Hydraulics

CHAPTER 2: DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND HYDRAULIC

MODELLING
a. Dimensional Analysis
i. Dimensional Analysis-Introduction
INTRODUCTION
Dimensional analysis is a mathematical technique which makes use of the study of the dimensions for
solving several engineering problems. Each physical phenomenon can be expressed by an equation giving
relationship between different quantities, such quantities are dimensional and non-dimensional. Dimensional
analysis helps in determining a systematic arrangement of the variables in the physical relationship, combining
dimensional variables to form non-dimensional parameters. It is based on the principle of dimensional
homogeneity and uses the dimensions of relevant variables affecting the phenomenon.
Dimensional analysis has become an important tool for analysing fluid flow problems. It is especially useful
in presenting experimental results in a concise form.

Uses of dimensional analysis:

The uses of dimensional analysis may be summarised as follows:
1. To test the dimensional homogeneity of any equation of fluid motion.
2. To derive rational formulae fora flow phenomenon.
3. To derive equations expressed in terms of non-dimensional parameters to show the relative
significance of each parameter.
4. To plan model tests and present experimental results in a systematic manner, thus making it possible
to analyse the complex fluid flow phenomenon.

Advantages of dimensional analysis:

Dimensional analysis entails the following advantages:
1. It expresses the functional relationship between the variables in dimensionless terms.
2. In hydraulic model studies it reduces the number of variables involved in a physical phenomenon,
generally by three.
3. By the proper selection of variables, the dimensionless parameters can be used to make certain logical
deductions about the problem.
4. Design curves, by the use of dimensional analysis, can be developed from experimental data or direct
solution of the problem.
5. It enables getting up a theoretical equation in a simplified dimensional form.
6. Dimensional analysis provides partial solutions to the problems that arc too complex to be dealt with
mathematically.
7. The conversion of units of quantities from one system to another is facilitated.

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ii. Dimensions and dimensional homogeneity

The various physical quantities used in fluid phenomenon can be expressed in terms of fundamental
quantities or primary quantities. The fundamental quantities arc mass, length, time and temperature,
designated by the letters. M. L. T. respectively. Temperature is especially useful in compressible flow. The
quantities which are expressed in terms of the fundamental or primary quantities are called derived or
secondary quantities, (e.g., velocity, area, acceleration etc.). The expression for a derived quantity in terms of
the primary quantities is called the dimension of the physical quantity.
A quantity may either be expressed dimensionally in M-L-T or F-L-T system (some engineers prefer
to use force instead of mass as fundamental quantity because the force is easy to measure). Table 7.1 gives
the dimensions of various quantities used in both the systems.
Example. 7.1. Determine the dimensions of the following quantities:
i) Discharge, (ii) Kinematic viscosity.
iii) Force, and (iv) Specific weight.

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Dimensional homogeneity
A physical equation is the relationship between two or more physical quantities. Any correct equation
expressing a physical relationship between quantities must be dimensionally homogeneous (according to
Fourier's principle of dimensional homogeneity) and numerically equivalent. Dimensional homogeneity states
that every term in an equation when reduced to fundamental dimensions must contain identical powers of each
dimension. A dimensionally homogeneous equation is applicable to all systems of units. In a dimensionally
homogeneous equation, only quantities having the same dimensions can be added, subtracted or equated. Let
us consider the equation:

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Applications of Dimensional Homogeneity:

The principle of homogeneity proves useful in the following ways:
1. It facilitates to determine the dimensions of a physical quantity.
2. It helps to check whether an equation of any physical phenomenon is dimensionally homogeneous
or not.
3. It facilitates conversion of units from one system to another.
4. It provides a step towards dimensional analysis which is fruitfully employed to plan experiments
and to present the results meaningfully.

iii. Methods of dimensional Analysis

With the help of dimensional analysis the equation of a physical phenomenon can be developed in terms of
dimensionless groups or parameters and thus reducing the number of variables. The methods of dimensional
analysis are based on the Fourier's principle of homogeneity. The methods of dimensional analysis arc:
 Rayleigh’s method
 Buckingham’s K-method
 Bridgman’s method
 Matrix-tensor method
 By visual inspection of the variables involved
 Rearrangement of differential equations.
Here only first two methods will be dealt with.
Rayleigh's Method
This method gives a special form of relationship among the dimensionless groups, and has the
inherent drawback that it does not provide any information regarding the number of dimensionless groups to
be obtained as a result of dimensional analysis. Due to this reason this method has become obsolete and is
not favoured for use.

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Rayleigh's method is used for determining the expression for a variable which depends upon maximum three
or four variables only. In case the number of independent variables becomes more than four, then it is very
difficult to find the expression for the dependent variable.

