3.

1 HISTORY OF POWER ELECTRONICS

• 1900 (Mercury arc rectifier)
• 1948 (Invention of silicon transistor
at Bell Laboratory)
• 1956 (SCR)
• 1958 (Commercial thyristor by GE)
• 1980s & 1990s (PE revolution gained
momentum)
 Applications
Power electronics has already found an
important place in modern technology.
Used in almost all new electrical or electro-
mechanical equipment from household air-
conditioners and computer power supplies to
industrial motor controls contain power
electronic circuits and/or systems.
Difficult to draw the boundaries for the
applications of power electronics.
Especially with the trends in the development
of power devices and microprocessors, the
upper limit is undefined.
INTERDISCIPLINARY NATURE
OF POWER ELECTRONICS
 Motor Drive System
• The feedback control loop, the gate drive
circuitry, 3-phase diode rectifier and a 3-phase
inverter.
 Traction Converter System
• The 3-phase dc-ac converter drives the motor.
The LC-filter lowers the amount of harmonic
injection.
HVDC (Source: Siemens)
 Specifications
Due to the switching action of power
semiconductor devices, power converters
generate harmonics and ripples into the input
supply and the load.
 DC load side: ripple contents and THDs.
 DC input side: ripple contents and THDs.
 AC load side: harmonic contents and THDs.
 AC input side: THD and input power factor.
Bi-directional power transfer.
Peripheral effects: EMI.
 Issues
 Type of converter topology to be selected to
perform the required conversion.
 Type of semiconductor devices to perform the
switching functions.
 Choice of the gate-drive circuitry and the
interface between the low-level electronics and
the high-power switching converters.
 Choice of the gate drive strategy to obtain the
desired input and output requirements.
 Choice of the feedback-loop control and the
type of control implementation: analog and/or
digital.
 Design of power electronic
equipment
 (1) Design of power circuits
 (2) Protection of power devices
 (3) Determination of the control
strategy
 (4) Design of logic and gating
circuits
 3.2. Characteristics of power
electronic components, and
protection circuits

Power Diodes,
Thyristors,
Power BJT,
Power MOSFET,
 IGBT,
Gate Drive Circuits,
 Snubber Circuits.
 Power Semiconductor Devices
• can be divided broadly in to five types:
 (1) power diodes,
 (2) thyristors,
 (3) power bipolar junction transistors (BJTs),
 (4) power MOSFETs, and
 (5) insulated gate bipolar junction transistors
(IGBTs) and static induction transistors
(SITs).
 (1) Diodes

• On and off states controlled by the power circuit

• Fast-recovery diodes have a small reverse-recovery time
•iD: diode current
•trr: reverse recovery time
•Qrr: recovery charge
•IRM: reverse leakage current
Desired Characteristics In Controllable
Switches
1. Block arbitrarily large forward and reverse
voltages with zero current flow when off.
2. Conduct arbitrarily large currents with zero
voltage drop when on.
3. Switch from on to off or vice versa
instantaneously when triggered.
4. Vanishingly small power required from
control source to trigger the switch.
Switching Characteristics (linearized)
Fig.
(a) Simplified
switching circuit
(b) Switch waveforms
(c) Instantaneous
switch power loss
• Switching Power
Loss is
proportional to:
 switching
frequency
 turn-on and turn-
off times
 (2) Thyristor

• Semi-controlled device
• Latches ON by a gate-current pulse if forward biased
• Turns-off if current tries to reverse
 THYRISTORS
• The thyristors can be divided into eight types:
 (a) forced commutated thyristor,
 (b) line commutated thyristor,
 (c) gate turn off thyristor (GTO),
 (d) reverse conducting thyristor (RCT),
 (e) static induction thyristor (SITH),
 (f) gate assisted turn off thyristor (GATT)
 (g) light activated silicon controlled rectifier
(LASCR), and
 (h) MOS controlled thyristors (MCTs).
 Gate-Turn-Off Thyristors (GTO)

• Slow switching speeds

• Used at very high power levels
• Require elaborate gate control circuitry
 (3) BJTs

