Chapter 7

GROUND WATER
7.1 TYPES OF AQUIFERS AND FORMATIONS
Ground water is widely distributed under the ground and is a replenishable resource unlike
other resources of the earth. The problems in Ground Water Investigation are the zones of
occurrence and recharge. The modern trends are to create more opportunity for recharge of
ground water from natural sources like rain, percolation dams, etc. The ground water is free
from pollution and the ground water storage is free from atomic attacks. Ground water can be
developed at a small capital cost in least possible time, and intensive irrigation can be prac-
tised with double and tripple cropping including commercial crops; ground water can be used
for supplemental irrigation during periods of deficient surface supply, for the year-round irri-
gation practice.
A water bearing geologic formation or stratum capable of transmitting water through
its pores at a rate sufficient for economic extraction by wells is called ‘aquifer’. Formations that
serve as good aquifers are:
• unconsolidated gravels, sands, alluvium
• lake sediments, glacial deposits
• sand stones
• limestones with cavities (caverns) formed by the action of acid waters (solution open-
Copyright © 2006. New Age International Ltd. All rights reserved.

ings in limestones and dolomites)

• granites and marble with fissures and cracks, weathered gneisses and schists
• heavily shettered quartzites
• vescicular basalts
• slates (better than shales owing to their jointed conditions)
A geologic formation, which can absorb water but can not transmit significant amounts
is called an ‘aquiclude’. Examples are clays, shales, etc.
A geologic formation with no interconnected pores and hence can neither absorb nor
transmit water is called an ‘aquifuge’. Examples are basalts, granites, etc.
A geologic formation of rather impervious nature, which transmits water at a slow rate
compared to an aquifer (insufficient for pumping from wells) is called an ‘aquitard’. Examples
are clay lenses interbedded with sand.
Specific yield. While porosity (n) is a measure of the water bearing capacity of the for-
mation, all this water can not be drained by gravity or by pumping from wells as a portion of
water is held in the void spaces by molecular and surface tension forces. The volume of water,
192
Raghunath, H.M.. Hydrology : Principle Analysis Design, New Age International Ltd, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kenyatta-ebooks/detail.action?docID=330883.
Created from kenyatta-ebooks on 2021-10-26 10:29:33.
 GROUND WATER 193

expressed as a percentage of the total volume of the saturated aquifer, that will drain by
gravity when the water table (Ground Water Table (GWT) drops due to pumping or drainage,
is called the ‘specific yield (Sy)’ and that percentage volume of water, which will not drain by
gravity is called ‘specific retention (Sr)’ and corresponds to ‘field capacity’ i.e., water holding
capacity of soil (for use by plants and is an important factor for irrigation of crops). Thus,
porosity = specific yield + specific retention
n = Sy + Sr ...(7.1)
Specific yield depends upon grain size, shape and distribution of pores and compaction
of the formation. The values of specific yields for alluvial aquifers are in the range of 10–20%
and for uniform sands about 30%.

7.2 CONFINED AND UNCONFINED AQUIFERS

If there is homogeneous porous formation extending from the ground surface up to an imper-
vious bed underneath (Fig. 7.1), rainwater percolating down in the soil saturates the forma-
tion and builds up the ground water table (GWT). This aquifer under water table conditions is
called an unconfined aquifer (water-table aquifer) and well drilled into this aquifer is called a
water table well.

1 Zone of aeration
Precipitation
2 Zone of saturation
Recharge area at
outcropping of formation
Water table Non-flowing
Piezometric Flowing artesian artesian well
W.T. surface well well Perched
Sl water table
op
ing
G.
S. 1
Imp layer
GWT W.T. Aquifer
Cap. fringe 2
Confining
table
layer Water er
aquif
Copyright © 2006. New Age International Ltd. All rights reserved.

Confined or artesian 2
Aquiclude aquifer
(Impervious)
Bed rock

Fig. 7.1 Types of aquifers and location of wells

On the other hand, if a porous formation underneath is sandwiched between two imper-
vious strata (aquicludes) and is recharged by a natural source (by rain water when the forma-
tion outcrops at the ground surface—recharge area, or outcrops into a river-bed or bank) at a
higher elevation so that the water is under pressure in the aquifer (like pipe flow), i.e., artesian
condition. Such an aquifer is called an artesian aquifer or confined aquifer. If a well is drilled
into an artesian aquifer, the water level rises in the well to its initial level at the recharge
source called the piezometric surface. If the piezometric surface is above the ground level at
the location of the well, the well is called ‘flowing artesian well’ since the water flows out of the
well like a spring, and if the piezometric surface is below the ground level at the well location,
the well is called a non-flowing artesian well. In practice, a well can be drilled through 2-3
artesian aquifers (if multiple artesian aquifers exist at different depths below ground level).

Raghunath, H.M.. Hydrology : Principle Analysis Design, New Age International Ltd, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kenyatta-ebooks/detail.action?docID=330883.
Created from kenyatta-ebooks on 2021-10-26 10:29:33.
 194 HYDROLOGY

Sometimes a small band of impervious strata lying above the main ground water table
(GWT) holds part of the water percolating from above. Such small water bodies of local nature
can be exhausted quickly and are deceptive. The water level in them is called ‘perched water
table’.
Storage coefficient. The volume of water given out by a unit prism of aquifer (i.e., a
column of aquifer standing on a unit horizontal area) when the piezometric surface (confined
aquifers) or the water table (unconfined aquifers) drops by unit depth is called the storage
coefficient of the aquifer (S) and is dimensionless (fraction). It is the same as the volume of
water taken into storage by a unit prism of the aquifer when the piezometric surface or water
table rises by unit depth. In the case of water table (unconfined) aquifer, the storage coefficient
is the same of specific yield (Sy).
Since the water is under pressure in an artesian aquifer, the storage coefficient of an
artesian aquifer is attributable to the compressibility of the aquifer skeleton and expansibility
of the pore water (as it comes out of the aquifer to atmospheric pressure when the well is
pumped) and is given by the relation.

