Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology

Ghaziabad

Sensor and Instrumentation

Unit:2 Faculty
Passport
Engineering Science Size
Course photo

Course Code BOE 305 Mr. Robin Abraham

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 Unit content
Unit-2

Measurement of temperature using Thermistor,

Thermocouple & RTD, Concept of thermal imaging,
Measurement of position using Hall effect sensors,
Proximity sensors: Inductive & Capacitive, Use of
proximity sensor as accelerometer and vibration sensor,
Flow Sensors: Ultrasonic & Laser, Level Sensors:
Ultrasonic & Capacitive.

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 THERMISTORS

• A thermistor does not actually “read” anything, instead the resistance of a thermistor changes with
temperature. How much the resistance changes depends on the type of material used in the thermistor.
• Unlike other sensors, thermistors are nonlinear, meaning the points on a graph representing the relationship
between resistance and temperature will not form a straight line. The location of the line and how much it
changes is determined by the construction of the thermistor. A typical thermistor graph looks like this:

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 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A THERMISTOR AND OTHER SENSORS

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 THERMISTOR TYPES

• Although thermistors have many other applications, but they are best known for their function in
the measurement of temperature. Thermisters are basically of two types:
• 1. NTC Type Where the resistance decreases with an increase in temperature.
• 2. PTC Type Where the resistance increase with an increase in temperature.

• The thermistor’s relatively large resistance change per degree change in temperature (called
the Sensitivity) makes it obvious choice as a temperature transducer

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 THERMISTOR - DESCRIPTION

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 THERMISTOR – VARIOUS SHAPES / CHARACTERISTICS

• THERMISTOR CHARACTERISTICS
• The resistance, temperature relationship at 1 above shows how the resistance of a thermistor can
vary with temperature. A typical characteristics curve is shown in Fig

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 THERMISTOR: ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

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 THERMOCOUPLE

• Thermocouples are the temperature sensors which are extensively used for
the measurement of the temperature variations.
• They sense the temperature and the temperature is further measured by other
instruments after sensing it.
• do not require any external power source to operate, so they are active
transducers.
• Thermocouple Working Principle The thermocouple working principle is
based on the Seeback Effect.
• This effect states that when a closed circuit is formed by jointing two
dissimilar metals at two junctions, and junctions are maintained at different
temperatures then an electromotive force (e.m.f.) is induced in this closed
circuit.
• The amount of induced e.m.f. is different for different metal combinations and
is proportional to the temperature difference of the junctions. This is the basic
thermocouple working principle.

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 Thermocouple Working Principle

• The thermocouple principle mainly depends on the three effects namely Seebeck,
Peltier, and Thompson.
• See beck-effect
• This type of effect occurs among two dissimilar metals. When the heat offers to any
one of the metal wires, then the flow of electrons supplies from hot metal wire to cold
metal wire. Therefore, direct current stimulates the circuit.
• Peltier-effect
• This Peltier effect is opposite to the Seebeck effect. This effect states that the
difference of the temperature can be formed among any two dissimilar conductors by
applying the potential variation among them.
• Thompson-effect
• This effect states that as two disparate metals fix together & if they form two joints
then the voltage induces the total conductor’s length due to the gradient of
temperature. This is a physical word that demonstrates the change in rate and
direction of temperature at an exact position.

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 Thermocouple working

• A thermocouple works based on the movement of the electrons in its metal wires due
to the heat difference between the hot and cold junctions.
• If the two wires of the thermocouple were made up of the same type of metal,
electrons in both wires would move away from the heat at roughly the same rate, so
you couldn’t really measure the difference in the charge of the two wires.
• But if you recall, thermocouples are made up of two different types of metal wire…
and those wires are connected together only at the hot junction… the sensing end of
the thermocouple.

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 Thermocouple Materials

• Thermocouples may be constructed of several different combinations of materials.