• Used commonly in the past

• Now used in specific applications
• Replaced by MOSFETs and IGBTs
 (4) MOSFET

• Easy to control by the gate

• Optimal for low-voltage operation
at high switching frequencies
• On-state resistance a concern at
higher voltage ratings
 (5) IGBT
 An insulated-gate
bipolar
transistor (IGBT) is a
three-terminal power
semiconductor
device primarily used as
an electronic switch
which, as it was
developed, came to
combine high efficiency
and fast switching.
 It switches electric power in many applications: variable
frequency drives (VFDs), electric cars, trains, variable
speed refrigerators, lamp ballasts, air-conditioners and
even stereo systems with switching amplifiers.
 The IGBT is a semiconductor device controlled by a metal-
oxide-semiconductor (MOS) gate structure without
regenerative action.
 Advantages of IGBT
• Combines the advantages of BJT & MOSFET
• High input impedance like MOSFET
• Voltage controlled device like MOSFET
• Simple gate drive, Lower switching loss
• Low on state conduction power loss like BJT
• Higher current capability & higher than a BJT.
( Switching speed lower than MOSFET)
 PE Devices CNTD…
• The power semiconductor switching devices can be
classified on the basis of:

(1) Uncontrolled turn on and off (e.g diode)

(2) Controlled turn on and uncontrolled turn off (e.g SCR)
(3) Controlled turn on and off characteristics (e.g BJT,
MOSFET, GTO, SITH, IGBT, SIT, MCT)
(4) Continuous gate signal requirement (BJT, MOSFET,
IGBT, SIT)
(5) pulse gate requirement (e.g SCR, GTO, MCT)
(6) Bipolar voltage withstanding capability (SCR, GTO)
(7) Unipolar voltage withstanding capability (BJT,
MOSFET, GTO, IGBT, MCT)
(8) Bidirectional current capability (TRIAC, RCT)
(9) Unidirectional current capability (SCR, GTO, BJT,
MOSFET, MCT, IGBT, SITH, SIT, diode)
PE Devices CNTD…
Summary of Device capabilities
 3.3 Types of Power Converters
Converters are generally classified into
four types
 ac-dc converter, also called as a rectifier.
 ac-ac converter, also called as an ac
voltage controller.
dc-ac converter, also called as an inverter
dc-dc converter, also called as a dc
chopper.
 3.3.1. Rectifiers
• Basic block diagram
 APPLICATIONS
• DC welder, DC motor drive,
• Battery charger, DC power supply, HVDC
DC_Arc furnace
• Rectifier Transformers
 Rectifier transformers are used to supply rectifier
bridges for DC applications such as DC arc furnaces.
 Furthermore the power electronics generate DC and
harmonics which influences the transformer design.
 The design flux density is kept low to prevent core
saturation due to DC components and the winding
conductor and cooling design need to cater for the
additional losses due to the harmonic currents.
Burj_Alarab
Uncontrolled Single-phase, half-wave, R-load
PSIM MODEL
Uncontrolled Single phase full wave rectifiers

1
 2 
 1 T  Vm Vm 0.707Vm
Vrms     m sin t  d t   Irms  
2
2
V ,
 T  0
 2 R 2 R
  2  
PSIM MODEL
Uncontrolled Three-phase rectifiers
 Single Phase AC-DC Converters
Performance Parameters

• Average Output (Load) Voltage =Vdc

• Average Output (Load) Current = Idc

– Output DC Power Pdc= Vdc* Idc

• RMS Output (Load) Voltage = Vrms

• RMS Output (Load) Current = Irms

– Output AC Power Pac= Vrms* Irms

– The Efficiency (Rectification Ratio)=η = Pdc/Pac

• The Output (Load) Voltage (Vdc) may be assumed
to be composed of
DC Component; and
AC Component (i.e. Ripple)
The effective (RMS) value of AC component of
output voltage
Vac =√ (Vrms2-Vdc2)
The Form Factor (measure of the shape of
output voltage)
FF = Vrms/Vdc
The Ripple Factor (measure of the ripple
content)
RF = Vac/Vdc
With the help of Equations discussed in the previous
slide
 the Ripple Factor Can be rewritten as
RF = √ {(Vrms/ Vdc)2 – 1}
= √ (FF2 – 1)
The Transformer Utilization Factor may be defined
as
TUF = Pdc/(Vs* Is)
Where Vs and Is are the Source Voltage and Current
respectively.
The Displacement Factor is defined as
DF = Cos Φ
Where Φ is the angle between the fundamental
component of input current and voltage, and
known as displacement angle.
The Harmonic Factor of input current is
defined as
1/ 2
1/ 2
 Is2  Is12   I 2

