Chemical Bonding

Atoms, Elements and Compounds

⚫ Atoms are the smallest part of a chemical element. They are
made up of Protons, Neutrons and Electrons.

⚫ Elements are substances that cannot be split into simpler

substances by chemical means.

⚫ Molecules are a group of atoms joined together.

⚫ Compounds are substances made up of

2 or more elements combined together
chemically.
 Compounds
⚫ Most of the Materials around us are made when different
Elements combine together in different amounts. When 2
elements combine together a Compound is formed.

⚫ A Compound is a substance that is made up of 2 or more

different elements combined together chemically.

How are compounds held together?

⚫ Compounds are held together by Chemical Bonds, these
are the attractive forces that help to keep Compounds
together.
 The Octet Rule
⚫ What do you notice about the elements in group 0, in
particular Neon, Argon, Krypton and Radon.

⚫ The Octet Rule states that when bonding occurs, Atoms

tend to reach an Electron arrangement with 8 electrons in
their outermost shell.

⚫ In simple terms, molecules or ions tend to be most stable

when the outermost electron shells of their constituent
atoms contain 8 electrons, giving them the same electron
configuration as a noble gas.
 The Octet Rule
⚫ The rule applies to the main-group elements, especially
carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, the halogens, and also to metals
such as sodium or magnesium.
 Limitations of the Octet Rule
⚫ Hydrogen, Helium and Lithium are stable with just 2
electrons in their outer shells rather than 8.

⚫ Transition metals can have more or less than 8 electrons on

their outer shell. Third energy level n= 3, can hold 18
electrons and so on.
 Why do Atoms form Bonds?
⚫ Atoms form bonds to other atoms to form compounds
because the electrons surrounding them are unstable.
They bond together so that they can become more stable.

⚫ Compounds are always more stable than the atoms that

created it.

⚫ This extra stability drives chemical bonding in most

atoms.
 How can Atoms achieve a full outer
shell of Electrons
1. Give away Electrons
(Na+, K+)

2. Accept Electrons (Cl-, I-)

3. Share Electrons
Ionic Bonding
 Ionic Bonding
⚫ Atoms can obtain an electronic configuration of a Noble
Gas (8 Electrons on their Outer Shell) by gaining or losing
Electrons.

⚫ When Atoms gain or lose Electrons they become charged

and are referred to as Ions.

⚫ An Ion is a charged Atom or group of Atoms.

⚫ In order for Ionic Bonding to occur electrons need to be

lost by 1 Atom and gained by another Atom.
 Cations
⚫ When an Atom loses an Electron it becomes Positively
Charged. Positively charged atoms are called Cations.
Group 1 Metals like to lose 1 Electron while Group 2 Metals
like to lose 2 Electrons to become balanced.

⚫ Group 1
Na Na+ + e–
(2,8,1) (2,8)

⚫ Group 2
Ca Ca2+ + 2e–
(2,8,8,2) (2,8,8)
 Anions
⚫ When an Atom gains an Electron it becomes negatively
charged. Negatively charged Atoms are called Anions.

⚫ Group 7 Halogens tend to gain Electrons to form Anions

to become balanced.

⚫ Group 7
Cl + e– Cl–
(2,8,7) (2,8,8)
 Ionic Bonding
⚫ In the previous examples the Ions
formed, formed a stable electronic
configuration.

⚫ It is the formation of this stable

electronic configuration that is the
driving force behind the formation
of the ions.

⚫ Once the ions are formed they are

held together in the compound by
the force of attraction.
 Ionic Bonding
⚫ Ionic bonding is the force of attraction between oppositely
charged ions in a compound.
 Sodium Chloride
⚫ Sodium Chloride (NaCl) consists
of a three-dimensional shape
consisting of millions of sodium
ions and chloride ions.

⚫ This three-dimensional structure

is called a Crystal Lattice. Here
each Sodium Ion is surrounded by
6 Chloride ions.

⚫ It is the force of attraction

between the Positive Sodium
and the Negative Chloride that
holds the structure together.
 Sodium Chloride
⚫ Salt (NaCl) is a very important compound
and you have to know 2 applications of it
in everyday life
1) It is spread on roads to increase grip and
melt the ice
2) It is taken in a tablet form to replace salt
that is lost in sweat, tears and Urine
however to much salt can cause high
blood pressure
3) It is used as a preservative in the food
industry
 Ionic Bonding
⚫ For Ionic Bonding to take place Electrons must be lost and
gained.