The performance of a thermocouple material is generally determined by using that
material with platinum. The most important factor to be considered when selecting a
pair of materials is the “thermoelectric difference” between the two materials. A
significant difference between the two materials will result in better
thermocouple performance.
• The figure below illustrates the thermocouple material characteristics when used with
Platinum

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 LAWS OR RULES THAT APPLY TO THERMOCOUPLES:

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 Advantages or benefits of thermocouple:

• Very wide temperature range about -200oC to +2500oC

• Fast response time
• They are a simple construction
• Low initial cost
• Durable
• Easy to read has a clear screen and good scale
• Quick response for any temperature changes
• Precision accuracy in temperature measurement
• It is not easily broken good durability
• Good to be used temperature variation measurement with below 1 cm distance
range
• Available in small sheath sizes
• Not required bridge circuit
• Good accuracy
• Does not required bridge circuit
• Good reproducibility
• High-speed response
• They are rugged
• They are a self-power active device
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 Disadvantages or drawback of thermocouple:

• Not as stable as RTD

• Recalibration is difficult
• More susceptible to RFI/EMI
• They are nonlinear
• It is used for only temperature measurement only
• They have a low output voltage
• Less sensitivity
• They require a reference for operation
• The stray voltage pick up is possible
• As output voltage is very small so it needs amplification
• Decreased accuracy comparing to RTD
• Difficult to verify
• Require expensive TC wire from the sensor to recording device
• The cold junction and lead compensation is essential

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 RTD SENSOR (Resistance Temperature Detector)
• An RTD, resistance temperature detector, is a passive temperature sensing
device that operates on the principle that the resistance of a metal changes as
the temperature changes. The electrical current that passes through the
element or resistor of the sensor creates a resistance value that is measured
by an attached instrument that correlates it to the temperature based on the
resistance characteristics of the RTD sensor.

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 Construction of RTDs

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• The most common RTD’s are made of either platinum, nickel, or nickel alloys. The economical nickel
derivative wires are used over a limited temperature range. They are quite non-linear and tend to drift
with time. For measurement integrity, platinum is the obvious choice.

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 Nickel

• Nickel elements have a limited temperature range due to the amount of resistance per
degree of temperature change and become non-linear over 300 °C or 572 °F, which
throws off temperature processing and requires error corrections. They have good
corrosion resistance and are less expensive than platinum RTDs but age rapidly and
lose their accuracy. Their temperature range is -80 °C to 260 °C or -112 °F to 500 °F.

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 Copper

• Copper has good linear resistance in relation to temperature change but needs a longer
element than platinum because of its low resistivity forces. The fact that copper oxidizes
limits its use to temperatures under 150° C or 302° F. The uses of copper RTDs are
limited to winding measurements for motors, generators, and turbines.
• Though copper elements have good linearity and are less expensive than other types of
RTDs, they lose their linearity quickly and drift, which throws off temperature
processing. Applications that are free of oxidizing atmospheres use copper elements
because of their linearity and low cost.

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 Types of RTD Sensors

• The different types of RTD sensors are categorized by the construction of the temperature sensing
element. Two common types are thin film and wire wound. The type of RTD sensor to be used is
determined by the environment where it will be used and the application.
• The use of resistance temperature sensors began in the middle of the first industrial revolution, and
they were assembled using copper wire and a galvanometer. Copper wire was replaced by platinum
when it was discovered that platinum could measure a wider range of temperatures.
• RTD sensors use Class A, Class B, or Class C designations as specified by International Standard
IEC 751. The standards used to build RTD sensors are in regard to their curves and tolerances with
the most common standard being the DIN curve. Included in the DIN curve is resistance vs
temperature characteristics of a platinum, 100 ohm sensor with standardized tolerances and a
measurable temperature range.