HF   2    s   1
 Is1   Is1  

 Where Is1 is the Fundamental component of the input

current Is. Both Is1 and Is are expressed here in RMS
value
The input Power factor is defined as
Vs Is1 Is1
PF  cos   cos 
Vs Is Is
• The Crest Factor of input current is
defined as
Is(Peak)
CF 
Is

• Where Is(Peak) is the Maximum value of the input

current Is.

It is a parameter of interest to specify the peak

current rating of devices and components
 General Notes
1. Harmonic factor HF is a measure of the
distortion of a waveform and is also known as
total harmonic distortion (THD).
2. If the current is is purely sinusoidal, Is1=Is and
the power factor PF equals the displacement
factor DF. The displacement angle Φ becomes
the impedance angle θ=tan-1(ωL/R) for RL load.
3. Displacement factor DF is often known as
displacement power factor (DPF).
4. An ideal rectifier should have η=100%, Vac=0,
RF=0, TUF=1, HF=THD=0, and
PF=DPF=1.
 EXAMPLES
1. Uncontrolled Half wave rectifier has a purely resistive load of R. Determine (a) the efficiency,
(b) the form factor, (c) the ripple factor, (d) the transformer utilization factor, (e) the peak
inverse voltage (PIV) of diode D1, and (f) the CF of the input current
 Examples…
2.For uncontrolled single phase full wave rectifier with resistive load,
determine (a) the efficiency, (b) the form factor, (c) the ripple factor, (d)
the transformer utilization factor, (e) the peak inverse voltage (PIV) of
diode D1, and (f) the CF of the input current
Uncontrolled Single phase Rectifier with R-L load
 R-L waveform
• VLnegative because
the current is
decreasing, i.e :
 Extinction angle
• the diode remains in forward biased longer
than 180 degrees
• The point where current reaches zero is when
diode turns OFF
• This point is known as the extinction angle, β
RMS current, Power
MULTI PHASE STAR RECTIFIER
 MULTI PHASE STAR RECTIFIER…
• For larger power output, three phase and multi phase rectifiers are used
• Assuming a cosine wave from π/q to 2π/q. the output voltage for a q-phase
rectifier is given by

• If the load is purely resistive, the peak current through a diode is Im=Vm/R
and we can find the rms value of a diode current (or transformer secondary
current) as
 Example
• A three phase star rectifier has a purely resistive load with R Ω. Determine
(a) the efficiency, (b) the form factor, (c) the ripple factor, (d) the
transformer utilization factor, (e) the peak inverse voltage PIV of each
diode, and (f) the peak current through a diode if the rectifier delivers
Idc=30A at an output voltage of Vdc=140V
 Freewheeling diode (FWD)
• Note that for single
-phase, half wave
rectifier with R-L load,
the load (output) current
is NOT continuous.
• A FWD (sometimes
known as commutation
diode) can be placed as
shown below to make it
continuous
 Freewheeling diode (FWD)
 The inclusion of FWD results in continuous load current, as
shown below.
 Note also the output voltage has no negative
part
Controlled half-wave
 Example
• A single phase half wave controlled rectifier has a purely resistive load of R
and the delay angle is α=π/2, determine (a) the rectification efficiency, (b)
the form factor FF, (c) the ripple factor RF, (d) the transformer utilization
factor TUF, and (e) the peak inverse voltage PIV of thyristor.
Controlled half wave, R-L load
Controlled full wave, R load
Controlled full wave, R-L load
Discontinuous mode
Continuous mode

Assignment:
Use PSIM to confirm whether
continuous mode or discontinuous
mode operation
Full wave bridge, R-L load
Controlled, three-phase
Controlled, three-phase…
Output voltage of controlled
three phase rectifier