S = γwnb
F1 +
1 I ...(7.2)
GH K w nEs JK
where S = storage coefficient (decimal)
γw = specific weight of water
n = porosity of soil (decimal)
b = thickness of the confined aquifer
Kw = bulk modulus of elasticity of water
Es = modulus of compressibility (elasticity) of the soil grains of the aquifer.
Since water is practically incompressible, expansibility of water as it comes out of the
pores has a very little contribution to the value of the storage coefficient.
The storage coefficient of an artesian aquifer ranges from 0.00005 to 0.005, while for a
water table aquifer S = Sy = 0.05–0.30. The specific yield (unconfined aquifers) and storage
Copyright © 2006. New Age International Ltd. All rights reserved.

coefficient (confined aquifers), values have to be determined for the aquifers in order to make
estimates of the changes in the ground water storage due to fluctuation in the GWT or
piezometric surface (ps) from the relation.
∆GWS = Aaq × ∆GWT or ps × S or Sy ...(7.3)
where ∆GWS = change in ground water storage
Aaq = involved area of the aquifer
∆GWT or ps = fluctuation in GWT or ps
S or Sy = storage coefficient (confined aquifer) or specific yield (unconfined aquifer).
Example 7.1 In a certain alluvial basin of 100 km2, 90 Mm3 of ground water was pumped in a
year and the ground water table dropped by about 5 m during the year. Assuming no replenish-
ment, estimate the specific yield of the aquifer. If the specific retention is 12%, what is the
porosity of the soil?
Solution (i) Change in ground water storage
∆GWS = Aaq × ∆GWT × Sy

Raghunath, H.M.. Hydrology : Principle Analysis Design, New Age International Ltd, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kenyatta-ebooks/detail.action?docID=330883.
Created from kenyatta-ebooks on 2021-10-26 10:29:33.
 GROUND WATER 195

90 × 106 = (100 × 106) × 5 × Sy

∴ Sy = 0.18
(ii) Porosity n = Sy + Sr = 0.18 + 0.12 = 0.30. or 30%
Example 7.2 An artesian aquifer, 30 m thick has a porosity of 25% and bulk modulus of
compression 2000 kg/cm2. Estimate the storage coefficient of the aquifer. What fraction of this is
attributable to the expansibility of water?
Bulk modulus of elasticity of water = 2.4 × 104 kg/cm2.
F1 1 I 1
+
1 F I
Solution S = γw nb
w
GH K
nK s
+
= 1000 × 0.25 × 30
JK 2.14 × 10 8 GH
0.25 × 2 × 107
JK
= 7500 (0.467 × 10–8 + 20 × 10–8) = 1.54 × 10–3
Storage coefficient due to the expansibility of water as a percentage of S above
7500 × 0.467 × 10 −8
= × 100 = 2.28%, which is negligibe
7500 × 20.467 × 10 −8
Note In less compressible formations like limestones for which Es ≈ 2 × 105 kg/cm2, S = 5
× 10–5 and the fractions of this attributable to water and aquifer skeleton are 70% and 30%, respectively.

7.3 DARCY’S LAW

Flow of ground water except through coarse gravels and rockfills is laminar and the velocity of
flow is given by Darcy’s law (1856), which states that ‘the velocity of flow in a porous medium
is proportional to the hydraulic gradient’, Fig. 7.2, i.e.,
V = Ki, ...(7.4)
∆h
i= ...(7.4 a)
L
Q = AV = AKi, A = Wb, T = Kb ...(7.4 b)
∴ Q = WbKi ...(7.4 c)
Copyright © 2006. New Age International Ltd. All rights reserved.

∴ Q = T iw ...(7.5)

Recharge P (HGL) - Hydraulic Gradient Line (HGL) or piezometric surface

area Recharge
by rain Piezometers or
drilled wells Q = KAi, A = wb, T = kb
G.S.
\Q = Tiw
Aquiclude
(Imp.) Ñ h.g.L. Ñ
G. h
W i= h
.F L
low Q Artesian ¢K
¢
aquifer b
L A = wb
Aquiclude
(Impervious)

Fig. 7.2 Flow of ground water

where V = velocity of flow through the aquifer

K = coefficient of permeability of aquifer soil

Raghunath, H.M.. Hydrology : Principle Analysis Design, New Age International Ltd, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kenyatta-ebooks/detail.action?docID=330883.
Created from kenyatta-ebooks on 2021-10-26 10:29:33.
 196 HYDROLOGY

i = hydraulic gradient
∆h
=, ∆h = head lost in a length of flow path L
L
A = cross-sectional area of the aquifer (= wb)
w = width of aquifer
b = thickness of aquifer
T = coefficient of transmissibility of the aquifer
Q = volume rate of flow of ground water (discharge or yield)
Darcy’s law is valid for laminar flow, i.e., the Reynolds number (Re) varies from 1 to 10,
though most commonly it is less than 1
ρVd
Re = ≤1 ...(7.6)
µ
where ρ = mass density of water
µ = dynamic viscosity of water
d = mean grain size of the aquifer soil
In aquifers containing large diameter solution openings, coarse gravels, rockfills and
also in the immediate vicinity of a gravel packed well, flow is no longer laminar due to high
gradients and exhibit non linear relationship between the velocity and hydraulic gradient. For
example, in a gravel-packed well (mean size of gravel ≈ 5 mm) Re ≈ 45 and the flow would be
transitional at a distance of about 5 to 10 times the well radius.