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 Thin Film RTD Sensors

• Thin film RTD elements have a thin layer of metal placed on the substrate of a ceramic material. The
film of metal is etched into an electrical circuit pattern that offers the necessary amount of resistance.
The image below is an example of a common form of resistance pattern. Lead wires are attached,
and a protective coating is applied to the substrate and element.
• Thin film RTD sensors are rugged, reliable, and resistant to shock and vibration damage. Since they
are flat, they can be engineered t°it several applications and come in an assortment of resistance
types, tolerances, sizes, and shapes.

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 Wire Wound RTD Sensors

• The wire wound version of an RTD has a wire wound around the outside of a ceramic or
glass housing, referred to as a bobbin in the diagram below. Glass core RTD sensors
can be immersed in liquids. RTD sensors with ceramic cores can accurately measure
extreme temperatures. Wire wound RTD sensors require skilled technical engineering
and highly advanced manufacturing processes; this means they are more expensive
than thin film sensors.

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 Coiled RTD Sensors

• Coiled RTD sensors have thin wound wire enclosed in a ceramic or glass housing filled
with a non-conductive powder. The resistance wire can expand and contract with the
changes in temperature, minimizing errors that may be caused by mechanical strain.
The tightly packed powder around the wire increases heat transfer, improving the
response time of the sensor. The ceramic or glass housing is normally inserted into a
protective metal sheath.

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 PT100 RTD Sensors

• The "pt" in the PT100‘s designation indicates that the sensor is made with a platinum
element. The 100 is its resistance factor. The PT100 RTD sensor is one of the most
accurate temperature measuring instruments with a resistance factor of 100 Ω at 0° C
or 32° F with very little drift over time. There are several versions of the PT100 that
have different temperature coefficients, represented by the Greek letter alpha or α. The
most common is the "385"

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 Advantages

• Here are some advantages of RTD

• It can operate at a wide range of temperatures.
• Its readings are consistent and highly repeatable at high temperature.
• They are resistant to corrosion & best for extreme environments.
• It has more linear characteristics.
• It has excellent accuracy over a wide range of temperatures.
• It is stable & has a longer life span at high temperature measurement.
• The RTD is constructed, installed, and replaced easily.
• It can measure differential temperature.
• They are suitable for monitoring remote areas.

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 Disadvantages

• Here are some disadvantages of RTD

• It requires a current source.
• Its accuracy depends on the battery’s health.
• Heat is generated due to I2R losses in the element also known as
self-heating which inflicts error in the measurement thus affecting the
accuracy.
• It has a large size, therefore, unable to sense temperature at small
points.
• It is affected by physical shock and vibration.
• It has a limited temperature operating range as compared to
thermocouple.
• It has a higher initial cost as compared to thermocouple.
• It has complex operating circuitry or signal conditioning unit.
• It requires an external circuit to operate such as a bridge circuit with a
power supply.
• It has low sensitivity & slower response time.

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 Uses for RTD Sensors

• Automotive RTD Sensors

• RTD sensors are widely used in the automotive industry to measure engine temperature, air temperature,
external temperature, and water levels. The benefit of RTD sensors for the auto industry is that they don‘t
heat up and are flexible and adaptable.
• Solar Power RTD Sensors
• In solar power applications, even distribution of heat is critical to the efficient and effective production of
electricity. RTD sensors do not overheat and are ideal for use with heating applications. They are placed in
solar panels to monitor the temperature of the panels. This is also true of grid connected wind turbines as a
means of measuring the fluctuation in temperature.
• Pharmaceutical RTD Sensors
• The production of drugs requires close temperature monitoring and control. Increases and decreases in
temperature can damage a batch and its formulation. Achieving the proper thermal capability is an essential
part of research, formulation, testing, and production. The unique nature of the pharmaceutical industry
requires the construction of precise instruments designed to meet the requirements of diverse temperature
readings.
• Chemical RTD Sensors
• Much like the pharmaceutical industry, the chemical industry has strict requirements regarding temperature
control. The results of research and experimentation necessitate maintaining an accurate and precise
environment. The various special chambers and integrated systems use RTD sensors as monitors and
controls to ensure accuracy and safety.
• Semiconductor RTD Sensors
• Recent developments have led to an increasing demand for high temperature control and thermal heating
solutions for the semiconductor industry. The requirements of the semiconductor industry necessitate
temperature measuring devices specifically designed and engineered t°it their manufacturing environment.
In the complex conditions of wafer processing, RTD sensors provide the necessary repeatability, accuracy,
and stability.
• Other Industries
• The industries listed above are only a few of the many applications that require the accuracy and precision
of RTD sensors.