Uncontrolled
 3.3.2. AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS
• AC voltage controllers (ac line voltage
controllers) are employed to vary the RMS
value
 Single Phase Full Wave
AC Voltage Controller using 2-SCRs
 Three phase Full wave controllers

For firing angle=60o Van waveform(star connection)

 CYCLOCONVERTERS
• The ac voltage controllers provide a variable output voltage
• The frequency of the output voltage is fixed
• The harmonic content is high, especially at a low output voltage range.
• A cyclo-converter is a direct frequency changer that converts ac power at one
frequency to ac power at another frequency by ac-ac conversion.

Single phase cyclo-converters

3.3.3 INVERTERS (DC to AC converters)

Inverters are widely used in industrial

applications
Variable-speed ac motor drives
Induction heating
Standby power supplies
Uninterruptable power supplies
Inverters can be broadly classified in to two:
1. single-phase inverters
2. Three-phase inverters
 INVERTERS CNT…………..
 Single-phase full-bridge inverter

 Q1-Q2 and Q3-Q4 switched on and off alternately

 Each pair provide opposite polarity of Vs across the load
 Q1-Q2 on, Q3-Q4 off, vo = Vs
 Q3-Q4 on, Q1-Q2 off, vo = -Vs
 180° Conduction

• Three transistors ON at a time

Summary Table
Waveforms for 180 Conduction

Eg. Vab
g1,g5,g6(+ve), g2,g3,g4(-ve)
g3,g4,g5(-ve), g1,g2,g6 (+ve)
Phase Voltages for 180 Conduction
Waveforms for 180 Conduction
Summary Table Mode 1
Mode 1 Operation
 Mode 1 Operation

0  t 
3
R 3R
Req  R  
2 2
Vs 2Vs
i1  
Req 3R
i1 R Vs
van  vcn  
2 3
Q1, Q5, Q6 conduct 2Vs
vbn  i1 R 
3
Summary Table Mode 2
Mode 2 Operation
 Mode 2 Operation
 2
 t 
3 3
R 3R
Req  R  
2 2
Vs 2Vs
i2  
Req 3R
2Vs
van  i2 R 
3
Q1, Q2, Q6
i2 R Vs
conduct vbn  vcn  
2 3
Summary Table Mode 3
Mode 3 Operation
 Mode 3 Operation
2
 t  
3
R 3R
Req  R  
2 2
Vs 2Vs
i3  
Req 3R
i3
van  vbn 
2
Q1, Q2, Q3 2Vs
vcn  i3 R 
conduct 3
Phase Voltages for 180 Conduction
 3.3.4. CHOPPERS

• Convert fixed voltage dc source in to a variable voltage dc

source
• Choppers are widely used for traction motor control in electric
automobiles, trolley cars, marine hoists, forklift trucks, and
mine haulers.

 The dc chopper is usually controlled in two ways

 A. Time ratio control (TRC)

 B. Current limit control (CLC)
 A. Time ratio control (TRC)
• In this control scheme, time ratio Ton/T(duty ratio) is varied. This is realized
by two different ways called Constant Frequency System and Variable
Frequency System as described below:
1.CONSTANT FREQUENCY SYSTEM

In this scheme, on-time is varied but chopping frequency f is kept constant.

Variation of Ton means adjustment of pulse width, as such this scheme is
also called pulse-width-modulation scheme.

2. VARIABLE FREQUENCY SYSTEM

In this technique, the chopping frequency f is varied and either (i) on-time Ton
is kept constant or (ii) off-time Toff is kept constant. This method of
controlling duty ratio is also called Frequency-modulation scheme.
 B. CURRENT- LIMIT CONTROL
• In this control strategy, the on and off of chopper circuit is
decided by the previous set value of load current
• The two set values are maximum load current and minimum
load current.
• When the load current reaches the upper limit, chopper is
switched off.
• When the load current falls below lower limit, the chopper is
switched on.
• Switching frequency of chopper can be controlled by setting
maximum and minimum level of current.
• Current limit control involves feedback loop, the trigger circuit
for the chopper is therefore more complex
• PWM technique is the commonly chosen control strategy for the
power control in chopper circuit
 CHOPPERS-Basic classification