⚫ Atoms can’t just lose Electrons by themselves there must be

another Atom there to accept these Electrons.

⚫ Ionic Bonds normally occur between a Metal (Group 1 and 2)

and a non metal (group 3 -7).

⚫ Both Ions together must form a Neutral Compound, the

negative and positive charges must cancel each other out.
 Representing Ionic Bonding
1. Borh- Type Circle Diagram
 Representing Ionic Bonding
⚫ Dot and Cross Diagrams

⚫ In this diagram only the outer Electrons are drawn next to the
Symbol of the Element. One elements Electrons are
represented by dots the other by crosses. The movement of
Electrons can be clearly seen and identified by an arrow.

⚫ Both methods are acceptable provided the Electronic

Configuration is written.
 Representing Ionic Bonding
⚫ Show the formation of the Ionic bond in Magnesium
Fluoride, MgF2 by means of a suitable diagram.
 Representing Ionic Bonding
⚫ Show the formation of the Ionic bond in Sodium
Chloride, NaCl by means of a suitable diagram.
 Representing Ionic Bonding
⚫ Show the formation of the Ionic bond in Calcium
Chloride , CaCl2 by means of a suitable diagram.
 Representing Ionic Bonding
⚫ Show the formation of the Ionic bond in Potassium Oxide
by means of a suitable diagram
Chemical Formula in Ionic
Bonds
 Valency
⚫ Valency is the combining power of an Atom.

⚫ In simple terms it means how many Atoms it can combine

with or how many Electrons it needs to lose, gain or share
to attain a Nobel Gas structure (8 on the outer shell).
 Chemical Formulas
⚫ A Chemical Formula is a way of expressing information
about the proportions of atoms that constitute a particular
chemical compound.

⚫ When you see a chemical formula you will see what

elements are in a compound and you will also see how
many atoms of each element make up that compound.

NaCl
MgCl2
CaO
 Determining Chemical Formulas
6 Steps Involved
1. Identify the metal and non metal
2. Write the symbols
3. Write the charges
4. Cross over the charges from the top to the bottom
5. Remove the charges
6. Simplify the numbers and remove all 1’s
 Determining Chemical Formulas
Sodium Chloride

Calcium Oxide

Magnesium Chloride

Calcium Phosphide

Aluminium Oxide

Sodium Sulphide
 Chemical Formulas
⚫ For some ions it is not possible to predict their chemical
formulas. It is not possible because they exhibit Variable
Valency.

⚫ Variable valency means that the charges of some elements

can change. This is seen in transition metals or d block
elements.

⚫ Iron combines with Chlorine to form FeCl2. However Iron

can also combine with chlorine to form FeCl3.

⚫ Due to this the following table needs to be learned off.

 Chemical Formulas N.B
Name Formula Charge
Hydroxide Ion OH –
Nitrate Ion NO3-
One Negative Charge
Hydrogen Carbonate Ion HCO3-
Permanganate Ion MnO4-
Carbonate Ion CO3²-
Chromate Ion CrO4²-
Dichromate Ion Cr2O7²- Two Negative Charges
Sulfate Ion SO4²-
Sulfite Ion SO3²-
Thiosulphate Ion S2O3²-
Phosphate Ion P04³- Three Negative Charges
Ammonium Ion NH4+ One Positive Charge
Chemical Formulas of Complex Ions
⚫ As already discussed Iron Chloride has 2 possible formulas,
FeCl2 and FeCl3.

⚫ Without the symbols it would be impossible to know which is

which.

⚫ To solve this problem we use roman numerals. Roman

numerals are placed in brackets on the atom that has the
variable valency to tell us what the valency is. (How many
Electrons it wants to lose to become stable).

- Iron(11) Chloride = FeCl2

- Copper(1) Oxide = Cu2
- Chromium(111) Chloride = CrCl3
Chemical Formulas of Complex Ions
⚫ Write the formula of the following Ionic compounds

⚫ Potassium Hydroxide

⚫ Calcium Hydrogencarbonate

⚫ Iron(11) Carbonate

⚫ Chromium(111) Sulfate
 Naming Ionic Compounds
⚫ Naming Ionic compounds

Metal + Non-metal
Name + Name-ide-

NaCl -
MgO -
CaCl2 -
KBr -

⚫ Anything that has 2 elements will always end in –ide-

 Naming Ionic Compounds
⚫ If it contains Oxygen with 2 or more elements it was
always end in –ate-

Metal + Non-metal
Name + Name-ate-

MgSO4 –
KNO3 –
KClO3 –
 Properties of Ionic Compounds
⚫ Many of the Ionic Compounds share the following properties

- Hard
- High Melting and High Boiling Points
- Solid at Room Temperature
- Can Conduct Electricity
 Properties Of Ionic Compounds
⚫ Ionic Compounds are very Hard. They are very difficult to
cut as the crystal lattice structure is held together by
strong attractive forces.

