ELECTROTECHNOLOGY 2

BASICS OF ELECTRICITY
AND ELECTRICAL POWER

LECTURE 2
Introduction to electric circuits
Electric circuit can be defined as a path for transmitting electric current.
An electric circuit consists of electrical elements connected together, and we can use symbols to
draw circuits.
The elements in an electric circuit include sources of energy, resistors, capacitors, inductors, and so
on.

Standard symbols for electrical components

Symbols are used for components in electrical circuit diagrams and some of the more common ones
are shown in Figure 1.
Introduction to electric circuits

Figure 1.
Introduction to electric circuits
Electric current and quantity
If a voltage is applied across any material there is a tendency for electrons to move in a particular
direction.
This movement of free electrons, known as drift, constitutes an electric current flow (Figure 2.).
Thus, current is the rate of movement of charge.
Conductors are materials that contain electrons that are loosely connected to the nucleus and can
easily move through the material from one atom to another.
Insulators are materials whose electrons are held firmly to their nucleus

Figure 2.
Introduction to electric circuits
Electric current and quantity

The unit used to measure the quantity of electrical charge Q is called the coulomb (where 1
𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 = 6.24 × 1018 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠).
If the drift of electrons in a conductor takes place at the rate of one coulomb per second, the
resulting current is said to be a current of one ampere.
Thus, 1 ampere=1 coulomb per second or 1 A=1 C/s.
Hence, 1 coulomb=1 ampere second or 1C=1 As.
Generally, if I is the current in amperes and t the time in seconds during which the current flows,
then I × t represents the quantity of electrical charge in coulombs.
𝑄 = 𝐼 × 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠
Introduction to electric circuits
Electric current and quantity
Example 9
What current must flow if 0.24 coulombs is to be transferred in 15 ms?
Solution 9
𝑄 =𝐼×𝑡

𝑄 0,24 0,24 × 103 240

𝐼= = = = = 16 𝐴
𝑡 15 × 10−3 15 15
Example 10
If a current of 10 A flows for four minutes, find the quantity of electricity transferred.
Solution 10
𝑄 =𝐼×𝑡
𝐼 = 10 𝐴; 𝑡 = 4 × 60 = 240 𝑠
𝑄 = 10 × 240 = 2400 𝐶
Introduction to electric circuits
Potential difference and resistance
For a continuous current to flow between two points in a circuit a potential difference (p.d.) or
voltage, V, is required between them; a complete conducting path is necessary to and from the
source of electrical energy.
The unit of p.d. is the volt, V .

Figure 3 shows a cell connected across a filament lamp. Current flow,

by convention, is considered as flowing from the positive terminal of
the cell, around the circuit to the negative terminal.

Figure 3.
Introduction to electric circuits
Potential difference and resistance

The flow of electric current is subject to friction.

This friction, or opposition, is called resistance, R, and is the property of a conductor that limits
current. The unit of resistance is the ohm; 1 ohm is defined as the resistance which will have a
current of 1 ampere flowing through it when 1 volt is connected across it.

𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅 =
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
Introduction to electric circuits
Basic electrical measuring instruments

An ammeter is an instrument used to measure current and must be connected in series with the
circuit.
A voltmeter is an instrument used to measure p.d. and must be connected in parallel with the part
of the circuit whose p.d. is required.
An ohmmeter is an instrument for measuring resistance.
A multimeter, or universal instrument, may be used to measure voltage, current and resistance.
The oscilloscope may be used to observe waveforms and to measure voltages and currents. The
display of an oscilloscope involves a spot of light moving across a screen.
A wattmeter is an instrument for the measurement of power in an electrical circuit.
Introduction to electric circuits
Basic electrical measuring instruments

A BM80 or a 420 MIT megger or a bridge megger may be used to measure both continuity and
insulation resistance.
A tachometer is an instrument that indicates the speed, usually in revolutions per minute, at which
an engine shaft is rotating.
A stroboscope is a device for viewing a rotating object at regularly recurring intervals, by means of
either (a) a rotating or vibrating shutter, or (b) a suitably designed lamp which flashes periodically. If
the period between successive views is exactly the same as the time of one revolution of the
revolving object, and the duration of the view very short, the object will appear to be stationary.
Introduction to electric circuits
Linear and non-linear devices
Figure 4a shows a circuit in which current I can be varied by the variable resistor 𝑅2 .
Since the gradient i.e. (p.d./current) is constant, resistance R1 is constant.
A resistor is thus an example of a linear device.