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 Concept of thermal imaging
• Thermal imaging is simply the process of converting
infrared (IR) radiation (heat) into visible images that depict
the spatial distribution of temperature differences in a
scene viewed by a thermal camera. The imaging camera
is fitted with an infrared detector, usually in a focal plane
array, of micron-size detecting elements or “pixels.” The
detector array may be cooled or uncooled, depending on
the materials comprising the array and the camera’s
intended use. A lens system focuses scene radiation onto
the detector array and appropriate processing electronics
display the imagery.

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 How Do Thermal Cameras Work?

• The common standard today for thermal camera is showing warmer,

objects with a yellow-orange hue that gets brighter as the object gets
hotter. Colder objects are displayed with a blue or purple color.

Infrared energy has a wavelength starting at approximately 700

nanometers and extends to approximately 1mm. Wavelengths shorter
than this begin to be visible by the naked eye. Thermal imaging
cameras use this infrared energy to create thermal images. The lens
of the camera focuses the infrared energy onto a set of detectors that
then create a detailed pattern called thermogram. The thermogram is
then converted to electrical signals to create a thermal image that we
can see and interpret.

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• All objects emit infrared energy, known as a heat signature. An infrared
camera (also known as a thermal imager) detects and measures the infrared
energy of objects. The camera converts that infrared data into an electronic
image that shows the apparent surface temperature of the object being
measured.
• An infrared camera contains an optical system that focuses infrared energy
onto a special detector chip (sensor array) that contains thousands of detector
pixels arranged in a grid.
• Each pixel in the sensor array reacts to the infrared energy focused on it and
produces an electronic signal. The camera processor takes the signal from
each pixel and applies a mathematical calculation to it to create a color map of
the apparent temperature of the object. Each temperature value is assigned a
different color. The resulting matrix of colors is sent to memory and to the
camera’s display as a temperature picture (thermal image) of that object.
• Many infrared cameras also include a visible light camera that automatically
captures a standard digital image with each pull of the trigger. By blending
these images it is easier to correlate problem areas in your infrared image
with the actual equipment or area you are inspecting.

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 APPLICATION OF THERMAL IMAGING

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 What is a Hall effect sensor?

• Named after the American physicist Edwin Hall, who discovered that
electricity and magnetism can work together to move objects, Hall
effect sensors use this principle to convert magnetically encoded
information into electrical signals.

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 Hall Effect Proximity Sensors

• Hall effect proximity sensors are used to detect the proximity,

presence or absence of a magnetic object using a critical distance.
They function via an electrical potential that is developed across an
axis transverse to an applied current flow in the presence of a
magnetic field. As a magnetic target approaches the sensor the
electrical potential increases and passes a threshold that marks a
critical distance locating the target.

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 Hall Effect Proximity Sensor Work

• A continuous current is allowed to pass through this conductor at all times. When a
magnet is placed close to this thin semiconductor, it disrupts the current flow by
deflecting the charge carriers in the semiconductor.
• This phenomenon causes a voltage difference to build up, perpendicular to the flow of
current and across the semiconductor. This is shown in the picture above as positive
and negative charges.
• This voltage is called Hall voltage, named after the physicist Edwin Herbert Hall who
discovered it. To generate a measurable voltage difference, the magnet must be:
• Magnetic flux lines should be perpendicular
• The pole towards the sensor should have the correct polarity. This is often the south
pole of the magnet.