⚫ Ionic Compounds have high melting points and high

boiling points again because of the strong attractive
forces between the Ions in the ionic compound.
 Properties Of Ionic Compounds
⚫ Ionic compounds will
conduct electricity
ONLY when they are
dissolved in water or
in a molten state.

⚫ Ionic compounds are

usually Solid at room
temperature because
they have very high
melting and boiling
points.
Covalent Bonding
 What Are Covalent Bonds
⚫ In covalent bonding, atoms still want to achieve a noble gas
configuration (the octet rule).

⚫ But rather than losing or gaining electrons, atoms now

share an electron pair.

⚫ The shared electron pair is called a Covalent Bond.

 Covalent Bonding – General Points
⚫ Covalent bonding usually occurs between 2 non metals. As
there are no metals present Ions can’t be formed so the only
way that atoms can become stable is to share electrons.

⚫ Electrons are shared in pairs. In each shared pair one

electron comes from each atom.

⚫ This type of bond occurs between elements of Groups 4, 5, 6

and 7

⚫ If there is a choice between ionic and covalent - covalent is

preferred.
 Covalent Bonding
Chlorine forms a covalent bond with itself

Cl2
• Each chlorine atom wants to gain one electron to achieve an
Octet

Cl Cl
• Neither atom will give up an electron for the other.

• What’s the solution – what can they do to achieve an octet?

Cl Cl
Balanced
 Cl Cl
Balanced
 Cl Cl
The Octet is achieved by each atom sharing
the electron pair in the middle
 Cl Cl
• This is the Bonding Pair, the Covalent Bond lies
between these bonding electrons.
 Cl Cl
• As there is only 1 pair of electrons being shared it is also
called a Single Bond.
Representing Covalent Bonding

Cl Cl
The Covalent Bond

This is the Chlorine Molecule

Cl2
Representing Covalent Bonding

Cl Cl
The Covalent Bond

This is the Chlorine Molecule

Cl2
 Covalent Bonding

O2
• Oxygen can also form Covalent Bonds with Itself

• What is the Valency of Oxygen?

• How many Bonding Pairs does O2 have?

Covalent Bonding

O O
Each atom has two unpaired electrons
 Covalent Bonding

O O
So both atoms want to gain two electrons
Covalent Bonding – Double Bonds

O O
• Both Electrons are shared by each atom to form 2 Electron Pairs
Covalent Bonding – Double Bonds

O O
6 + 2 Electrons gives
Oxygen a full Octet,
so it is balanced
Covalent Bonding – Double Bonds

O O
6 + 2 Electrons gives
Oxygen a full Octet,
so it is balanced
Covalent Bonding – Double Bonds

O O
2 Bonding Pairs are called a Double Bond
Representing Covalent Bonding

O =O
This is the Oxygen molecule,

O2
 Only 7 electrons does
Need to share Not meet Octet Rule!
Another pair of
electrons
O O
Sharing One Pair of electrons
One Covalent Bond

O O O O
Sharing Two Pairs of electrons A Double Bond can be
Two Covalent Bonds represented by a double line
A Double Bond
 Covalent Bonding

N N
⚫ How many Electrons does Nitrogen have?

⚫ What is the Valency of Nitrogen?

⚫ How many bonding pairs will N2 have?

 Covalent Bonding

N N
⚫ Each Nitrogen Atom needs 3 Electrons to become
stable.

⚫ So N2 will have 3 Electron pairs to have 8 electrons in

its outer shell.
Covalent Bonding – Triple Bonding

N N
Sigma and Pi Bonds
 Sigma and Pi Bonds
⚫ It’s the electrons on the outer shell that take part in bonding.

⚫ These electrons are in Orbitals, which have specific shapes.

⚫ When Covalent Bonding occurs, Atomic Orbitals also take

part in bonding. When this happens you get either a Sigma
and or a Pi Bond.

⚫ For your exam you will only have to examine the bonding
that takes place in the s and p orbitals only.
 Sigma Bonds
⚫ A Sigma Bond (σ) is formed from the head on overlap
between 2 atomic orbitals.