For various settings of 𝑅2 , the current flowing in

resistor 𝑅1 , displayed on the ammeter, and the p.d.
across R1, displayed on the voltmeter, are noted and
a graph is plotted of p.d. against current.
The result is shown in Figure 4b, where the straight-
line graph passing through the origin indicates that
current is directly proportional to the p.d.
(a) (b)

Figure 4.
Introduction to electric circuits
Linear and non-linear devices
Since the gradient is changing, the lamp is an example of a non-linear device.

If the resistor R1 in Figure 4a is replaced by a

component such as a lamp, then the graph shown in
Figure 5 results when values of p.d. are noted for
various current readings.

Figure 5.
Introduction to electric circuits
Ohm’s law

Ohm’s law states that the current I flowing in a circuit is directly proportional to the applied voltage
V and inversely proportional to the resistance R, provided the temperature remains constant.
𝑽 𝑽
Thus, 𝑰 = 𝒐𝒓 𝑽 = 𝑰 × 𝑹 𝒐𝒓 𝑹 =
𝑹 𝑰

Example 10
The current flowing through a resistor is 0.8 A when a p.d. of 20 V is applied. Determine the value of
the resistance.
Solution 10

𝑉 20
𝑅= = = 25 Ω
𝐼 0,8
Introduction to electric circuits
Multiples and sub-multiples
Currents, voltages and resistances can often be very large or very small. Thus, multiples and sub-
multiples of units are often used. The most common ones are listed in Table 3.

Table 3.
Introduction to electric circuits
Multiples and sub-multiples
Example 11
Determine the p.d. which must be applied to a 2 kΩ resistor in order that a current of 10 mA may
flow.
Solution 11
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅 = 2 𝑘Ω = 2 × 103 = 2000 Ω
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼 = 10 𝑚𝐴 = 10 × 10−3 = 0,01 𝐴
𝑉 = 𝐼 × 𝑅 = 0,01 2000 = 20 𝑉
Example 12
A coil has a current of 5 mA flowing through it when the applied voltage is 100 𝜇V. What is the
resistance of the coil?
Solution 12

𝑉 100 × 10−6
𝑅= = −3
= 20 × 10−3 = 20 𝑚Ω
𝐼 5 × 10
Introduction to electric circuits
Electrical power and energy
Electrical power
Power P in an electrical circuit is given by the product of potential difference V and current I.
The unit of power is the watt (W).
Hence, 𝑃 = 𝑉 × 𝐼 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
From Ohm’s law, 𝑉 = 𝐼 × 𝑅
Substituting 𝑉 in the power equation, we obtain:
𝑃 = 𝐼2 × 𝑅 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑉
Also, from Ohm’s law, 𝐼 =
𝑅

Substituting 𝐼 in the power equation, we obtain:

𝑉2
P= 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
𝑅
Introduction to electric circuits
Electrical power and energy
Example 13
A 100 W electric light bulb is connected to a 250 V supply. Determine (a) the current flowing in the
bulb, and (b) the resistance of the bulb.
Solution 13

𝑃
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃 = 𝑉 × 𝐼, 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼 =
𝑉
100 10
(a) 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼 = 250 = 25 = 0,4 𝐴
𝑉 250
(b) 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅 = 𝐼 = 0,4
= 625 Ω
Introduction to electric circuits
Electrical power and energy
Example 14
Calculate the power dissipated when a current of 4 mA flows through a resistance of 5 kΩ.
Solution 14
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃 = 𝐼2 × 𝑅 = 4 × 10−3 2 5 × 103
= 16 × 10−6 × 5 × 103 = 0,08 𝑊 𝑜𝑟 80 𝑚𝑊
Example 15
An electric kettle has a resistance of 30Ω. What current will flow when it is connected to a 240 V
supply? Find also the power rating of the kettle.
Solution 15

𝑉 240
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼 = = =8𝐴
𝑅 30
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃 = 𝑉 × 𝐼 = 240 × 8 = 1920 𝑊 = 1,92 𝑘𝑊 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑘𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒
Introduction to electric circuits
Electrical power and energy