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 Types based on output

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 Types based on operation

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 Proximity sensors: Inductive

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• Inductive sensors operate on the basis of Faraday’s Law.
One way to state Faraday’s Law is that a change in
magnetic flux in a coil of wire will induce a voltage in a
nearby coil. This is applied in inductive proximity sensors
in the following way: The sensor itself contains an
oscillator circuit and a coil from which an electromagnetic
field radiates out and induces eddy currents in any nearby
metallic objects. The eddy currents have the effect of
attenuating the oscillations from the amplifier. This
reduction in oscillations is registered as the presence of a
metallic object.

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 CAPACITIVE PROXIMITY SENSOR

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 CAPACITIVE PROXIMITY SENSOR

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 PROXIMITY SENSOR AS ACCELEROMETER

• A FEW SENSOR TYPES USED FOR COMMON VIBRATION MEASUREMENTS

• 1) Accelerometers (piezoelectric)
• 2) Velocity Sensor
• 3) Proximity Probes (capacitance or eddy current)
• 4) Laser displacement sensors

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 ACCELEROMETERS

• An accelerometer is a device that measures the vibration,

or acceleration of motion of a structure. The force caused
by vibration or a change in motion (acceleration) causes
the mass to "squeeze" the piezoelectric material which
produces an electrical charge that is proportional to the
force exerted upon it. Since the charge is proportional to
the force, and the mass is a constant, then the charge is
also proportional to the acceleration.

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 CAPACITIVE and EDDY CURRENT SENSORS

• Capacitive sensors use the electrical property of "capacitance" to

make measurements. Capacitance is a property that exists between
any two conductive surfaces within some reasonable proximity.
Changes in the distance between the surfaces change the
capacitance. It is this change of capacitance that capacitive sensors
use to indicate changes in position of a target. High-performance
displacement sensors use small sensing surfaces and as result are
positioned close to the targets .

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• The working principle of the eddy current sensor is described below.
Eddy currents are formed when a moving (or changing) magnetic field
intersects a conductor, or vice-versa. The relative motion causes a
circulating flow of electrons, or currents, within the conductor. These
circulating eddies of current create electromagnets with magnetic
fields that oppose the effect of the applied magnetic field. The stronger
the applied magnetic field, or greater the electrical conductivityy of the
conductor, or greater the relative velocity of motion, the greater the
currents developed and the greater the opposing field

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• The difference between Inductive and Capacitive Proximity Sensor:
• Inductive sensors use a magnetic field to detect objects. Capacitive sensors use an
electric field. In order to be sense by an inductive sensor an object must be conductive.
This limits suitable targets to metal objects (for the most part). In order to be sense by a
capacitive sensor the target doesn’t need to be conductive.
• A capacitive sensor will react to an object acting as a dielectric material as well as a
conductive object. This makes metal and non-metal objects suitable targets.
• Advantages of Capacitive proximity sensors
• Contactless detection
• A wide array of materials can detect
• Able to detect objects through non-metallic walls with its wide sensitivity band
• Well-suited to be used in an industrial environment
• Contains potentiometer that allows users to adjust sensor sensitivity, such that only
wanted objects will be sensed
• No moving parts, ensuring a longer service life
• Disadvantages of Capacitive proximity sensors
• Relative low range, though incremental increase from inductive sensors
• Higher price as compared to inductive sensors

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 Flow Sensor - ultrasonic

• Ultrasonic flow meters measure the traveling times (transit time

models) or the frequency shifts(Doppler models) of ultrasonic
waves in a pre-configured acoustic field that the flow is passing
through to determine the flow velocity.
• Ultrasonic flow meters can be categorized into two types based
on the installation method: clamped-on and inline.
• The clamped-on type is located outside of the pipe and there are
no wetted parts. It can easily be installed on existing piping
systems without worrying about corrosion problems. Clamped-
on designs also increase the portability of the flow meter.
• The inline type, on the other hand, requires fitting flanges or
wafers for installation. However, it usually offers better accuracy
and its calibration procedures are more straightforward.
CONTD…
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 Doppler Ultrasonic Flow meters