7.4 TRANSMISSIBILITY
It can be seen from Eq. (7.5) that T = Q, when i = 1 and w = 1; i.e., the transmissibility is the
flow capacity of an aquifer per unit width under unit hydraulic gradient and is equal to the
product of permeability times the saturated thickness of the aquifer. In a confined aquifer, T =
Kb and is independent of the piezometric surface. In a water table aquifer, T = KH, where H is
the saturated thickness. As the water table drops, H decreases and the transmissibility is
reduced. Thus, the transmissibility of an unconfined aquifer depends upon the depth of GWT.
Copyright © 2006. New Age International Ltd. All rights reserved.

7.5 WELL HYDRAULICS

Steady radial flow into a well (Dupuit 1863, Thiem 1906)
(a) Water table conditions (unconfined aquifer)
Assuming that the well is pumped at a constant rate Q for a long time and the water
levels in the observation wells have stabilised, i.e., equilibrium conditions have been reached,
Fig. 7.3 (a).
From Darcy’s law, Q=KiA
dy
Q=K (2π xy)
dx
r2 dx h2
Q zr1 x
=2πK zh1
y dy

∴ Q= π K (h22 − h12 ) ...(7.7)

2.303 log 10
FG r IJ
2
Hr K1

Raghunath, H.M.. Hydrology : Principle Analysis Design, New Age International Ltd, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kenyatta-ebooks/detail.action?docID=330883.
Created from kenyatta-ebooks on 2021-10-26 10:29:33.
 GROUND WATER 197

R: Radius of influence
1,2: Observation wells
R: Radius of influence
PW: Pumping well
1,2: Observation wells
R dw: Dewatered zone R PW: Pumping well
r2
r1 Q r2
2 1 PW G.S. 2 1 r1 Q GS
PW
2 rw Non - pumping
GWT. (Non-pumping) piezometric surface
P P
s2 s1 s1 s
sw
2 rw s2 Ñ Ñx w
x dW y
y Cone of
x x Cone of drawdown
drawdown P.W.L.
H h1 hw P.W.L. y Aquiclude
h2 y T = KH H h2 h1 hw
Homogeneous (Impermeable)
Well screen aquifer ¢K¢
(Strainer) Confined or
Bail plug b artesian aquifer ¢K¢
Well screen
Aquiclude (Strainer) T = kb
(Imp.)
a. Well in a water table aquifer Impermeable
(Aquiclude) Bail plug
b. Well in a confined aquifer

Fig. 7.3 Steady radial flow into a well

Applying the Eq. (7.7) between the face of the well (r = rw, h = hw) and the point of zero-
drawdown (r = R, h = H)
π K (H 2 − h2 )
Q= ...(7.7 a)
2.303 log 10
FG R IJ
Hr Kw
If the drawdown in the pumped well (sw = H – hw) is small
H2 – hw2 = (H + hw) (H – hw), H + hw ≈ 2H
= 2H (H – hw)
2 π KH ( H − hw )
Then, Q= , KH = T
FG IJ
2.303 log 10
R
Copyright © 2006. New Age International Ltd. All rights reserved.

H K
rw
2.72 T ( H − h ) w
∴ Q= ...(7.8)
F RI
log G J 10
Hr K w
(b) Artesian conditions (confined aquifer)
If the well is pumped at constant pumping rate Q for a long time and the equilibrium
conditions have reached, Fig. 7.3 (b).
From Darcy’s law, Q=KiA
dy
Q=K (2π xb)
dx
r2 dx h2
Q
r1 x
= 2π Kb z
h1
dy
2π (kb) ( h2 − h1 )
z
∴ Q= ...(7.9)
2.303 log 10
r2 FG IJ
r1 H K
Raghunath, H.M.. Hydrology : Principle Analysis Design, New Age International Ltd, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kenyatta-ebooks/detail.action?docID=330883.
Created from kenyatta-ebooks on 2021-10-26 10:29:33.
 198 HYDROLOGY

Applying Eq. (7.9) between the face of the well (r = rw, h = hw) and the point of zero-
drawdown (r = R, h = H), simplifying and putting T = Kb,
2.72 T ( H − hw )
Q= ...(7.10)
log 10
FG R IJ
Hr K
w
which is the same as Eq. (7.8) (for water table conditions under small drawdown).
Note The length of screen provided will be usually half to three-fourth’s of the thickness of the
aquifer for obtaining a suitable entrance velocity (≈ 2.5 cm/sec) through the slots to avoid incrustation
and corrosion at the openings; the percentage open area provided in the screen will be usually 15 to
18%.
Dupuit’s Equations Assumptions
The following assumptions are made in the derivation of the Dupuit Thiem equations:
(i) Stabilised drawdown—i.e., the pumping has been continued for a sufficiently long
time at a constant rate, so that the equilibrium stage of steady flow conditions have
been reached.
(ii) The aquifer is homogeneous, isotropic, of infinite areal extent and of constant thick-
ness, i.e., constant permeability.
(iii) Complete penetration of the well (with complete screening of the aquifer thickness)
with 100% well efficiency.
(iv) Flow lines are radial and horizontal and the flow is laminar, i.e., Darcy’s law is
applicable.
(v) The well is infinitely small with negligible storage and all the pumped water comes
from the aquifer.
The above assumptions may not be true under actual field conditions; for example, if
there is no natural source of recharge nearby into the aquifer, all the pumped water comes
from storage in the aquifer resulting in increased drawdowns in the well with prolonged pumping
and thus the flow becomes unsteady (transient flow conditions). There may be even leakage
Copyright © 2006. New Age International Ltd. All rights reserved.

through the overlying confining layer (say, from a water table aquifer above the confining
layer) of an artesian aquifer (leaky artesian aquifer). The hydraulics of wells with steady and
unsteady flow under such conditions as developed from time to time by various investigators
like Theis, Jacob, Chow, De Glee, Hantush, Walton, Boulton etc. have been dealt in detail in
the author’s companion volume ‘Ground Water’ published by M/s Wiley Eastern Limited New
Delhi and the reader is advised to refer the book for a detailed practical study of Ground Water
dealing with Hydrogeology, Ground Water Survey and Pumping Tests, Rural Water Supply
and Irrigation Systems. For example, in the Theis equation for unsteady radial flow into a well
it is assumed that the water pumped out is immediately released from storage of the aquifer
(no recharge) as the piezometric surface or the water table drops. But in unconfined aquifers
and leaky artesian aquifers (that receive water from upper confining layer with a free water
table), the rate of fall of the water table may be faster than the rate at which pore water is
released; this is called ‘delayed yield’ as suggested by Boulton.