Example 16
A current of 5 A flows in the winding of an electric motor, the resistance of the winding being 100 Ω.
Determine (a) the p.d. across the winding, and (b) the power dissipated by the coil.
Solution 16
(a) 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑉 = 𝐼 × 𝑅 = 5 × 100 = 500 𝑉
(b) Power dissipated by coil,
𝑃 = 𝐼2 × 𝑅 = 52 × 100 = 2500 𝑊 = 2,5 𝑘𝑊
Introduction to electric circuits
Electrical power and energy

Electrical energy
If the power is measured in watts and the time in seconds, then the unit of energy is watt-seconds
or joules.
If the power is measured in kilowatts and the time in hours then the unit of energy is kilowatt-
hours, often called the ‘unit of electricity’.
The electricity meter in the home records the number of kilowatt-hours used and is thus an energy
meter.
Introduction to electric circuits
Electrical power and energy

Electrical energy
Example 17
A 12 V battery is connected across a load having a resistance of 40 Ω. Determine the current flowing
in the load, the power consumed, and the energy dissipated in 2 minutes.
Solution 17
𝑉 12
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼 = = = 0,3 𝐴
𝑅 40
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑, 𝑃 = 𝑉 × 𝐼 = 12 × 0,3 = 3,6 𝑊
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 3,6 𝑊 2 × 60 𝑠 = 432 𝐽
Introduction to electric circuits
Electrical power and energy
Electrical energy
Example 18
A source of e.m.f. of 15 V supplies a current of 2 A for six minutes. How much energy is provided in
this time?
Solution 18
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 × 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
Hence, energy = V × 𝐼 × 𝑡 = 15 × 2 × 6 × 60 = 10800 𝐽 = 10,8 𝑘𝐽
Example 19
Electrical equipment in an office takes a current of 13 A from a 240 V supply. Estimate the cost per
week of electricity if the equipment is used for 30 hours each week and 1 kWh of energy costs
R1.356.
Introduction to electric circuits
Electrical power and energy
Electrical energy
Solution 19
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑉 × 𝐼 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 = 240 × 13 = 3120 𝑊 = 3.12 𝑘𝑊
Energy used per week = power × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 3.12 𝑘𝑊 × 30ℎ = 93.6𝑘𝑊ℎ
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑅 1.356 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑊ℎ = 93.6 × 1.356 = 𝑅 126.9216
Hence weekly cost of electricity = R 126.9
Example 20
Determine the power dissipated by the element of an electric fire of resistance 20 Ω when a current
of 10 A flows through it. If the fire is on for 6 hours determine the energy used and the cost if 1 unit
of electricity costs R 1.3.
Introduction to electric circuits
Electrical power and energy
Electrical energy
Solution 20
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑃 = 𝐼2 × 𝑅 = 102 × 20 = 2000 𝑊 = 2 𝑘𝑊
Energy used in 6 hours = power × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 2 𝑘𝑊 × 6ℎ = 12 𝑘𝑊ℎ
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑅 1.3 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑊ℎ = 12 × 1.3 = 𝑹 𝟏𝟓. 𝟔
Electrical Power
Example
An electrical motor draws 11A when it is supplied by a 220V-50Hz source. The motor works three
hours per day, six days per week. Determine the monthly electrical account, assuming there are
four weeks in a month.

Solution
Time = 𝑡 × 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 × 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑘𝑠 = 3× 6 × 4 = 72ℎ

Power =𝑉 × 𝐼 = 220 × 11 = 2.42𝑘𝑊.

Units =Power × time = 2.42× 72 = 174.24𝑘𝑊. ℎ

Costs = units × unit cost = 174.24 × 0.49 = 𝑹𝟖𝟓. 𝟑𝟖

Alternatively, the cost can be calculated as follows

Cost = Power × time × unit cost = 2.42 × 72 × 0.49 = 𝑹𝟖𝟓. 𝟑𝟖
Electrical Power
Thermal Energy
Different materials experience different temperature increases when they are subjected to the
same amount of heat energy. The specific heat capacity of a material determines the increase in
temperature as a result of heating and can be defined as follows -:

Specific heat capacity is the quantity of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1𝑘𝑔 of a
material by 1°𝐶.