• Doppler Ultrasonic Flow meters rely on the Doppler effect

to relate the frequency shifts of acoustic waves to the flow
velocity. It usually requires some particles in the flow to
reflect the signals. The rule of thumb is 25 PPM suspended
solid or bubbles with diameters of 30 micron or larger for 1
MHz or higher transducers. Lower frequency transducers
may require "dirtier" fluid conditions.
 Laser - Doppler Anemometer
• A typical laser Doppler anemometer issues two split laser beams to form
a fringe pattern across the targeted area, as described above. When the
targeted area is within a flow field, as shown in the schematic below,
entrained particles passing through the fringes produce a burst of
reflected light whose flicker frequency depends on the fringe spacing
and the particle velocity normal to the fringe
Level Sensor -Ultrasonic Level Detectors
 principle of ultrasonic level measurement

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• Ultrasonic waves detect an object in the same way as Radar does it.
• Ultrasonic uses the sound waves, and Radar uses radio waves.
• When ultrasonic pulse signal is targeted towards an object, it is reflected by the
object and echo returns to the sender.
• The time travelled by the ultrasonic pulse is calculated, and the distance of the
object is found.
• Bats use well known method to measure the distance while travelling.
• Ultrasonic level measurement principle is also used to find out fish positions in
ocean, locate submarines below water level, also the position of a scuba diver in
sea.

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• Advantages
• Ultrasonic transmitters are easy to install on empty tanks or on tanks containing liquid.
• Set-up is simple and those devices with on-board programming capability can be configured in
minutes.
• As there is no contact with the media and no moving parts, the devices are virtually maintenance
free. Wetted materials are usually an inert fluoropolymer, and resistant to corrosion from condensing
vapors.
• Because the device is non-contacting, the level measurement is unaffected by changes in the liquid
density, dielectric, or viscosity, and performs well on aqueous liquids and many chemicals.
• Changes in process temperature will change the speed of the ultrasonic pulse through the space
above the liquid, but built-in temperature compensation automatically corrects this.
• Changes in process pressure do not affect the measurement.

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• Limitations
• Ultrasonic transmitters rely on the pulse being unaffected during its flight time. Liquids which form
heavy vapors, steam or vapor layers should be avoided (use a Radar transmitter in these instances).
As the pulse needs air to travel through, vacuum applications are not possible.
• Materials of construction generally limit the process temperature to around 158 °F (70 °C) and
pressure to 43 psig (3 bar).
• The condition of the liquid surface is also important. Some turbulence can be tolerated but foaming
will often damp out the return echo.
• Obstructions in the tank, such as pipes, strengthening bars and agitators, will cause false echoes,
but most transmitters have sophisticated software algorithms to allow masking or ignoring of these
echoes.
• Ultrasonic transmitters can be used on silos containing dry products such as pellets, grains or
powders, but these are more difficult to commission. Factors such as surface angle of repose,
dusting and long ranges must be taken into account. A Guided Wave Radar transmitter is better
suited to dry product applications.

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Capacitance Level Indicator
• The working principle of capacitive level sensor:
• Capacitance level sensor uses the change of measuring capacitance to measure the height of the
liquid level.
• Capacitance level gauges are used to measure the change of capacitance to measure the
unevenness of the liquid level.
• It is a metal rod pierced into the liquid container, the metal rod serves as one pole of the
capacitor, and the container wall serves as the other pole of the capacitor.
• The medium between the two electrodes is the liquid and the gas above it. Because the
dielectric constant ε1 of the liquid is different from the dielectric constant ε2 on the
liquid surface,
• for example: ε1>ε2, when the liquid level rises, the total dielectric constant value between
the two electrodes of the capacitive liquid level gauge increases accordingly Therefore,
the capacitance increases.
• Conversely, when the liquid level drops, the ε value decreases and the capacitance also
decreases. Therefore, the capacitive liquid level sensor can measure the unevenness of
the liquid level by changing the capacitance between the two electrodes.
• The sensitivity of the capacitance level gauge mainly depends on the difference between
the two dielectric constants.