Raghunath, H.M.. Hydrology : Principle Analysis Design, New Age International Ltd, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kenyatta-ebooks/detail.action?docID=330883.
Created from kenyatta-ebooks on 2021-10-26 10:29:33.
 GROUND WATER 199

7.6 SPECIFIC CAPACITY

Q
The specific capacity of a well is the discharge per unit drawdown in the well and is
Sw
usually expressed as lpm/m. The specific capacity is a measure of the effectiveness of the well;
it decreases with the increase in the pumping rate (Q) and prolonged pumping (time, t).
In Eq. (7.8) by putting rw = 15 cm, R = 300 m, H–hw = Sw, the specific capacity
Q T
≈ , in consistent units ...(7.11)
Sw 1.2
Example 7.3 A 20-cm well penetrates 30 m below static water level (GWT). After a long period
of pumping at a rate of 1800 lpm, the drawdowns in the observation wells at 12 m and 36 m
from the pumped well are 1.2 m and 0.5 m, respectively.
Determine: (i) the transmissibility of the aquifer.
(ii) the drawdown in the pumped well assuming R = 300 m.
(iii) the specific capacity of the well.

π K (h22 − h12 )
Solution Dupuit’s Eq. (7.7): Q =
2.303 log 10 r2 / r1
h2 = H – s2 = 30 – 0.5 = 29.5 m; h1 = H – s1 = 30 – 1.2 = 28.8 m
1.800 πK(29.5 2 − 28.8 2 )
=
60 2.303 log 10 36/12
∴ K = 2.62 × 10–4 m/sec or 22.7 m/day
(i) Transmissibility T = KH = (2.62 × 10 ) 30 = 78.6 × 10–4 m2/sec,
–4

or = 22.7 × 30 = 681 m2/day

2.72 T ( H − hw )
(ii) Eq. (7.8): Q=
log 10 R/ rw
Copyright © 2006. New Age International Ltd. All rights reserved.

1.800 2.72(78.6 × 10 −4 ) Sw
≡
60 log 10 300/0.10
∴ drawdown in the well, Sw = 4.88 m
(iii) The specific capacity of the well
Q 1.800
= S = = 0.0062 (m3 sec–1/m)
w 60 × 4.88
or 372 Ipm/m
Q T 78.6 × 10 −4
Sw ≈ = = 0.00655 (m2 sec–1/m)
1.2 1.2
or 393 lpm/m
Example 7.4 A tube well taps an artesian aquifer. Find its yield in litres per hour for a drawdown
of 3 m when the diameter of the well is 20 cm and the thickness of the aquifer is 30 m. Assume
the coefficient of permeability to be 35 m/day.
If the diameter of the well is doubled find the percentage increase in the yield, the other
conditions remaining the same. Assume the radius of influence as 300 m in both cases.

Raghunath, H.M.. Hydrology : Principle Analysis Design, New Age International Ltd, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kenyatta-ebooks/detail.action?docID=330883.
Created from kenyatta-ebooks on 2021-10-26 10:29:33.
 200 HYDROLOGY

2.72 T ( H − hw )
Solution Dupuit’s Eq. (7.10): Q =
log 10 R/ rw
2.72 {(35/24) × 30}3
= = 102.7 m3/hr
log 10 (300/0.10)
or = 102700 lph
1
The yield Q∝ ...(7.12)
log ( R/rw )
other things remaining same.
If the yield is Q′ after doubling the diameter, i.e.,
rw′ = 0.10 × 2 = 0.20 m
Q log R/rw
=
Q′ log R/rw
300 300
log = 3.4771, log = 3.1761
0.10 0.20
102.7 3.1761
= ∴ Q′ = 112.4 m3/hr
Q′ 3.4771
Q′ − Q 112.4 − 102.7
percentage increase in yield = × 100 = × 100 = 9.45%
Q 102.4
Thus, by doubling the diameter the percentage in yield is only about 10%, which is
uneconomical. Large diameter wells necessarily do not mean proportionately large yields. The
diameter of a tube well usually ranges from 20 to 30 cm so that the bowl assembly of a deep
well or a submersible pump can easily go inside with a minimum clearance.
Refer Appendix-D for Unsteady Groundwater Flow.

