LECTURE NOTES ON INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY IN

BUILDING (BLD 517)

Components of Information Technology.

When computer and communications technologies are combined, the result is Information
Technology or “InfoTech”. Information Technology (IT) is a term used to describe any
technology that helps to produce, manipulate, solve, communicate, and/or disseminate
information.
Information Technology merges with high-speed communications links carrying data, sound, and
video. Typical examples are personal computers, telephones, televisions, appliances and various
handheld devices. The two important parts of Information Technology are computers and
communications. A computer is a programmable, multiuse machine that accepts data – raw
facts and figures- and processes, or manipulates it into information we can use, for example,
summaries, reports, etc. The sole purpose of PC is to speed up problem solving and increase
productivity.
Communications technology or telecommunication technology consists of electromagnetic
devices and systems for communicating over long distances.
Typical examples are telephone, radio, broadcast television, cable TV and, most recently,
communication among computers – which happens when people “go online” on the Internet.
The role of communication technology in Information Technology necessitates the use of the
term ‘Information and Communication Technology’ (ICT) which is preferred to Information
Technology (IT).
Simply, ICT in construction means the adaptation of information communication and technology
in construction procedure.
ICT in construction can be broken down into different segments for its better understanding and
its role in construction.
i. Before construction procedure firstly, construction industry participants and
organizations communicate with each other and are concerned with information
exchange, dealing with drawings, specification, cost estimation and changes in design.
ii. Communication can include conversation, listening, networking and information
collection, mails, using different electronic medium or manual means.
iii. Technology includes design tools like CAD, SAP, BIM used for design, cost estimation,
change in design etc.

The role of ICT in construction is shown in the figure below;

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There are basically two methods of information communication flow, conventional (traditional)
and modern approach.

Conventional approach
Flow of information is difficult and expensive due to extra expenditure like travelling, fax,
telephone, hard copies etc. Refer figure

conventional approach

3.2 Modern approach

Combined medium is provided through computer database making the flow of information
easier, safer, more reliable, and faster.

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 Modern approach

Information
When you are curious about something, you make enquiries and you get some results. These
results, when store or compiled, they help you to confirm or reject your assertions or help you
make decisions. These results are facts or details that tell you something about a situation, person
or events. These details could guide you to decide whether a person or a situation is wrong.
The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English described information as “facts or
details that tell you something about a situation, person, events, etc.” In terms of
technology relating to computer, information is described as “data that have been
summarized or otherwise manipulated for use in decision making. In essence, Information is
therefore the facts or detail that are summarized or manipulated for decision making.
Communication
Communication could be seen as a complex phenomenon without which no human activity is
complete. It is basic to every day existence because though communication we can acquire
knowledge to conquer our environment. If this knowledge is impaired, human beings could be
reduced to robots because both the mental and physical alertness will be impaired. The giant
stride made in technology is as a result of improved communication system.
Communication means different things to different people. To a broadcaster or a teacher, it could
mean the sharing of ideas between two or more people, the transmitting of information from the
source (sender) to the destination (receiver). To a technology-biased person, as described by

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O’Leary and O’Leary (2005), it could mean the process of sharing data, programmes,
information between two or more computers.
Communication could be verbal or non-verbal. It could occur between two animals, man and
lower animals, between man and machine, animal and machine, and between machine and
machine
Technology
Technology dates back to the beginning of man’s history. It is a means of applying solution to
problems encountered. The Early Man invented fire to keep himself warm, cook and preserve his
food. Technology means several things to several people. It is scientific. This informed the
definition of Galbraith (1967) which described technology as “the systematic application of
scientific or other organized knowledge to practical task.” Akanbi (1988) also described
technology as “ an application of scientific knowledge and principles about human learning,
communication and management to the solution of problems in teaching and learning.
The process of applying a means that could solve the problems or needs of man is technology.
This is intrinsically related to the culture and needs of man. Thus, we have print technology,
wood technology, textile technology and educational technology.
Construction project organisations rely upon communication, which according to Dainty et al
(2006, p.3) is ‘the sharing of meaning to reach mutual understanding and gain a response’. The
sharing of meaning is dependent on the accuracy of the information followed closely by having
the appropriate communication procedure. Communication may be categorised as written
communication, face to face, verbal communication and electronic communication, and this
can be divided further into formal and informal Messages are readily sent within an office
environment (even from mobiles), however, testing of understanding is seldom carried out. It is
therefore necessary to be aware of how the recipient prefers the message to be conveyed and
encoded so that it is easily decoded and conveyed. Written and electronic communication omit
the subliminal messages given by body language (facial expression) thus restricting the effec-
tiveness of communication. Spoken communication, accounts for only forty eight percent of
construction communication even though face to face communication is the most effective meth-
od of transmitting and understanding a message especially as physical presence encourages trust.