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• The advantages and disadvantages of capacitive level gauges:
• The measurement of the capacitive level sensor mainly depends on
the capacitance change between the two electrodes, which means
that the sensitivity of the capacitive level gauge depends on the
difference of the dielectric constants of the two media, gas and liquid.
The measurement of the capacitance level sensor must ensure that
the dielectric constants of the two media remain the same, otherwise
the change of the dielectric constant will directly cause errors.
•

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 Question Bank UNIT-2

• Q.1). Give the temperature range for J-type and K-type thermocouple respectively. Name the
materials also by which they are made of.2 marks
• Q.2). (a) A Platinum resistance thermometer has a resistance of 100ῼ at 25°C. Find its resistance at
65°C. The resistance temperature co-efficient of Platinum is 0.00392 ῼ/ῼ°C.
• (b) If the thermometer has a resistance of 150 ῼ, calculate the value of the temperature.2marks
• Q.3).A 10ῼ. Copper resistor at 20°C is to be used to indicate the temperature of bearings of a
machine. What resistance should not be exceeded if the maximum bearing temperature is not to
exceed 150°C. The resistance temperature co-efficient ofcopper is 0.00393ῼ/ῼ°C at 20°C. 2 marks
• Q.4). A thermistor has a resistance temperature co-efficient of -5 % over a temperature range of
25°C to 50°C. If the resistance of the thermistor is 100ῼ. at 25°C, what is the resistance at 35°C.2
marks
• Q.5). What are thermistors? How temperature can be calculated using thermistors, draw its
characteristics. Write the application of thermistors. 5 marks.
• Q.6). Briefly describe a 'Capacitive-type' level sensor. 5 marks.
• Q.7).Explain the position measurement using hall effect sensors.10 marks.
• Q.8). Explain the working principle of different types of flow sensors. Differentiate between Ultra
Sonic and Electomagnetic type flow sensors.10 marks.
• Q.9).What is RTD? How RTD works? Write the types and wiring configuration of RTD. 10 marks.
• Q.10). Explain the types of proximity sensors and describe their use as accelerometer and vibration
sensor. 10 marks.

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 CONTD..

• Q.11). Explain the working of J-type thermocouple. 2marks.

• Q.12). Explain the working of thermocouple for the measurement of temperature.5 marks.
• Q.13).Explain Thomson effect in thermocouple?2 marks.
• Q.14). Explain working principle of RTD with its characteristics graph, why platinum is most preferred in
RTD & write its limitation.7.5 marks.
• Q.15).Explain the working and principle involved in thermocouple with suitable diagram.5 marks
• Q.16). With the help of neat sketch explain the working of Ultrasonic flow meter, Electromagnetic Flow
meter. 7.5 marks
• Q.17). Draw characteristics for Thermocouple.2 marks.
• Q.18). Write short note on Thermocouple, write temperature range of different material - wire use in it. Write
its advantage 7 disadvantages. 10 marks.
• Q.19). Give the temperature range for J-type and K-type thermocouple respectively.2 marks.
• Q.20). What is flow sensor & level sensor. 2marks
• Q.21). What is thermocouple? Draw its construction and explain how temperature is measured by using
thermocouple. 10 marks
• Q.22). Explain with the help of diagram the position measurement using hall effect sensor.5 marks
• Q.23). What is an RTD used for? 2marks
• Q.24). Explain level sensors and their applications.2 marks
• Q.25). Define different categories of sensors and the process to select a sensor for any
• process.10 Marks
• Q.26).What is Hall Effect and how it is used for measuring position? 10 marks
• Q.27). Define different sensors used for measuring temperature.10 Marks
• Q.28).Explain Seeback Effect. 2 marks

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