7.7 CAVITY WELLS

If a relatively thin impervious formation or a stiff clay layer is encountered at a shallow depth
Copyright © 2006. New Age International Ltd. All rights reserved.

underlain by a thick alluvial stratum, then it is an excellent location for a cavity well. A hole
is drilled using the hand boring set and casing pipe is lowered to rest firmly on the stiff clay
layer, Fig. 7.4. A hole of small cross-section area is drilled into the sand formation and is
developed into a big hollow cavity by pumping at a high rate or by operating a plunger giving
a large yield. The depth of the cavity at the centre varies from 15-30 cm with 6-8 m radius of
the cavity. The flow of water into the cavity is spherical and the yield is low. The failure of a
cavity well is usually due to caving of the clay roof. Since the depth is usually small, deep well
pumps are not necessary and thus the capital costs of construction, development and installa-
tion of pumpset of a cavity well are low.
Yield of Cavity Well
For the unsteady flow condition, the pumping rate Q of a cavity well is given by
Q Q Ss
+ s= ...(7.13)
6 K πt 2πkr
where s = drawdown in the observation well at a distance r from the cavity well
Q = constant pumping rate

Raghunath, H.M.. Hydrology : Principle Analysis Design, New Age International Ltd, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kenyatta-ebooks/detail.action?docID=330883.
Created from kenyatta-ebooks on 2021-10-26 10:29:33.
 GROUND WATER 201

Q
GS
Top soil Non-pumping Piezometric surface
o+
Weathered
Casing soil

PWL H
Stiff clay

R
layer (Imp.) hw
rw
re

y Cavity

Sand layers free Flow spherical

from fine grains critical velocity
surface
Extensively thick
confined aquifer

Aquiclude (Imp.)

Fig. 7.4 Flow into a cavity well

Ss = specific storage coefficient (i.e., for unit aquifer thickness)

K = permeability of the aquifer
t = time since pumping began
For steady state flow condition, the well yield is given by
2πKy ( H − hw )
Q= ...(7.14)
1 − rw / R
and the width of the cavity, Fig. 7.4
re = (2rw − y) y ...(7.15)
where y = depth of cavity (at the centre)
Copyright © 2006. New Age International Ltd. All rights reserved.

rw = radius of cavity
R = radius of influence
Example 7.5 The following data are obtained from a cavity tube well:
Discharge 30 lps
Drawdown 4m
Permeability of the aquifer 50 m/day
Depth of cavity 20 cm
Radius of influence 150 m
Determine the radius and width of cavity.
2πKy ( H − hw )
Solution Well yield Q =
r
1− w
R
30 50 0.20 × 4
= 2π × ×
1000 24 × 60 × 60 r
1− w
150

Raghunath, H.M.. Hydrology : Principle Analysis Design, New Age International Ltd, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kenyatta-ebooks/detail.action?docID=330883.
Created from kenyatta-ebooks on 2021-10-26 10:29:33.
 202 HYDROLOGY

∴ Radius of cavity, rw = 135.5 m

Width of cavity, re = (2rw − y) y = (2 × 4.5 − 0.2) 0.2 = 7.36 m

7.8 HYDRAULICS OF OPEN WELLS

Theis equation does not apply for shallow dug open wells since there is no instantaneous re-
lease of water from the aquifer, most of the water being pumped only from storage inside the
well (Fig. 7.5).

GS

SWL
S2
Recuperated
water level
S1
Recuperated
in time T
Depressed
water level
Impervious well
steining
Flow into well

Fig. 7.5 Recuperation test in open wells

In alluvial soil, if the water is pumped at a high rate the depression head (static water
level–water level inside the well during pumping) will increase, which may cause excess gradi-
ents resulting in loosening of sand particles (quick sand phenomenon). This limiting head is
called ‘critical depression head’. The ‘safe working depression head’ is usually one-third of the
critical head and the yield under this head is called the maximum safe yield of the well.
Yield Tests
The following tests may be performed to get an idea of the probable yield of the well:
Copyright © 2006. New Age International Ltd. All rights reserved.

(a) Pumping test

(b) Recuperation test
(a) Pumping Test. In the pumping test, the water level in the well is depressed to an
amount equal to the safe working head for the sub-soil. Then the water level is kept constant
by making the pumping rate equal to the percolation into the well. The quantity of water
pumped in a known time gives an idea of the probable yield of the well of the given diameter.
The test may be carried out in an existing open well.
In hard-rock areas,
if D = diameter of the well
d = depth of water column
Q = pumping rate
t = time required for emptying the well
then,
Rate of seepage into the well

Raghunath, H.M.. Hydrology : Principle Analysis Design, New Age International Ltd, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kenyatta-ebooks/detail.action?docID=330883.
Created from kenyatta-ebooks on 2021-10-26 10:29:33.
 GROUND WATER 203

Volume of water pumped out − Volume of water stored in the well

=
Time of pumping
πD 2
Qt − ×d
= 4 ...(7.16)
t
(b) Recuperation Test. In the recuperation test, the water level in the well is depressed
by an amount less than the safe working head for the subsoil. The pumping is stopped and the
water level is allowed to rise or recuperate. The depth of recuperation in a known time is noted
from which the yield of the well may be calculated as follows (Fig. 7.5).
Let the water level inside the well rise from s1 to s2 (measured below static water level,
swl) in time T. If s is the head at any time t, from Darcy’s law
Q = KAi
if a head s is lost in a length L of seepage path
s
Q = KA
L
Q = CAs
K
where the constant C = and has dimensions of T–1.
L
If in a time dt, the water level rises by an amount ds
Q dt = – A ds
the –ve sign indicates that the head decreases as the time increases.
Putting Q = CAs
CAs dt = – A ds
s2 ds

2.303
C z z
0
T

s1
dt =
s1
−
s

∴ log10 C= ...(7.17)
T s2
Assuming the flow is entirely from the bottom (impervious steining of masonry), the
Copyright © 2006. New Age International Ltd. All rights reserved.

yield of the well

Q = CAH ...(7.17a)
where Q = safe yield of the well
A = area of cross section of the well
H = safe working depression head
C = specific yield of the soil
From Eq. (7.17a) Q = C when A = 1, H = 1, i.e., the specific yield of the soil is the
discharge per unit area under a unit depression head and has dimension of T –1 (1/time) and
the usual values are
C = 0.25 hr–1 for clayey soil
C = 0.50 hr–1 for fine sand
C = 1.00 hr–1 for coarse sand
The value of C is usually determined from a recuperation test, (Eq. (7.17)).
Example 7.6 A well of size 7.70 × 4.65 m and depth 6.15 m in lateritic soil has its normal
water level 5.08 m below ground level (bgl). By pumping for 1 12 hours, the water level was