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These days, information and communication technology (ICT) is responsible for the entire
construction process from information being generated, transmitted and interpreted to enabling
the project to be built, maintained, reused and eventually recycled. The everyday life of
individuals is increasingly relevant of information technology and communication. This has
totally transformed individuals and organizations to its wide spread use. This is shown on the
figure below;

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All computers follow four basic operations
Regardless of type and size, all computers follow the same basic operations. These are: (1) Input,
(2) Processing, (3) Storage and (4) Output and a recent addition of (5) Communication.
1 Input Operation
Input is whatever that is put into a computer system. It is a kind of data – letter, shapes, colour,
symbols, sounds or whatever raw material needs processing. Words or numbers typed on a
keyboard are considered as data. Results of students typed on the computer are data.
2 Processing Operation
Processing is the manipulation that a computer does to transform data into information. For
example, when a computer adds 3 + 5 to get 8 is an act of processing. When a teacher wants to
know if male students perform better than female students in a course and he uses the computer
to add and compare their scores, this is an act of processing. The processing is done by the
central processing unit – frequently called the CPU and also called Systems Unit – a device
consisting of electronic circuitry that executes instructions to process data.
3 Storage Operation
There are two types – temporary and permanent storage. They are equally called primary and
secondary storage. Primary Storage, or memory, is the internal circuitry that temporarily holds
data waiting to be processed. Secondary storage refers to the devices and media that store data or
information permanently.
Examples are disk (diskette), Compact Disk (CD), flash drive, etc. Storage also holds the
software – the computer programmes.
4 Output Operation
Output is whatever is output from (“put out of”) the computer system – the results of processing,
usually information, e.g., number of pictures displayed on a screen, words printed on a paper in a
printer, sound of music from the loudspeakers, etc.
5 Communication Operation
Today, most computers have communication ability, which offers extension ability. In other
words, communication extends the power of the computer. With wired or wireless
communications connections, data may be input from afar, processed in a remote area, stored in
several different locations, and output in other places.
The knowledge of these basic concepts is very vital to computer application in learning. It will
enable researchers and teachers to gather relevant materials, process them, store them and
retrieve them for further processing.
OPERATING SYSTEM SOFTWARE
This is the invisible part of a computer system. This refers to all programmes that can be used on
a particular system. It provides step-by-step instructions to control the computer or to convert
data into information. Software can be categorized into Systems Software and Application
Software.
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Systems Software
Systems software controls the computer systems. It is a collective name for the programmes that
contribute to the control and performance of the computer system. Systems software can be sub-
divided into Operating Systems, Translators and Utilities.
1. Operating Systems
An operating system (OS) is system software that manages computer hardware and software
resources, providing services to programs and users. It acts as an interface between users and the
computer hardware. Operating systems are the backbone of modern computing, providing an
essential platform for hardware and software interaction.
These are major software required by all computers. No computer can function without them
because the computer cannot understand your own instructions. The operating system is a set of
programmes designed to efficiently manage the resources of the computer system. It performs
supervisory functions on input and output operations, communicates with the computer operator,
and allocates the computer’s resources which allow the operation of the computer to progress
smoothly with minimum intervention (Eyitayo, Eyitayo and Akeju, 2008).
Operating system contributes to the control and performance of the system. Notable examples
are:
MS – DOS – Microsoft Desk Operating System: commonly known as DOS, is used with a single
microcomputer.
NOVELL – is used in a network environment where many computers are linked together to
share resources.
UNIX – is also used in a multi-user environment where a big computer is available to many
people at the same time.
Window Operating System – this is used with a single microcomputer or in a network
environment. It makes the use of the computer easier as you have no need to recall or remember
any command. Its graphical interface enables the user to have fun while communicating with the
computer.
2 Application Software
This includes general and special-purpose applications. The general-purpose is also referred to as
basic applications that focus on specific disciplines and occupations. These include graphics,
audio and video, multimedia, web authoring and artificial intelligence programmes. Applications
software are used with systems software to perform specific tasks given to the computer by the