⚫ ALL single bonds are Sigma Bonds.

⚫ Sigma Bonds (single bonds) can occur between

- S orbital + S orbital
- P orbital + P Orbital
- S orbital + P Orbital
 Sigma Bonds
⚫ Bonding in H2.

⚫ Electronic Configuration of H = 1s
1

⚫ H2 = S Orbital + S Orbital overlap

 Sigma Bond
⚫ Bonding in Cl2

⚫ Electronic Configuration = 1s², 2s², 2p, 3s², 3px², 3py², 3pz 1

6

⚫ Cl2 = P Orbital + P Orbital overlap

 Sigma Bond
⚫ Bonding in HCl

6
Electronic Configuration Cl = 1s², 2s², 2p, 3s², 3px², 3py², 3pz 1
1
Electronic Configuration of H = 1s

⚫ HCl = S Orbital + P Orbital overlap

 Pi Bonds
⚫ Pi bonds come from the sideways overlap of 2 Atomic
Orbitals.

⚫ They occur in Double Bonds and Triple Bonds.

⚫ In a double bond the first bond will always be sigma while

the second will always be a Pi bond.

⚫ In a triple bond the first bond will always be sigma while the
second and third will always be a Pi bond.

⚫ No exceptions to this
Pi Bonding
 Sigma and Pi Bonds
⚫ How many sigma and pi bonds are in the following compounds.

1. H2O
2. Cl2
3. O2
4. C2H4
5. CH4
 Properties of Covalent Bonds
⚫ Low melting and boiling points as covalent bonds tend
to be weaker than Ionic.

⚫ They are soft compounds

⚫ They do not conduct electricity when dissolved in water

or in a solid or molten state.

⚫ They are usually liquids, gases or soft solids at room

temperature.
Polar Bonds and
Electronegativity
 Covalent Bonding

The electrons are in the centre between the 2 atoms. Both Atoms
are in a tug of war with each other trying to pull the electrons
closer to itself but as both Atoms are the same the electrons are
being pulled equally in both directions so they stay in the
middle. This tug of war in chemistry is called Electronegativity
 Electronegativity
⚫ Electronegativity is the relative attraction that an Atom in a
molecule has for the shared pair of electrons in a covalent
bond.

⚫ In simple term Electronegativity is a measure of how well

an atom attracts electrons

⚫ In a compound, some atoms attract electrons more

forcefully than others than others.
 Electronegativity
⚫ Linus Pauling was a scientist who gave each element a
electronegativity value.

⚫ The higher this value is the greater it pulls the electrons

towards it (F = 4, Cl = 3 and O = 3.5)

⚫ The lower this value is the less likely that Atoms wants to share
electrons (K = 0.8, Li = 1).
 Electronegativity
⚫ When the Atoms are the same the Electrons are shared
equally between the 2 Atoms.

⚫ When the Electrons are shared equally between the 2

Atoms the bond called is Non Polar.
 Electronegativity
⚫ When the Atoms are not the same the electrons are not
shared equally in the bond.

⚫ Here Chlorine (Electronegativity Value – 3) is more

electronegative than Hydrogen (Electronegativity Value – 2.1)
 Electronegativity
⚫ As Chlorine is more Electronegative than Hydrogen
Chlorine will pull the electrons towards it.

⚫ Electrons will spend more of their time around the

Chlorine Atom.

⚫ When the electrons are not shared equally the bond is

called a Polar Bond.
 Electronegativity
⚫ Why is this important???

⚫ Life on Earth would not exist

without Polar and Non Polar
Compounds.
J
⚫ Polar and non polar compounds
also affect the properties of
elements. s
H
 Functions of Electronegativity
⚫ Difference in electronegativity
values controls whether bond is
nonpolar, polar, or ionic.

⚫ If the difference between the 2

atoms is
- 0.0-0.4 = Nonpolar
- 0.4-2.0 = Polar
- 2.0+ = Ionic
⚫ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7DjsD7Hcd9U
External Bonding
 Bonding - Within
⚫ Ionic and Covalent bonding hold Atoms together to form a
compound or molecule.

⚫ This type of bonding is called Intramolecular Bonding.

This bonding refers to Ionic and Covalent or anything that
links individual Atoms together in a molecule or compound.
 Bonding - Between
⚫ Bonding can also exist between 2 molecules.