Raghunath, H.M.. Hydrology : Principle Analysis Design, New Age International Ltd, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kenyatta-ebooks/detail.action?docID=330883.
Created from kenyatta-ebooks on 2021-10-26 10:29:33.
 204 HYDROLOGY

depressed to 5.93 m bgl and the pumping was stopped. The recuperation rates of the well dur-
ing 4 hours after the pumping stopped are given below. The total volume of water pumped
during 1 12 hours of pumping was 32.22 m3. (no well steining is provided)
Recuperation rates

Time since
pumping stopped Water level bgl
(min) (m)

0 5.930
15 5.890
30 5.875
45 5.855
60 5.840
90 5.820
120 5.780
180 5.715
240 5.680

Determine
(i) Rate of seepage into the well during pumping.
(ii) Specific yield of the soil and specific capacity of the well.
(iii) Yield of the well under a safe working depression head of 0.85 m.
(iv) The area of crop that can be irrigated under the well (assume a peak consumptive use
of 4 mm and irrigation efficiency of 75%).
(v) Diameter of the well in such a soil to get an yield of 3000 lph under a safe working
depression head of 0.8 m.
Copyright © 2006. New Age International Ltd. All rights reserved.

Solution (i) Seepage into the well—from pumping data:

Volume of water pumped out = 32.22 m3
Volume of water stored in the well (that was pumped out)
= (7.70 × 4.65) (5.93 – 5.08) = 30.5 m3
Rate of seepage into the well
32.22 − 30.5
= = 1.15 m3/hr
1.5
(ii) Specific yield of the soil
2.303 s1 2.303 5.93 − 5.08
C= log10 s = log10
T 2 4 5.68 − 5.08
–1 3
= 0.09 hr (or m /hr per m drawdown)
Specific capacity of the well is its yield per unit drawdown
Q = CAH

Raghunath, H.M.. Hydrology : Principle Analysis Design, New Age International Ltd, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kenyatta-ebooks/detail.action?docID=330883.
Created from kenyatta-ebooks on 2021-10-26 10:29:33.
 GROUND WATER 205

∴ Specific capacity = Q/H = CA = 0.09 (7.70 × 4.65)

= 3.58 m3 hr–1/m (or m2/hr)
(iii) Safe yield of the well
Q = CAH = 0.09 (7.70 × 4.65) 0.85 = 3.04 m3/hr
which is more than twice the seepage into the well during pumping.
(iv) Area of crop that can be irrigated under the well:
Data to draw the curve s1/s2 vs. t (s1 = total drawdown, s2 = residual drawdown): SWL =
5.08 m, s1 = 5.93 – 5.08 = 0.85 m

Time since Water level Residual drawdown

pumping stopped bgl s2 = wL – SWL Ratio (s1/s2 )
t (min) (m) (m)

0 5.930 0.850 (= s1) 1.00

15 5.890 0.810 1.05
30 5.875 0.795 1.07
45 5.855 0.775 1.09
60 5.840 0.760 1.11
90 5.820 0.740 1.15
120 5.780 0.700 1.21
180 5.715 0.635 1.33
240 5.680 0.600 1.41

From the plot of ‘s1/s2 vs. time’ on a semi-log paper (Fig. 7.6), it is seen that s1/s2 = 9.5
after 24 hours of recovery (by extending the straight line plot), and the residual drawdown
0.85
after 24 hours, s24 = ≈ 0.09 m; hence the depth of recuperation per day = 0.85 – 0.09 = 0.76
9.5
Copyright © 2006. New Age International Ltd. All rights reserved.

m and the volume of water available per day ≈ (7.70 × 4.65) ≈ 27.2 m3. With an average peak
consumptive use of 4 mm for the type of crops grown and irrigation efficiency of 75%, the area
of crop (Acrop) that can be irrigated under one well in lateritic soils is
4
× Acrop = 27.2
1000 × 0.75
∴ Acrop = 5100 m2 or 0.5 ha
(v) Diameter of the well to yield 3000 lph:
Q = CAH
3000 D2
= 0.09 × π × × 0.8
1000 4
∴ D = 7.3 m, which is too big
It may be noted that it is not advisable to go deeper in these areas otherwise salt water
instrusion takes place.

Raghunath, H.M.. Hydrology : Principle Analysis Design, New Age International Ltd, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kenyatta-ebooks/detail.action?docID=330883.
Created from kenyatta-ebooks on 2021-10-26 10:29:33.
 206 HYDROLOGY

10
S1
9 = 9.5
S2
Well dug in lateritic
8 Semi-log paper soil near Mangalore
7 (KREC)
L´B´D
6 = 7.70 ´ 4.65 ´ 6.15 m

ed
S2
S1

olat
3 ap
Ratio

Extr

2
Observed
data
1.5

1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Recuperation time t (hr)

Fig. 7.6 Plot of recuperation test data (Example 7.6)

7.9 CONSTRUCTION OF OPEN WELLS

In alluvial soil, where an impervious vertical steining is provided to support the soil, percola-
tion into the well is entirely from the bottom and depends on the area of cross-section of the
well. Bigger diameter wells are recommended in such soil to give larger yields. In case of wells
Copyright © 2006. New Age International Ltd. All rights reserved.