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user (Eyitayo, Eyitayo and Akeju, 2008). Applications software can only work effectively if used
in conjunction with the appropriate systems software.
Objectives of an Operating System
i. To manage hardware resources such as the CPU, memory, and input/output devices.
ii. To provide a platform for running application software.
iii. To enable efficient multitasking and resource allocation.
iv. To ensure security and data integrity.
v. To provide user-friendly interaction through graphical user interfaces (GUIs) or
command-line interfaces (CLIs).
Operating System Theory
Kernel: The core of the OS responsible for managing resources and enabling communication
between hardware and software.
Processes and Threads:
i. Process: A program in execution.
ii. Thread: A lightweight process that runs within a parent process.
The OST also present;
i. Memory Management: Allocates and deallocates memory to programs.
ii. File System Management: Manages data storage, access, and retrieval.
iii. Device Management: Facilitates communication with peripheral devices.
iv. Security and Protection: Ensures unauthorized access is prevented and data integrity is
maintained.
Design of Operating Systems
1. Single-Tasking Operating Systems; are designed to execute one task at a time. Their
architecture is made up of a simplistic design, limited resource management and minimal
multitasking capabilities. Examples: Early MS-DOS, embedded systems like microwave
controls.
2. Multi-Tasking Operating Systems allows for multiple processes to run simultaneously.
Examples: Windows, macOS, Linux.
Types of Multitasking:
i. Preemptive: The OS decides the CPU allocation (e.g., Windows, Linux).
ii. Cooperative: Processes voluntarily release CPU time (e.g., early Mac OS).
Features:
i. Efficient CPU scheduling.
ii. Support for multiprocessing and multitasking.
Practical Applications
a. Single-Commercial Software Applications
i. Ideal for specialized tasks in embedded systems (e.g., medical devices, industrial
controllers).
ii. Used in educational and training environments for simplicity.
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b. Multi-Commercial Software Applications
i. Used in business environments for productivity (e.g., Microsoft Office suite on
Windows).
ii. Server environments for hosting websites and applications (e.g., Linux).
iii. Cloud computing platforms (e.g., AWS, Google Cloud).
Challenges in Operating System Usage
i. Security Threats: Viruses, malware, and unauthorized access.
ii. System Updates: Balancing updates with compatibility and stability.
iii. Resource Management: Preventing system slowdowns in multitasking environments.
iv. Learning Curve: For new users, especially in multi-commercial software.
System Software Used in the Construction Industry
System software in construction refers to the specialized tools, platforms, and applications
designed to assist professionals in planning, designing, executing, and managing construction
projects. These tools improve efficiency, accuracy, collaboration, and overall project outcomes.
Importance of System Software in Construction
i. Enhances project management and scheduling.
ii. Facilitates real-time collaboration and communication among stakeholders.
iii. Improves accuracy in design and construction through advanced modeling tools.
iv. Aids in cost estimation and financial tracking.
v. Promotes sustainability by enabling better resource management.
vi. Streamlines compliance with building codes and regulations.
TYPES OF SYSTEM SOFTWARE USED IN CONSTRUCTION
1. Building Information Modeling (BIM) Software
BIM is a digital representation of a building's physical and functional characteristics. In the
construction industry computers are used to automate and simulate hand-drafting methods, and
3D models have assisted in showing what building will look like by the time they are built. BIM
software have the ability to directly and interactively present concepts of design in a form which
represent physical and real images of the building to allow designers to identify clients’ needs,
and to promptly and effectively provide solutions to these needs.
Examples: Autodesk Revit, ArchiCAD, Tekla Structures.
Uses:
i. 3D modeling for architectural, structural, and MEP (Mechanical, Electrical, Plumbing)
systems.
ii. Clash detection and coordination between disciplines.
iii. Lifecycle management from design to demolition.
2. Project Management Software
These tools help manage timelines, budgets, and resources and examples are Primavera P6,
Microsoft Project and Procore.
Uses:
i. Scheduling and resource allocation.
ii. Risk management.
iii. Progress tracking and reporting.