⚫ This type of bonding is called Intermolecular Bonding. There

are 2 types of Intermolecular Bonding that we have to
cover.
- Van Der Waals
- Dipole – Dipole
- Hydrogen Bonding
 Van Der Waals Forces
⚫ Van Walls Forces are temporary weak attractive forces
between 2 molecules as a result of the formation of
temporary dipoles.

⚫ They only exist between non polar molecules, H2, O2, CH4

⚫ Electrons move inside the bonds of molecules. At any one

time both electrons may be closer to one end of the molecule
than another. As a result one side of the molecule may
become slightly negatively charged and the other will become
slightly positively charged.

⚫ A dipole is set up. A dipole is a pair of opposite charges.

 Van Der Waals Forces
⚫ This dipole only exists for a short amount of time, as
electrons travel at high speeds. (Temporary).

⚫ This dipole could cause another dipole to set up in a

nearby molecule. The opposite charges are attracted to
each other.

⚫ This temporary attraction is called Van Der Walls Forces

H H----------------- H H
 Effect of Van Der Waals Forces
⚫ The strength of the Van Der Waals force increases as the molecule
gets bigger.

⚫ O2 is bigger than H2 but the boiling point of O2 is far greater than

that of H2 because of the greater Van Der Waals force.

⚫ Propane C3H8 has a lower boiling point than Butane C4H10.

Butane is bigger and as a result has greater Van Der Waals force
between molecules.

⚫ The boiling points increase because it takes more energy to break

these forces than if they didn’t exist.

⚫ It is because if Van Der Waals forces that Chlorine is a gas,

Bromine is a liquid and Iodine is a solid at room temperature. As
you go down the group the size of the atom gets bigger which
allows stronger Van Der Waals forces to form.
 Dipole-Dipole Forces
⚫ Dipole-Dipole forces are exactly the same as Van Der
Waals forces except, Dipole-Dipole forces are Permanent.

⚫ Dipole-dipole forces are forces of attraction between the

negative pole of one molecule and the positive pole of
another molecule.

⚫ These exist in Polar Molecules where there is always a

dipole set up because one Atom is pulling the Electrons
towards it.

⚫ Examples include HCl and CH2O

 Dipole-Dipole Forces
⚫ Dipole-Dipole forces are attractive forces between
molecules. But they are weaker than the internal bonds
holding the molecules together.

⚫ The effect of Dipole-dipole forces is that molecules that

have them (HCl) have much higher melting and boiling
points than molecules that don’t have them.
 Hydrogen Bonding
⚫ Molecules such as H2O, NH3 and HF have much higher
boiling points than expected.

⚫ To answer this there must be very strong attractive forces

between the molecules. Stronger than Van Der Waals or
Dipole-Dipole.

⚫ These forces were called Hydrogen Bonds.

⚫ Hydrogen Bonds are a type of Dipole-Dipole attractions

between molecules, in which Hydrogen is bonded to
Oxygen, Nitrogen or Fluorine.
 Hydrogen Bonds
⚫ Oxygen Nitrogen and Fluorine
are very Electronegative
elements.

⚫ This results in a very strong

polarity developing within the
molecule. This results in very
strong bonds forming between
the molecules.

⚫ Although Hydrogen Bonds are

very strong they are not as
strong as covalent bonds.
 Hydrogen Bonding – Uses
⚫ Hydrogen bonding explains why
certain Molecules such as water have
higher boiling points than we expect.

⚫ Kevlar is a very strong fire resistant

material. This is due to Hydrogen
Bonds.

⚫ Water has a high surface tension due

to hydrogen Bonds.
 Useful Tips
⚫ Smaller atoms have fewer electrons and therefore will
have weaker intermolecular forces. As a result they will
have significantly lower boiling points than larger atoms.

⚫ A higher molar mass means the molecule is larger, thus a

higher surface area. Molecules with more surface area
have more Van Der Waal forces and will therefore have
higher boiling points.
 Questions
Q2) List the following molecules in order of increasing
boiling point: Br2, F2, I2, Cl2
1. None of these have hydrogen bonding.
2. 2. None of these have dipoles.
3. 3. Bigger molecules will have stronger intermolecular
forces. So I2 has the strongest forces, and F2 will have
the weakest. Correspondingly, I2 will have the highest
boiling point and F2 will have the lowest boiling point.

Answer: F2, Cl2, Br2, I2

 Question
Q1) Explain why the boiling point of Neon is larger than
that of H2.
⚫ Neon with it's full valence shell, but as Neon is far
heavier than Hydrogen, it takes a lot more energy to to
excite its particles and cause it to change state.
⚫ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PwveQxLLqD0