Limited current handling capacity
2. Not suitable for high-voltage applications
3. Requires a series resistor to limit current

Applications:
1. Voltage regulation in low-power applications (e.g., battery-powered devices)
2. Reference voltage generation
3. Overvoltage protection
Key considerations:
1. Choose a Zener diode with a suitable Vz value for your application.
2. Select a series resistor (Rs) value that limits the current through the diode.
3. Ensure the diode's power rating (Pz) can handle the maximum input voltage and current.

21.Explain in details about Centre-Tap Full Wave Rectifier

We have already discussed the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier, which uses four diodes,
arranged as a bridge, to convert the input alternating current (AC) in both half cycles to direct
current (DC).
In the case of centre-tap full wave rectifier, only two diodes are used, and are connected to
the opposite ends of a centre-tapped secondary transformer as shown in the figure below. The
centre-tap is usually considered as the ground point or the zero voltage reference point.
22.Explain Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) of Centre-Tap Full Wave Rectifier.
PIV is the maximum possible voltage across a diode during its reverse biased period. Let
us analyze the PIV of the Centre-tapped rectifier from the circuit diagram. During the first half
or the positive half of the input ac supply, the diode D1 is positive and thus conducts and
provided no resistance at all.
Thus, the whole of voltage Vs developed in the upper-half of the ac supply is provided to
the load resistance RLOAD. Similar is the case of diode D2 for the lower half of the
transformer secondary.
PIV of D2 = Vm +Vm = 2VmPIV of D1 = 2Vm

The instantaneous value of the voltage applied to the rectifier can be written as

Vs = Vsm Sinwt

Assuming that the diode has a forward resistance of RFWD ohms and a reverse resistance equal
to infinity, the current flowing through the load resistance RLOAD.

Output Current

Im = Vsm / (RF + RLoad)

Since the current is the same through the load resistance RL in the two halves of the ac cycle,
magnitude of dc current Idc, which is equal to the average value of ac current, can be obtained
by integrating the

23.Describe LED as an Indicator.

The circuit shown below is one of the main applications of LED. The circuit is designed by
wiring it in inverse parallel with a normal diode, to prevent the device from being reverse biased.
The value of the series resistance should be half, relative to that o f a DC circuit.
LEDS displays are made to display numbers from segments. One such design is the seven-
segment display as shown below. Any desired numerals from 0-9 can be displayed by passing
current through the correct segments. To connect such segment a common anode or common
cathode cathode configuration can be used. Both the connections are shown below. The LED‘s
are switched ON and OFF by using transistors.

24.Describe Laser diode L/I characteristic.

One of the most commonly used and important laser diode specifications or characteristics
is the L/I curve. It plots the drive current supplied against the light output. This laser diode
specification is used to determine the current required to obtain a particular level of light output
at a given current. It can also be seen that the light output is also very dependent upon the
temperature.
From this characteristic, it can be seen that there is a threshold current below which the
laser action does not take place. The laser diode should be operated clear of this point to ensure
reliable operation over the full operating temperature range as the threshold current rises with
increasing temperature. It is typically found that the laser threshold current rises exponentially
with temperature

Laser Diode Specifications & Characteristics

A summary or overview of laser diode specifications, parameters and characteristics used in
defining laser diode performance for datasheets.
In this section
• Laser diode technology
• Laser diode types
• Structure & materials

25.Explain about zener diode.

A Zener diode is a type of diode that permits current not only in the forward direction like
a normal diode, but also in the reverse direction if the voltage is larger than the breakdown
voltage known as "Zener knee voltage" or "Zener voltage". The device was named after Clarence
Zener, who discovered this electrical property.
However, the Zener Diode or "Breakdown Diode" as they are sometimes called, are
basically the same as the standard PN junction diode but are specially designed to have a low
pre- determined Reverse Breakdown Voltage that takes advantage of this high reverse voltage.
 The point at which a zener diode breaks down or conducts is called the "Zener Voltage"
(Vz).The Zener diode is like a general-purpose signal diode consisting of a silicon PN junction.
When biased in the forward direction it behaves just like a normal signal diode passing the rated
current, but when a reverse voltage is applied to it the reverse saturation Current remains fairly
constant over a wide range of voltages.
The reverse voltage increases until the diodes breakdown voltage VB is reached at Which
point a process called Avalanche Breakdown occurs in the depletion layer and the current
flowing through the zener diode increases dramatically to the maximum circuit value (which is
usually limited by a series resistor).
This breakdown voltage point is called the "zener voltage" for zener diodes.
Avalanche Breakdown: There is a limit for the reverse voltage. Reverse voltage can increase
until the diode breakdown voltage reaches. This point is called Avalanche Break down region.
At this stage maximum current will flow through the zener diode. This breakdown point is
referred as Zener voltage‖.

The point at which current flows can be very accurately controlled (to less than 1%tolerance) in
the doping stage of the diodes construction giving the diode a specific zener breakdown voltage,
(Vz) ranging from a few volts up to a few hundred volts. This zener breakdown voltage on the I-
V curve is almost a vertical straight line.