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3. Cost Estimation Software
The cost estimation software are used to forecast project costs accurately and examples are;
CostX, PlanSwift and Sage Estimating.
Uses:
i. Quantity takeoff (QTO).
ii. Budget preparation.
iii. Cost control and analysis.
4. Structural Analysis and Design Software
Structural analysis and design software are used for designing and analyzing structures to ensure
safety and compliance. Typical examples include; STAAD Pro, ETABS and SAP2000.
Uses:
i. Structural stability analysis.
ii. Load calculations (dead, live, wind, seismic).
iii. Reinforcement detailing and optimization.
5. Computer-Aided Design (CAD) Software
Facilitates detailed drafting and design for building and engineering projects. Typical examples
include; AutoCAD, SketchUp and Rhino.
Uses:
i. 2D and 3D drafting.
ii. Concept visualization.
iii. Design documentation.
6. Geospatial and Surveying Software
Assists in land surveying and geospatial analysis. Examples include; Trimble Business Center,
Leica Infinity and ArcGIS.
Uses:
i. Land surveying and mapping.
ii. Geospatial data visualization.
iii. Integration with GPS and drones.
iv. Location finder
7. Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Software
ERP tools integrate various business processes within construction firms. Examples are: Oracle
Aconex, SAP ERP and Buildertrend.
Uses:
i. Financial management.
ii. Procurement and inventory control.
iii. Human resource management.
8. Sustainability Analysis Software
Sustainability analysis software focuses on green building and energy efficiency in construction
project delivery. Examples: EnergyPlus, IESVE and DesignBuilder.
Uses:
i. Energy simulation and analysis.
ii. Carbon footprint calculation.
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 iii. LEED certification support.

EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES IN CONSTRUCTION SYSTEM SOFTWARE

These emerging technologies are transforming various aspects of our lives, from how we work
and communicate to how we live and interact with the world around us. They include but not
limited to;

1. Artificial Intelligence (AI): AI refers to the development of computer systems that can
perform tasks that typically require human intelligence, such as learning, problem-
solving, and decision-making. AI-driven tools for predictive analysis and risk
management.
Applications in Construction:
i. Predictive Analytics: AI predicts project risks, equipment failures, and cost overruns.
ii. Design Optimization: AI-powered tools create efficient building designs.
iii. Project Management: Scheduling and resource allocation using AI algorithms.
iv. Safety Monitoring: AI systems detect unsafe practices on construction sites using video
analytics.
2. Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR): AR is a technology that overlays
digital information and images onto the real world, using a device's camera and display.n
Immersive visualization for design and training. VR provide immersive and interactive
solutions for visualization and project execution.
Applications in Construction:
AR:
i. On-site visualization of building designs.
ii. Overlaying digital models onto real-world construction sites for better understanding.
VR:
iii. Virtual walkthroughs of buildings before construction begins.
iv. Training workers in a risk-free virtual environment.
3. Drones and GIS Integration: Drones are unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) that can be
remotely controlled or fly autonomously using GPS and sensors. For real-time site
mapping and monitoring.

Applications in Construction:
i. Site surveys and topographical mapping.
ii. Monitoring construction progress with aerial imaging.
iii. Inspecting hard-to-reach areas, such as tall structures or bridges.
iv. Stockpile and material volume calculations
4. Cloud Computing: Cloud computing is a model for delivering computing services over
the internet, where resources such as servers, storage, and applications are provided as a
service. Cloud computing enables seamless collaboration, data storage, and accessibility
in the construction industry.
Applications in Construction:
i. Centralized storage for Building Information Modeling (BIM).
ii. Real-time collaboration among project teams using cloud-based platforms.
iii. Data analytics for better project insights and decision-making.
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5. Blockchain: Blockchain technology is a decentralized, digital ledger that records
transactions across a network of computers. Blockchain enhances transparency, security,
and trust in construction projects.
Applications in Construction:
i. Smart contracts for automated payments upon task completion.
ii. Transparent supply chain management for tracking materials.
iii. Secure record-keeping for contracts, permits, and project documentation.
6. Robotics: Robotics is the design, construction, and operation of robots, which are
machines that can be programmed to perform tasks autonomously or under human
control. Robotics automates labor-intensive tasks, increasing efficiency and precision in
construction.
Applications in Construction:
i. Bricklaying and concrete pouring using robotic systems.
ii. Demolition tasks in hazardous environments.
iii. Plastering and lifting of heavy equipement.
7. 3D printing: 3D printing is a manufacturing process that creates physical objects from
digital designs by layering materials such as plastics, metals, and ceramics. For printing
of construction plan into a finish product. 3D printing is revolutionizing construction by
enabling the creation of complex structures with reduced material waste.
Applications in Construction:
i. Printing walls, bridges, and even entire homes.
ii. Creating customized building components on-site.
iii. Sustainable construction using eco-friendly materials.
8. IoT refers to the network of physical devices, vehicles, home appliances, and other items
embedded with sensors, software, and connectivity, allowing them to collect and
exchange data. IoT is used in various industries, including smart homes, cities, and
construction site for real time monitoring. IoT connects construction equipment, tools,
and devices to a centralized system for data collection and monitoring.
Applications in Construction:
i. Smart sensors for tracking equipment and material usage.
ii. Monitoring structural integrity and detecting issues in real time.
iii. Improving energy efficiency in construction projects.