3.3.4.1 Step-down Chopper

 Mathematical analysis
1 t1 t
Va   v0 dt  1 VS  ft1VS  kVS
T 0 T
t1
k
Where, T
And t1=on time and T the period
1
 1 kT 2  2
VO    v0 dt   kVS
T 0 

1 kT VS2
Pi 
T 
0
v0idt  k
R
 3.3.4.2 Step-up Chopper

1
 1 kT 2  2
VO    v0 dt   kVS
T 0 

I  t1  1
VO  VS  L  VS 1    VS
t2  t2  1 k
 Chopper Classification

Class A
Load current flows in to Load.
Both the load voltage and current are positive.
This is a single quadrant chopper or “rectifier”
 Chopper Classification CNT…

Class B
Load current flows out of Load.
Load voltage is positive but load current is negative.
This is also a single quadrant chopper but operates in the
second quadrant and said to be operated as an “inverter”
 Chopper Classification CNT…

Class C
Load current is either positive or negative.
Load voltage is positive.
This is known as a two quadrant chopper. Class A and Class B
choppers can be combined to form a class C chopper.
Class C can operate as either “rectifier” or “inverter”.
 Chopper Classification CNT…

Class D
Load current is positive.
Load voltage is either positive or negative.
Class D can also operate as either “rectifier” or
“inverter”.
 Chopper Classification CNT…

Class E
Load current is either positive or negative. Load voltage is either positive or
negative. This is known as a four quadrant chopper.
Switching Mode Regulators

Types of regulators
ref  Buck regulator
 Boost regulator
 Buck-Boost regulator
 Cuk-regulator
Buck Regulators

di
eL  L
dt
Buck Regulators
 Mathematical Analysis
• Inductor current rises (Mode I)
I 2  I1 I LI
Vs  Va  L L t1 
t1 t1 Vs  Va
• Inductor current falls (Mode II)
I LI
Va   L t2 
t2 Va
• Peak to peak ripple current
Vs  Va  t1 Vat 2
I  
from
L L t1  kT , t 2  1  k  T

• Average output voltage

t1
Va  Vs  kVs
T
 Mathematical Analysis CNT…
• Average input current
VsIs  VaIa  kVsIa Is  kIa

• Switching period T
1 LI LI LIVs
T   t1  t 2   
f Vs  Va Va Va Vs  Va 

• Peak to peak ripple current

Va Vs  Va 
I 
fLVs
• Peak to peak ripple voltage for capacitor
Va Vs  Va  Vsk 1  k 
Vc  2

8 LCf Vs 8LCf 2
 Proof for ΔV c
• Using Kirchhoff’s current Law, we can write the
inductor current iL as
iL=ic+i0
If we assume that the load ripple current Δi0 is very
small and negligible, ΔiL = Δic .The average
capacitor current, which flows into for
t1/2+ t2/2=T/2, is Ic= ΔI/4
The capacitor voltage is expressed as
1
vc   icdt  vc(t  0)
C
and the peak-to-peak ripple voltage of the T
capacitor is 1 I I
2
 
C 0 4
v  v  v t  0 
c c c dt 
8 fC
Boost Regulator
 Mathematical Analysis
• Inductor current rises (Mode I)
I 2  I1 I LI
Vs  L L t1 
t1 t1 Vs
• Inductor current falls (Mode II)
I LI
Vs  Va   L t2 
t2 Va  Vs
• Peak to peak ripple current
I 
Va  Vs  t 2 Vst1

from
L L t1  kT , t 2  1  k  T

• Average output voltage

T Vs
Va  Vs 
t2 1 k
 Mathematical Analysis CNT…
• Average input current
1 Ia
VsIs  VaIa  VsIa Is 
1 k 1 k
• Switching period T
1 LI LI LIVa
T   t1  t 2   
f Vs Va  Vs Vs Va  Vs 