in rocky substrata with fissures and cracks, the lower portion of the steining may be provided
with alternate bands of masonry laid dry (i.e., without cement mortar) (Fig. 7.7), and the
percolation into the well is mostly from the sides through fissures and cracks in the weathered
rock. In such wells, higher yields are obtained by going deeper, as long as the weathering and
fractures are evident rather than making the wells wider or larger diameter. Larger diameter
wells also involve large volume of excavation in rocks and the mounds of excavated rock depos-
ited on the ground surface occupy considerable area of cultivable land. Sometimes, it is pro-
posed to widen when it is felt that such widening will, include some well-defined fissures and
fractures.
Some of the existing wells may be revitalised by deepening by blasting; vertical bores
may be drilled at the bottom of the well when it is felt it will tap some layer under pressure,
i.e., a dug-cum-borewell (Fig. 7.8), with a centrifugal pump kept at the bottom of the open well
and the suction pipe lowered inside the bore, thus reducing the suction lift and saving the costs
involved in deep well turbine pump or submersible pump installations in drilled deep wells
from the ground surface. Lateral bores horizontal or inclined, may be drilled in the direction of
certain well-defined fractures yielding water.

Raghunath, H.M.. Hydrology : Principle Analysis Design, New Age International Ltd, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kenyatta-ebooks/detail.action?docID=330883.
Created from kenyatta-ebooks on 2021-10-26 10:29:33.
 GROUND WATER 207

D
Q
GS

Centrifugal
pump & motor
NPWL Aquifer

Weep holes
PWL Vertical tie rods
Flat iron rings
RCC Curb Foot valve

Flow into well

Fig. 7.7 Open well construction

Well-steining
GS
Top soil

Dug well Weathered

Water
rock

Bore drilled Hard rock

Coarse sand
Copyright © 2006. New Age International Ltd. All rights reserved.

Very hard rock

Fig. 7.8 Dug-cum-borewell

7.10 SPACING OF WELLS

Pumping wells should be spaced far apart so that their cones of depression will not overlap
over each other resulting in the reduction of their yields and/or increased drawdowns (Fig.7.9),
i.e., to avoid ‘well interference’, the wells should be spaced beyond their radii of influence. This
is roughly estimated to be around 600–1000 m in alluvial area and around 100–200 m in hard
rock areas.
An open dug well should be located beyond the cone of depression of the tubewell; other-
wise when the tubewell is pumping, it will dewater the open well. The open well can get water
only when the tubewell pumping is stopped and fast recuperation takes place.

Raghunath, H.M.. Hydrology : Principle Analysis Design, New Age International Ltd, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kenyatta-ebooks/detail.action?docID=330883.
Created from kenyatta-ebooks on 2021-10-26 10:29:33.
 208 HYDROLOGY

dw: Dewatered zone

Dug well PW: Pumped wells
Q becomes dry Q
GS PW PW
SWL (NPWL)

dw dw dw dw

Interference Cones of drawdown

PWL of cones PWL
Increased drawdown due
Wells closely spaced in to interference
homogeneous
aquifer

Spacing of
wells

Fig. 7.9 Well interference

QUIZ VII

I Choose the correct statement/s in the following:

1 The underground formations, which serve as good aquifers are in the order:
(i) consolidated formations of clays and shales
(ii) rock with no signs of weathering or fractures
(iii) rock with fissures and cracks (iv) cavernous lime stones
(v) sand stones (vi) vescicular basalts
(vii) unconsolidated gravels, sands and alluvium
2 The soil properties characteristic of good water yield are:
(i) porosity (ii) permeability
Copyright © 2006. New Age International Ltd. All rights reserved.

(iii) specific yield (iv) storage coefficient

(v) transmissibility (vi) uniformity coefficient > 3
(vii) uniformity coefficient < 2 (viii) effective size > 0.1 mm
(ix) Reynolds number > 10 (x) specific capacity of the well > 30 lpm/m
(xi) all the above characteristics (1-except i, ii, 2 ii, iii, iv, v, viii, x)
II Match the items in ‘A’ with the items in ‘B’:
A B
(i) Ground water flow (a) Recuperation test
(ii) Unconsolidated alluvium (b) Bore at the bottom of open well
(iii) Aquiclude (c) Lateral or vertical bores
(iv) Specific yield (Sy) (d) Well spacing
(v) Confined aquifer (e) n – Sr
(vi) Storage coefficient (f) Artesian
(vii) Transmissibility (T) (g) f(Kw, Es)

Raghunath, H.M.. Hydrology : Principle Analysis Design, New Age International Ltd, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kenyatta-ebooks/detail.action?docID=330883.
Created from kenyatta-ebooks on 2021-10-26 10:29:33.
 GROUND WATER 209

(viii) Rate of ground water flow (Q) (h) KH or Kb

(ix) Reynolds number (Re) (i) T iW
(x) Dupuit’s equation (j) ρvd/µ
Q T
(xi) Specific capacity (k) ≈
sw 1.2
(xii) Open well (l) Stabilised drawdown
(xiii) Well revitalisation (m) Clay
(xiv) Dug-cum-borewell (n) Aquifer
(xv) Well interference (o) Darcy’s law
III Say ‘true’ or ‘false’; if false, give the correct statement:
(i) The transmissibility of a confined aquifer depends upon the depth of the water table while
that of the water table aquifer does not.
(ii) The available yield of a tube well can be doubled by doubling the diameter.
(iii) The specific yield of an aquifer may be more than its porosity.
(iv) Storage coefficient is the same as specific yield for a water table aquifer.
(v) Flow in a medium sand aquifer is entirely laminar.
(vi) Plants usually extract water from the capillary zone (the intermediate belt or vadose zone).
(false: i, ii, iii)

QUESTIONS

1 (a) Define ‘transmissibility’ and ‘storage coefficient’ of an aquifer.