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Buckingham's n-Method/Theorem
When a large number of physical variables are involved Rayleigh’s method of dimensional analysis
becomes increasingly laborious and cumbersome. Buckingham’s method is an improvement over Rayleigh’s
method. Buckingham designated the dimensionless group by the Greek capital letter n(Pi). It is therefore
often called Buckingham K-method. The advantage of this method over Rayleigh s method is that it lets us
know, in advance, of the analysis, as to how many dimensionless groups are to be expected.

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Exercises

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7.4.3. Limitations of Dimensional Analysis

Following are the limitations of dimensional analysis:
1. Dimensional analysis docs not give any clue regarding the selection of variables. If the variables arc
wrongly taken, the resulting functional relationship is erroneous. It provides the information about the
grouping of variables. In order to decide whether selected variables arc pertinent or superfluous experiments
have to be performed.
2. The complete information is not provided by dimensional analysis; it only indicates that there is some
relationship between parameters. It does not give the values of co-efficient in the functional relationship. The
values of co-efficient and hence the nature of functions can be obtained only from experiments or from
mathematical analysis.

b. Modal Analysis
i. Modal analysis- Introduction
In order to know about the performance of the hydraulic structures (e.g. dams, spillways etc.) or
hydraulic machines (e.g. turbines, pumps etc.) before actually constructing or manufacturing them, their
models are made and tested to get the required information. The model is the small scale replica of the actual
structure or machine. The actual structure or machine is called Prototype. The models are not always smaller
than the prototype, in some cases a model may be even larger or of the same size as prototype depending
upon the need and purpose (e.g. the working of a wrist watch or a carburetor can be studied in a large scale
model).
Advantages of model testing:
The following are the advantages of model analysis:
1. The model tests are quite economical and convenient (because the design, construction and
operation of a model may be changed several times if necessary, without increasing much
expenditure, till most suitable design is obtained).
2. With the use of models the performance of hydraulic structures.'hydraulic machines can be
predicted in advance.
3. While designing a particular portion of the structure if clear cut analytical and reliable method is
not available then in such cases it becomes absolutely necessary' to know about the safety and
reliability of such parts which is possible by means of model testing.
4. Model testing can be used to detect and rectify the defects of an existing structure which is not
functioning properly.
Applications of the model testing:
Following are the important fields where applications of the model testing is of great use:
1. Civil engineering structures such as dams, spillways, weirs, canals etc.
2. Flood control, investigation of silting, and scour in rivers, irrigation channels.
3. Turbines, pumps and compressors.
4. Design of harbours, ships and submarines.
5. Aeroplanes, rockets and missiles.
6. Tall buildings (to predict the wind loads on buildings, the stability characteristics of the
buildings and airflow patterns in their vicinity).

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i. Similitude
To find solutions to numerous complicated problems in hydraulic engineering and fluid mechanics
model studies are usually conducted. In order that results obtained in the model studies represent the
behaviour of prototype, the following three similarities must be ensured between the model and the
prototype.
1. Geometric similarity,
2. Kinematic similarity, and
3. Dynamic similarity.
1. Geometric similarity:
For geometric similarity to exist between the model and the prototype, the ratios of corresponding lengths in
the mode) and in the prototype must be same and the included angles between two corresponding sides must
be the same. Models which are not geometrically similar are known as geometrically distorted models.

2. Kinematic similarity:
Kinematic similarity is the similarity of motion. If at the corresponding points in the model and in the
prototype, the velocity or acceleration ratios are same and velocity or acceleration vectors point in the same
direction, the two flows are said to be kinematically similar.

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3. Dynamic similarity:
Dynamic similarity is the similarity of forces. The flows in the model and in prototype arc dynamically
similar if at all the corresponding points, identical types of forces arc parallel and bear the same ratio. In

The directions of the corresponding forces at the corresponding points in the model and prototype should also
be same.
ii. Forces influencing hydraulic phenomena
The forces which may affect/influence the flow characteristics of a problem are:
1. Inertia force (Ff):
It always exists in the fluid flow problem (and hence it is customary to find out the force ratios with
respect to inertia force).
It is equal to the product of mass and acceleration of the flowing fluid and acts in the direction opposite
to the direction of acceleration.
2 Viscous force (Fv):
It is present in fluid flow problems where viscosity is to play an important role.
It is equal to the product of shear stress (t) due to viscosity and surface area of the flow.
3 Gravity force (Fg):
It is present in case of open surface flow.
It is equal to the product of mass and acceleration due to gravity.
4. Pressure force (Fp):
This type of force is present in case of pipe flow.
It is equal to the product of pressure intensity and cross-sectional area of the flowing fluid.
5. Surface tension force (F):
•It is equal to the product of surface tension and length of surface of the flowing fluid.
6. Elastic force (Ff):
It is equal to the product of elastic stress and area of the flowing fluid.

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iv. Dimensionless Numbers and their Significance (Reynolds, Froude’s, Euler, Weber and
Mach numbers)

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v. Model (or similarity) Laws

vi. Reynolds Model Law and Froude Model Law

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Exercises

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Froude Model Law

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