• Peak to peak ripple current

Vs Va  Vs 
I 
fLVa
• Peak to peak ripple voltage for capacitor
Ia Va  Vs  Iak
Vc  
VaCf fC
 Proof for ΔV c
• When the transistor is on, the capacitor
supplies the load current for t=t1. The average
capacitor current during time t1 is Ic=Ia and the
peak-to-peak ripple voltage of the capacitor is
t1 t1
1 1 Iat1
vc  vc  vc  t  0    Ic dt   Ia dt 
C0 C0 C
IL Iat1 Ia L
From t1  vc   I ,
Vs C fC Vs
Vs Va  Vs 
again substituting I 
fLVa
Ia L Vs Va  Vs  Iak
 vc  
fC Vs fLVa fC
 Chapter 5
Selection of Motor Power Rating
Objective:
(i) To obtain a suitable thermal model for the
machine which can be utilized in calculation of
motor ratings for various classes of motor duty.
(ii) Categorization of load variation with time into
certain standard categories which are termed as
classes of duty of motor.
(iii) To present methods for calculating motor
ratings for various classes of duty.
 5. Selection of Motor Power Rating
The power rating of a motor for a specific
application must be carefully chosen to
achieve economy with reliability.
Use of motor having insufficient rating, either
fails to drive the load at its normal productive
level or lowers the productivity and reliability
through frequent damages and shut-downs
due to overloading of the motor and power
modulator.
Selection of Motor Power Rating CNT…
 When a motor operates, heat is produced due to losses
(copper, iron and friction) inside the machine and its
temperature rises.
 As the temperature increases beyond ambient value, a
portion of heat produced flows out to the surrounding
medium.
 The amount of outflow of heat is a function of
temperature rise of motor above ambient value.
 Steady state temperature depends on power loss,
which in turn depends on output power of the
machine.
 Since temperature rise has a direct relationship with
the output power, it is termed thermal loading on the
machine.
Selection of Motor Power Rating CNT…
Steady state temperature is not the same at various
parts of the machine. It is usually highest in the
winding.
Depending on the temperature limits, insulating
materials employed in electric machines are divided
in to classes shown in Table 5.1.
5
 5.1 Thermal Model Of Motor For
Heating and Cooling.
An accurate prediction of heat flow and
temperature rise inside an electrical motor is
very difficult owing to complex geometrical
shapes and use of heterogeneous materials.
Since conductivities of various materials do
not differ by a large amount, a simple thermal
mode of the machine can be obtained by
assuming machine to be a homogeneous
body.
 Let the machine, which is assumed to be a
homogeneous body, and the cooling medium has
following parameters at time t:

p1  Heat developed , joules / sec or watt

p 2  Heat dissipated to the cooling medium, joules / sec or watt
W  Weight of the active parts of machine, kg .
h  Specific heat , Joules per kg per 0C.
A  Cooling surface, m 2 .
d  Coefficient of heat transfer or specific heat dissipation, joules / sec/ m 2 / 0 C.
  Mean temperature rise, 0C.
During a time increment dt, let the machine
temperature rise be dϴ.
Since,
Heat Absorbed(or stored) in the machine=
(Heat developed inside the machine-Heat
dissipated to the surrounding cooling medium)
Or Whd  p1dt  p 2dt  5.1
sin ce p 2   dA  5.2 
Substituting in E.g (5.1)
d
C  p1  D  5.3
dt
where C  Wh  5.4 
and D  dA  5.5
C is the thermal capacity of the machine, watts/oC, and
D the heat dissipation constant, watts/oC. Heat
dissipation mainly occurs through convection.
Typical value of d are in the range of 40 to 600
W/m2/oC. The first order differential equation (5.3) has
a solution
   ss  ket /  5.6 
p1
where  ss   5.7 
D
C
  5.8
D
k is obtained t  0,
   ss 1  e t /    1e t /  5.9 
 is heating (thermal ) time cons. of the machine.
At t->∞, ϴ=ϴss.
Thus ϴss is the steady state temperature of the machine
when it continuously heated by power p1. At this
temperature, all the heat produced in machine is
dissipated to the surrounding medium.
Let the load on machine be thrown off after its
temperature rise reaches a value ϴ2. Heat loss will
reduce to a small value p1’ and cooling operation of the
motor will begin. Let the new value of heat dissipation
constant be D’. If time is measured from the instant the
load is thrown off, then
d
C  p1  D '
'
 5.10 
dt
    ' ss 1  et / '    2et / '  5.11
p1 '
where  ' ss   5.12 
D'
C
and  '  5.13
D'
ϴ’ss is again the steady state temperature rise
for new conditions of operation and τ’ is known
as the cooling (or thermal) time constant of the
machine.
If the motor is disconnected from supply
P1’=ϴ’ss=0,    2et /  5.14 
Fig. 5.1 Heating and cooling curves
Example 5.1
A motor operates on a periodic duty cycle in
which it is clutched to its load for 10 min and
declutched to run on no-load for 20 min.
Minimum temperature rise is 40 oC. Heating and
cooling time constants are equal and have a
value of 60 min. When load is declutched
continuously the temperature rise is 15oC.
Determine
(i) Maximum temperature during the duty
cycle, and
(ii) Temperature when the load is clutched
continually
Since the motor is subjected to a periodic
intermittent load, temperature at the end of
cycle will be the same as at the beginning of
cycle. From (5.9)
   ss 1  e 10 / 60   40e 10 / 60
or   0.1535 ss  33.86
(i ) From (5.11)
40  15 1  e 20 / 60    2e 20 / 60
  2  49.9o C
(ii ) Substituting value of in   0.1535 ss  33.86
 ss  104.5o C
 5.2 Classes of Motor Duty
(i) Continuous duty (Fig. 5.2 a).
(ii) Short time duty.(b)
(iii) Intermittent periodic duty.(c)
(iv) Intermittent periodic duty with starting.(d)
(v) Intermittent periodic duty with starting and
braking.(e)
(vi) Continuous duty with intermittent periodic
loading.
(vii)Continuous duty with starting and braking.
(viii)Continuous duty with periodic speed changes.
 e.g. Fan e.g. Crane e.g. drilling

e.g. Fork lift truck e.g. mine hoist

Fig. 5.2 Some classes of motor duty.

 5.3 Determination of Motor Rating
From the point of view of calculation of motor
rating, various duty cycles in section 5.2 can be
broadly classified as:
(i) Continuous duty
(ii) Fluctuating loads
(iii) Short-time and intermittent duty
5.3.1 Continuous Duty
A motor with next higher power rating from
commercially available ratings is selected
 5.3.2 Equivalent Current, Torque and
Power Methods for Fluctuating and
Intermittent Loads
This method can be employed for duties (iii)-
(iv) (section 5.2).

Fig. 5.3 Load diagram

of a fluctuating load.
  p  I Rt   p  I
2 2
R  t 2  ...   pc  In 2 R  tn
 5.15
c 1 1 c 2
pc  Ieq 2 R
t1  t 2  ...  tn

or pc  Ieq R 
2 pc  t 1  t 2  ...  t n  
 I 1
2
t 1  I 2
2
t 2  ...  In
2
tn  R
t1  t 2  ...  tn t1  t 2  ...  tn
I 12 t1  I 2 2 t 2  ...  In 2tn
or Ieq   5.16 
t1  t 2  ...  tn

If the current varies smoothly over a period T

(Fig. 5.3(b)), (5.16) can be written as
T
1 2
Ieq   i dt  5.17 
T 0
When torque is directly proportional to
current,
T 12 t1  T 2 2 t 2  ...  Tn 2tn
Teq   5.18
t1  t 2  ...  tn