(b) Calculate the discharge from a tubewell of 20-cm diameter penetrating fully into a confined
aquifer of 20-m thick and having a permeability of 40 m/day. The drawdown in the well is
3 m and zero drawdown at 300 m from the well.
If the diameter of the well is doubled, find the percentage increase in the yield, the other
conditions remaining the same.
Copyright © 2006. New Age International Ltd. All rights reserved.

State the assumptions in the formula you use. (1303.7 lpm)

2 A tubwell penetrates fully an unconfined aquifer. Calculate the discharge from the well in lpm
from the following data:
Diameter of the well 30 cm
Drawdown in the well 3m
Effective length of the strainer under the above
drawdown 10 m
Coefficient of permeability of the aquifer 40 m/day
Radius of zero drawdown 300 m
3 A 20-cm well penetrates 25 m below the static water table. After 24 hours of pumping out at the
rate of 800 lpm, the water level in a test well at 80 m from the pumping well is lowered by 0.53
m and in a test well 20 m away 2.11 m. Find the coefficient of transmissibility of the aquifer.
4 (a) What is the nature of ground water flow? State the law governing the flow with limitations,
if any.

Raghunath, H.M.. Hydrology : Principle Analysis Design, New Age International Ltd, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kenyatta-ebooks/detail.action?docID=330883.
Created from kenyatta-ebooks on 2021-10-26 10:29:33.
 210 HYDROLOGY

(b) In an area of 100 ha, the water table dropped by 4.5 m due to continuous ground water
pumping. If the porosity of the aquifer soil is 26% and the specific retention is 10 per cent,
determine:
(i) the specific yield of the aquifer.
(ii) the decrease in the ground water storage. (16%, 72 ham)
5 In a certain alluvial basin of 120 km2, 100 Mm3 of ground water was pumped in a year and the
ground water table dropped by 5 m during the year. Assuming no replenishment, estimate the
specific yield of the aquifer. If the specific retention is 12%, what is the porosity of the soil?
(16.7%, 28.7%)
6 An artesian aquifer 25-m thick has a porosity of 17% and bulk modulus of compression 2400 kg/
cm2. Estimate the storage coefficient of the aquifer. What fraction of this is attributable to the
expansibility of water ?
Bulk modulus of elasticity of water = 2.14 × 104 kg/cm2. (0.00106, 1.87%)
7 A well penetrates into an unconfined aquifer having a saturated depth of 50 m. The discharge is
250 1pm at 8 m drawdown. What would be the discharge at 10 m drawdown. The radius of
influence in both the cases may be taken as same.
8 (a) Explain: ‘the water balance of a catchment’.
(b) In a given year over 60 km2 catchment, 120 cm of rainfall was received and 1000 ha-m was
discharged through the outlet. The ground water table rose by 30 cm and the average specific
yield of the soil was 18%. The soil moisture increased by 5 cm on an average. Estimate the
evapotranspiration during the year. (93 cm)
9 (a) Describe the method of construction of open wells
(i) in a soil where a clayey stratum is encountered.
(ii) in rocky sub-strata.
(b) A well of size 6.60 × 4.05 m and depth 4.7 m in the lateritic soil near Mangalore (west coast
of India) has its normal water level at 3.825 m below ground level (bgl). By pumping for 1 21
hours, the water level (bgl) was depressed to 4.525 m and the pumping was stopped. The
recuperation rates of the well during 2 21 hours after the pumping stopped are given below.

The total volume of water pumped during 1 21 hours of pumping was 28.87 m3 (no well steining
Copyright © 2006. New Age International Ltd. All rights reserved.

is provided)

Recuperation rates

Time since pumping Water level, bgl

stopped (min) (m)

0 4.525
10 4.365
20 4.245
30 4.135
40 4.075
50 4.015
60 3.985
70 3.960
80 3.950
90 3.935
120 3.920
150 3.902

Raghunath, H.M.. Hydrology : Principle Analysis Design, New Age International Ltd, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kenyatta-ebooks/detail.action?docID=330883.
Created from kenyatta-ebooks on 2021-10-26 10:29:33.
 GROUND WATER 211

Determine
(i) Rate of seepage into the well during pumping
(ii) Specific yield of the soil and specific capacity of the well
(iii) Yield of the well under a safe working depression head of 0.7 m
(iv) The area of crop that can be irrigated under the well, assuming a peak consumptive use of
4 mm and irrigation efficiency of 75%.
(v) Diameter of the well in such a soil to get an yield of 3000 lph under a safe working depression
head of 0.7 m (note that it is not advisable to go deeper in these areas lest salt water intru-
sion may not take place).
10 In a recuperation test, the static water level in an open well was depressed by pumping by 3 m
and it recuperated 1.5 m in 1 hour. If the diameter of the well is 3 m and the safe working
depression head is 2.4 m, find the average yield of the well in lpm. What area of crop can come
under this well assuming a peak consumptive use of 5 mm and irrigation efficiency of 75%?
11 Determine the diameter of an open well in coarse sand to give an average yield of 200 lpm under
a safe working depression head of 2.5 m (Hint: for coarse sand C ≈ 1 hr–1).
12 Distinguish between:
(i) Specific capacity of a well and specific yield of an aquifer
(ii) Aquifer and acuiclude
(iii) Open wells and tube wells
(iv) Water table and artesian aquifers
(v) Drainage divide and ground water divide
13 Write short notes on:
(i) Well development (ii) Well spacing
(iii) Radius of influence (iv) Validity of Darcy’s law
(v) Dug-cum-borewell (vi) Well revitalisation
(vii) Well interference (viii) Recuperation test for open well
Copyright © 2006. New Age International Ltd. All rights reserved.

Raghunath, H.M.. Hydrology : Principle Analysis Design, New Age International Ltd, 2006. ProQuest Ebook Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/kenyatta-ebooks/detail.action?docID=330883.
Created from kenyatta-ebooks on 2021-10-26 10:29:33.