The symbol is 𝑐 and the unit is J/Kg. 𝐾 Substance c in 𝐉/𝐊𝐠. 𝑲

Air 1015
Heat= 𝑚 𝑐 ∆𝑡 Aluminium 950
Brass 370
Copper 390
Ice 2100
Iron 500
Water 4190
Electrical Power
Example
A cast iron plate must be heated from 12°𝐶 to 145°𝐶 . The plate weighs 8𝐾𝑔 and has a specific
heat capacity of 2100 J/Kg. 𝐾. Determine the energy required.

Solution

Heat= 𝑚 𝑐 ∆𝑡
= 𝟖 × 𝟐𝟏𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟒𝟓 − 𝟏𝟐
= 𝟐, 𝟐𝟑𝟒𝟒𝑴𝑱
Electrical Power
Example
Water is heated with the aid of a diesel furnace. Diesel has a heat value of 31,5 𝑀𝐽/𝑘𝑔, and 1.5𝑘𝑔
is used for every 240 litres of water. The heat transfer is 90% effective. Determine the final
temperature, if the water supply is at 15°𝐶.

Solution
Heat input = Heat value × 𝑚𝑑 = 31.5 × 1.5 = 47.24𝑀𝐽.
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 100
Efficiency= ×
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 1
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 47.24 × 0.9 = 42.525MJ

Heat(Q) = 𝑚 𝑐 ∆𝑡
= 240 × 4190 × 𝑡2 − 15
𝒕𝟐 = 𝟓𝟕. 𝟐𝟖𝟖℃
Electrical Power
Example
Determine the heat required to raise the temperature of a copper object with a mass of 50kg from
15℃ to 45℃. The heating process takes 4 minutes, and 50 of these objects must be heated.
Determine the total cost. (Take specific heat capacity of copper as 390𝐽/𝑘𝑔℃ and cost per kWh as
35c per kWh )

Solution
First, we determine the heat required to raise the temperature of a copper object
𝑚 = 50𝑘𝑔, ∆𝑡 = 45℃ − 15℃ = 30℃
𝑄 = 𝑚 𝑐 ∆𝑡 = 50𝑘𝑔 × 390𝐽/𝑘𝑔℃ × 30℃
= 𝟓𝟖𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑱 𝒐𝒓 𝟓𝟖𝟓𝒌𝑱

For 50 of the copper objects,

585000𝐽 × 50 = 29,250,000𝐽 𝑜𝑟 29,250𝑘𝐽

To determine the total cost, heat energy is converted from joules to kilowatt-hours.
1kWh=3,600,000J/kWh or 3,600kJ/kWh or 3.6 × 106 𝑀𝐽/kWh
29,250,000𝐽
Total energy in kWh= = 8.125𝑘𝑊ℎ
3,600,000𝐽/𝑘𝑊ℎ
Hence, the total cost becomes = 8.125 × 0.35 = 𝑹𝟐. 𝟖𝟒
Introduction to electric circuits
Main effects of electric current
The three main effects of an electric current are:
(a) magnetic effect
(b) chemical effect
(c) heating effect.
Some practical applications of the effects of an electric current include:
• Magnetic effect: bells, relays, motors, generators, transformers, telephones, car-ignition and
lifting magnets
• Chemical effect: primary and secondary cells and electroplating
• Heating effect: cookers, water heaters, electric fires, irons, furnaces, kettles and soldering irons
Introduction to electric circuits
Fuses
The fuse is a piece of wire which can carry a stated current; if the current rises above this value it
will melt. A circuit diagram symbol for a fuse is shown in Figure 2 .
If the fuse melts (blows) then there is an open circuit, and no current can then flow – thus
protecting the equipment by isolating it from the power supply.
The fuse must be able to carry slightly more than the normal operating current of the equipment to
allow for tolerances and small current surges.

Figure 2
Introduction to electric circuits
Fuses
Example 21
If 5 A, 10 A and 13 A fuses are available, state which is most appropriate for the following appliances, which are both
connected to a 240 V supply
(a) electric toaster having a power rating of 1 kW
(b) electric fire having a power rating of 3 kW.

Solution 21
𝑃
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃 = 𝑉 × 𝐼, 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼 =
𝑉
(a) For the toaster,
𝑃 1000
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼 = = = 4.17 𝐴
𝑉 240
Hence a 5A fuse is most appropriate

(b) For the electric fire,

𝑃 3000
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼 = = = 12.5 𝐴
𝑉 240
Hence a 13 A fuse is most appropriate
End