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Benefits of Using System Software in Construction
i. Efficiency: Reduces time and labor-intensive tasks.
ii. Accuracy: Minimizes errors in design and execution.
iii. Cost Savings: Improves budgeting and cost control.
iv. Sustainability: Promotes eco-friendly practices.
v. Collaboration: Enhances communication between teams and stakeholders.
Challenges and Limitations
i. High initial cost of software and training.
ii. Resistance to adopting new technologies.
iii. Compatibility issues between different software platforms.
iv. Data security and privacy concerns.
v. Need for skilled professionals to operate the software effectively.
System software has become indispensable in modern construction, revolutionizing how projects
are designed, executed, and managed. To stay competitive, construction professionals must adopt
and leverage these technologies to improve efficiency, reduce costs, and deliver high-quality
projects. Continuous training and staying updated on emerging technologies are crucial for
maximizing the potential of these tools.
Hardware
Hardware is the physical equipment in an information system. This consists of the typical
equipment controlled by software and its processes data to create information. These include
keyboard, mouse, monitor, systems unit, and other devices. Information is referred to as data
which has been processed in a way that makes it meaningful and useful to the person that
receives it.
Hardware components
Motherboard, Visual Display Units, Data Storage Devices, Communication Devices, and Output
Peripherals
1. Motherboard

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The motherboard is the main printed circuit board (PCB) in a computer that connects and allows
communication between all hardware components.
The components of the motherboard are;
i. CPU Socket: Holds the central processing unit (CPU).
ii. Chipset: Manages data flow between the processor, memory, and peripherals.
iii. RAM Slots: Accommodate memory modules for temporary data storage.
iv. Expansion Slots: Include PCIe and PCI slots for adding graphics cards, sound cards, and
other peripherals.
v. Power Connectors: Supply power to the motherboard and components.
vi. I/O Ports: Allow external devices like keyboards and monitors to connect.
Functions
i. Acts as the backbone connecting the CPU, memory, and peripherals.
ii. Provides pathways (buses) for data transfer.
iii. Regulates power distribution to components.
2. Visual Display Units (VDUs)
Visual Display Units, also known as monitors or screens, are output devices that display visual
information from the computer. It displays information in visual form, such as text, images, and
videos.
Types
i. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube): Older, bulky monitors.
ii. LCD (Liquid Crystal Display): Slim displays that use liquid crystals.
iii. LED (Light Emitting Diode): Improved LCDs with LED backlighting.
iv. OLED (Organic Light Emitting Diode): Self-lighting pixels for better contrast and
thinner screens.
Features
i. Resolution: Clarity of the display (e.g., HD, FHD, 4K).
ii. Refresh Rate: Frequency of screen updates (measured in Hz).
iii. Connectivity: HDMI, DisplayPort, VGA, USB-C.
Functions
i. Converts data from the GPU into visual output.
ii. Provides user interfaces for software and applications.
3. Data Storage Devices: This are devices that store digital information for processing and
retrieval.
Types
1. Primary Storage
RAM (Random Access Memory): Temporary storage for active data.
2. Secondary Storage:
HDD (Hard Disk Drive): Magnetic storage with spinning platters.
SSD (Solid State Drive): Faster storage using NAND flash memory.
3. Tertiary Storage:
Optical disks (CDs, DVDs).
Cloud Storage: Remote servers accessible via the internet.
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Functions
i. Stores the operating system, applications, and user files.
ii. Provides backup and retrieval of data.
4. Communication Devices
Communication devices are devices that facilitate data transmission between computers or
networks. Types include:
i. Network Interface Cards (NICs): Connect computers to networks (wired or wireless).
ii. Routers: Direct data packets between devices and networks.
iii. Modems: Convert digital data to analog signals for internet access.
iv. Switches: Connect multiple devices in a local network.
Features
i. Wired Communication: Ethernet cables (Cat5e, Cat6).
ii. Wireless Communication: Wi-Fi, Bluetooth.
iii. Protocols: TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP.
Functions
i. Enable internet connectivity and data sharing.
ii. Support communication between devices in a network.
5. Output Peripherals
A port is a socket designed for all the connection of extra devices used outside the system case.
Such devices are known as peripherals. Typical examples are the mouse, keyboard, monitor, and
printer. Although these devices are located outside the case, they are essential or vital to the
operation of a computer. Some parts are attached directly to the motherboard while others may
be attached to an expansion card plugged to the motherboard. Ports are generally positioned at
the back of the system case. In many modern designs some ports (USB – Universal Serial Bus,
and firewire connectors) are located at the front of the system case for easy access.
On laptop computer, ports are usually located at the back and sides of the case. They are used to
connect the newest USB memory devices often referred to as slots. Ports and connecting cables
are always one of two genders, that is, male and female. The males have pins which the females
have holes. The ports require different types of connectors.
Output peripherals are devices that convert digital signals into a human-readable or usable
format. The following are the types of Output peripherals:

Printers: Produce physical copies of digital documents. Types: Inkjet, Laser, 3D.
Speakers: Output sound from digital audio signals.
Projectors: Display visual output on large surfaces.
Features

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 i. Connectivity: USB, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi.
ii. Performance Metrics: Print speed (PPM), sound frequency range.
Functions
i. Convert digital data into physical or sensory output.
ii. Enhance user interaction with the system.
Challenges
i. Compatibility issues between hardware components.
ii. Rapid advancements requiring frequent upgrades.
iii. Maintenance and troubleshooting of hardware failures.
Conclusion
Hardware components like the motherboard, visual display units, data storage devices,
communication devices, and output peripherals form the foundation of computer systems.
Understanding their theory, functions, and integration is essential for efficient computer
operation and system design.
Difference between Hardware and Software
Hardware consists of machines and equipment in a computer system. These include the
keyboard, the monitor, the printer and the ‘box’ – the computer or the processing device.
Without software, hardware is of no use.
Software or programmes, consists of all electronic instructions that tell the computer how to
perform a task. These instructions are from software developers that come in form a package
(such as compact disk) that will be accepted by the computer, e.g., Microsoft windows and office
XP.
Input Devices
Input refers to data entered into a computer for processing, for example, from a keyboard or from
a file stored on a disk. Input includes programmed instruction that the CPU receives after
commands are issued by the user. Input devices include the following among others: keyboard,
mouse, scanner, digital camera, webcam, video capture card, joystick, microphone, etc. All these
send message into the system unit.
i. Keyboard
This is the most common input devise. It is used both for text-based data input and for selecting
commands. It is a device that converts letters, numbers, and other characters into electric signals
that can be read by computer’s processor. A keyboard looks like a typewriter keyboard but some
special keys are added. It may also look like the keys of a bank ATM or a keypad of a pocket
computer.
The keyboards usually have the following:
i. keys for letters of the alphabet.
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 ii. keys for punctuation symbols.
iii. numbered keys or numeric keypad (or both).
ii Mouse
A mouse is a pointing device. Pointing devices control the position of the cursor or pointer on the
screen and allow the user to select the options displayed on the screen. A user selects a command
from the computer by moving a pointer and clicking on the icon.
A mouse is used by moving it across a mouse mat or other flat surface. This movement of the
ball sends a signal to the computer. However, there is now optical or wireless mouse that does
not have a ball at the bottom. This is a late development.
There are other variants of mouse namely trackball, pointing stick and touchpad.
The trackball is a moveable ball, mounted on top of stationary device that can be rotated using
your fingers or plan.
A pointing stick looks like a pencil eraser protruding from the keyboard between the G, H, and B
keys. The screen pointer moves as you move the pointing stick with your finger.
A touchpad is a small, flat surface over which you slide your finger, using the same movements
as you would with a mouse. The cursor follows the movement of your finger. You “click” by
tapping your finger on the pad’s surface or by pressing buttons positioned near the pad.
Touchpad is most often found on notebook (laptop).
iii Scanners
Scanners use light-sensing (optical) equipment to translate images of text, drawings, photos, and
the like into digital form. The images are processed by a computer, displayed on a monitor,
stored on a storage device, or transmitted to another computer. Scanners are similar in operation
to photocopying machines except that they create electronic files of scanned items instead of
paper copies.