When motor operates at nearly fixed speed,

its power will be directly proportional to
torque. Hence for nearly constant speed
operation, power rating of the motor can be
obtained
P12 t1  P 2 2 t 2  ...  Pn 2tn
Peq   5.19 
t1  t 2  ...  tn
Example 5.2
A rolling mill driven by thyristor converter-fed dc motor
operates on a speed reversing duty cycle. Motor field current
is maintained constant at the rated value. Moment of inertia
referred to the motor shaft is 10000 kg-m2. Duty cycle
consists of the following intervals:
(i) Rolling at full speed (200 rpm) and at a constant torque of
25000 N-m for 10 sec.
(ii) No load operation for 1 sec at full speed.
(iii) Speed reversal from 200 to -200 rpm in 5 sec.
(iv) No load operation for 1 sec at full speed.
(v) Rolling at full speed and at a torque of 20000 N-m for 15
sec.
(vi) No load operation at full speed for 1 sec.
(vii) Speed reversal from -200 to 200 rpm in 5 sec.
(viii)No load operation at full speed for 1 sec.
Determine the torque and power rating of the motor.
Since in dc motor, at constant field current the torque is
proportional to armature current, torque rating can be
evaluated by determining the rms value of torque.

Torque during reversal  J

d
 10000
 200  (200)  X  2 / 60 
dt 5
 83776 N m
250002 X 10   837762 X 5  2  200002 X 15
Trms   47, 686 N m
39
Maximum torque 83776 Nm is only 1.76 times Trms. In a
dc motor twice the rated current can always be allowed
during transient operation.
Trated  47686 N m
200
Power rating  47686 X X 2  998.7 kW
60
 5.3.3 Short Time Duty
In short time duty, time of motor operation is
considerably less than the heating time constant and
the motor is allowed to cool down to the ambient
temperature before it is required to operate again.

 per   ss (1  e t / )
r
 4.20 
 ss 1
or   4.21
 per 1  e t /r

Fig. 5.4 ϴ vs t curves for short time duty loads: a-with power KPr; b-with
power Pr . Where K (K>1) is the factor at which the motor is overloaded.
If the motor losses for powers Pr and (Kpr) be P1r
and P1s, respectively, then
 ss p1s 1
   5.22 
 per p1r 1  et /
r

Let P1r=pc+pcu=pcu (α+1) (5.23)

where pc
  5.24 
pcu

and pc is the load independent (constant) loss

and pcu the load dependent loss. Then
2
 Kpr 
p1s  pc  pcu    pc  k 2
p cu  p cu    k 2
  5.25
 pr 
• Substituting from (5.23) and (5.25) gives
 k 2
1

 1 1 e  tr / 

1 
or k   tr / 
  5.26 
1 e
• Overloading factor is calculated from (5.26)
• If constant and copper losses are not available
separately, α is replaced by zero.
• K is subjected to the constraint imposed by
maximum allowable current in dc motors and
breakdown torque limitations in case of induction
and synchronous motors.
 5.3.4 Intermittent periodic Duty
 At the end of running
Interval
 max   ss 1  e tr / r    min e tr / r  5.27 

At the end of standstill

 min   max ets / s  5.28 

 ss 1  e(tr / r ) (ts / s )
  5.29 
 max 1  e  tr / r

1 e 
 ( tr /  r )  ( ts /  s ) 
k    1   5.30 
1  e  tr / r Fig. 5.5 Intermittent
periodic load.
Example 5.3
A motor has a heating constant of 60 min and
cooling time constant of 90 min. When run
continuously on full load of 20 kW, the final
temperature is 40 oC.
(i) What load motor can deliver for 10 min if
this is followed by a shut down period long
enough for it to cool?
(ii) If it is on an intermittent load of 10 min
followed by 10 min shut down, what is the
maximum value of load it can supply during
the on load period?
• As the constant and copper losses are not available
separately, they are assumed proportional to
(power)2 and therefore α is assumed to be zero.
(i) When α=0 the overloading factor from short time
duty 1 1
k t /
 10 / 60
 2.55
1 e 1 e
permitted load  2.55 X 20  51 kW .
(i) From Intermittent duty

1 e  
1 e 
 ( tr /  r )  ( ts /  s )  (10 / 60)  (10 / 90) 
0.2425
k  tr /  r
   1.257
1 e 1  e 10 / 60 0.1535
permitted load  1.257 X 20  25.14 kW .
 Chapter VI (Group Project work)
Characteristics of electric drives for common
applications:
(i) Crane and hoist drives
(ii) Centrifugal pumps
(iii) Steel rolling mills
(iv) Cement mills and sugar mills
(v) Electric Machine tools and
(vi) Turbo Compressors