3 Output Devices
The output devices display data. Examples are monitor, speakers, and printers. Output is
whatever is put out of the computer system; the result of processing. People use output to make a

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decision. Without output devices, computer will not be able to view or use the results of
processing.
i. Printer
This is an output device that produces text and graphics on paper. Printers provide one of the
major forms of computer output.
ii. Speaker
These devices play sounds transmitted as electrical signal from the sound card. They are
connected to a single wired plugged into the back of the computer.
iii. The Monitor
This is the display device that takes the electrical signals from the video card and forms an image
using points of coloured light on the screen.
COMPUTER MAINTENANCE AND INSTALLATION
Computer maintenance and installation are essential practices to ensure the efficient functioning
and longevity of computers. Maintenance focuses on keeping the computer hardware and
software in optimal condition, while installation involves setting up new hardware, software, and
operating systems.
Objectives of Computer Maintenance and Installation
i. Ensure optimal performance of computer systems.
ii. Prolong the lifespan of hardware components.
iii. Prevent system failures and data loss.
iv. Facilitate smooth operation by installing necessary software and hardware correctly.
v. Enhance system security and protect against threats like viruses and malware.
Types of Computer Maintenance
1. Preventive Maintenance
i. Regularly scheduled activities to prevent system failures.
ii. Cleaning internal components.
iii. Updating software and operating systems.
iv. Backing up data periodically.
v. Running antivirus scans.
2. Corrective Maintenance
i. Performed to fix issues or failures in the system.
ii. Repairing or replacing faulty components.
iii. Reinstalling corrupted software.
iv. Resolving system errors.
3. Predictive Maintenance
i. Uses monitoring tools to predict potential failures before they occur.

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 ii. Monitoring CPU and GPU temperatures.
iii. Analyzing hard drive health with tools like S.M.A.R.T. technology.
iv. Identifying software or hardware anomalies.
4. Adaptive Maintenance
i. Updating systems to accommodate changes in the environment or user requirements.
ii. Upgrading operating systems and drivers.
iii. Adding new hardware components like RAM or storage.
Steps in Computer Installation
1. Hardware Installation
i. Planning: Assess the required hardware components.
ii. Unboxing and Checking: Ensure all components are functional and match the system
specifications.
iii. Mounting: Properly install components like the CPU, motherboard, RAM, hard drive,
and power supply into the computer case.
iv. Cabling: Connect all cables securely, including power, data, and peripheral connections.
2. Software Installation
i. Operating System (OS) Installation:
ii. Insert the installation media (USB or DVD).
iii. Configure the BIOS/UEFI to boot from the media.
iv. Follow on-screen instructions to install the OS.
v. Driver Installation: Install necessary drivers for hardware components like the graphics
card, sound card, and printer.
vi. Application Software Installation: Install productivity tools, antivirus software, and other
required applications.
3. Configuration and Testing
Configure system settings, such as network settings, user accounts, and power options.
Test the hardware and software to ensure they function as expected.
Key Practices for Computer Maintenance
1. Hardware Maintenance
i. Clean dust from internal components using compressed air.
ii. Ensure proper ventilation to avoid overheating.
iii. Regularly check and replace faulty cables and connectors.
iv. Inspect power supply units for wear and tear.

2. Software Maintenance
i. Keep the operating system and applications updated.
ii. Perform regular disk cleanup and defragmentation (for HDDs).
iii. Scan for malware using reliable antivirus software.
iv. Manage startup programs to optimize boot time.
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3. Data Maintenance
i. Regularly back up important files using external drives or cloud storage.
ii. Organize files and folders for easy access.
iii. Encrypt sensitive data to protect against unauthorized access.
Common Tools for Maintenance and Installation
1. Hardware Tools
i. Screwdrivers, antistatic wrist straps, and cable ties.
ii. Thermal paste for CPU installation.
iii. Multimeters for electrical testing.
2. Software Tools
i. Disk cleanup utilities (e.g., CCleaner).
ii. Antivirus and antimalware programs (e.g., Norton, Malwarebytes).
iii. Driver update tools (e.g., Driver Booster).
iv. Diagnostic tools (e.g., MemTest86, CrystalDiskInfo).
Safety Precautions in Maintenance and Installation
i. Use an antistatic wrist strap to prevent electrostatic discharge (ESD).
ii. Power off and unplug the computer before performing hardware tasks.
iii. Handle hardware components carefully to avoid physical damage.
iv. Verify software sources to avoid downloading malicious programs.
Challenges in Computer Maintenance and Installation
i. Diagnosing complex hardware and software issues.
ii. Compatibility issues with new hardware or software.
iii. Managing system downtime during maintenance.
iv. Cost of replacement parts and licensed software.
Benefits of Proper Maintenance and Installation
i. Enhanced system performance and reliability.
ii. Extended hardware lifespan.
iii. Reduced system downtime and repair costs.
iv. Improved data security and protection against threats.
Conclusion
Computer maintenance and installation are crucial for ensuring the smooth operation of systems
in both personal and professional environments. By following proper practices and using the
right tools, users can maximize the efficiency and lifespan of their computers.

DATA TRANSFER STANDARDS

Data transfer standards define the protocols, interfaces, and methods for transmitting data
between devices. They ensure compatibility, efficiency, and reliability in data communication
across hardware and software platforms.
Importance of Data Transfer Standards
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 i. Compatibility: Ensures devices from different manufacturers can communicate.
ii. Efficiency: Optimizes data transfer speed and reliability.
iii. Scalability: Supports future upgrades and higher data demands.
iv. Security: Provides mechanisms for secure data transfer.
v. Storage: Secure data for future use

Types of Data Transfer Standards

1. Wired Standards
Wired transfer standards use physical cables to transmit data. They are known for their
reliability, high speed, and low latency. These standards define data transfer over physical
cables.
i. USB (Universal Serial Bus): Common for connecting peripherals like keyboards, mice,
and external drives. Versions of USB are; USB 1.0 (12 Mbps), USB 2.0 (480 Mbps),
USB 3.0 (5 Gbps), USB 3.1 (10 Gbps), USB 4.0 (40 Gbps).
ii. Ethernet are Used in local area networks (LANs). Standards: Cat5e: Up to 1 Gbps. Cat6:
Up to 10 Gbps. Cat7: Up to 10 Gbps with reduced interference.
iii. SATA (Serial ATA): Standard for connecting storage devices like HDDs and SSDs.
Speeds of SATA I (1.5 Gbps), SATA II (3 Gbps) and SATA III (6 Gbps).
iv. PCIe (Peripheral Component Interconnect Express): These includes; High-speed interface
for graphics cards, SSDs, and network adapters.Versions: PCIe 3.0 (8 GT/s), PCIe 4.0
(16 GT/s), PCIe 5.0 (32 GT/s).
v. HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface): Standard for transmitting audio and video
signals. Versions: HDMI 1.4 (10.2 Gbps), HDMI 2.0 (18 Gbps), HDMI 2.1 (48 Gbps).
2. Wireless Standards
Wireless transfer standards use radio waves, infrared, or other wireless technologies to transmit
data without physical cables. They offer flexibility and mobility but may have limitations in
speed, range, and reliability.
Wi-Fi: Used for wireless local area networking. Standards:
802.11n (600 Mbps), 802.11ac (1.3 Gbps), 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6) (9.6 Gbps).
Bluetooth: Used for short-range data transfer between devices.
Versions: Bluetooth 4.0 (24 Mbps), Bluetooth 5.0 (50 Mbps), Bluetooth 5.2 (increased range and
speed).
NFC (Near Field Communication): Short-range standard for transferring small amounts of data
(424 Kbps).
Used in mobile payments and file sharing.
Infrared (IR): Used in remote controls and short-range device communication.
Speeds: Up to 4 Mbps.
Storage Standards
These standards regulate data transfer between storage devices and systems.

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NVMe (Non-Volatile Memory Express): Designed for SSDs connected via PCIe.Offers lower
latency and higher speeds than SATA (up to 7 Gbps).

Thunderbolt: High-speed interface for connecting storage devices and displays.Versions:

Thunderbolt 3 (40 Gbps), Thunderbolt 4 (40 Gbps).
Factors Affecting Data Transfer Performance
i. Bandwidth: Maximum data transfer capacity of the medium.
ii. Latency: Delay in data transmission.
iii. Error Rates: Data corruption during transfer.
iv. Compatibility: Matching protocols and standards across devices. Older devices may not
support newer standards.
v. Security Concerns: Risks of data interception in wireless communication.
vi. Bandwidth Limitations: Congestion in networks with high traffic.
Future Trends in Data Transfer Standards
5G and Beyond: Ultra-fast wireless communication for mobile and IoT devices.
USB-C Universal Adoption: Simplified connections for all devices.
Higher Wi-Fi Standards (Wi-Fi 7): Improved speed and efficiency.
Optical Data Transfer: Use of fiber optics for extremely high speeds.
Conclusion
Data transfer standards play a critical role in ensuring smooth, efficient, and secure
communication between devices. Understanding their types, features, and applications helps in
selecting the right technologies for specific use cases.

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