GENERAL BIOLOGY 1

The History of Cell

TYPES OF
Hans and Zacharias Janssen (1590) Light Compound Microscope
 Invented the primitive microscope
 Uses light and lenses 2 lenses to magnify
 The First Compound Microscope
objects about 1500 times larger than its
(circa
Eyepiece or1595)
ocular lens Iris Diaphragm
original size
Hans andRobert
Zacharias Janssen (1590)
Hooke Aswhere
  It is magnification
we look increases,
at to view detail
the
increases
specimen but; less
under of the cell is seen
the microscope
 Discovered the cell through observing a thin
Stereomicroscope/
Body slice of cork
Tube Dissecting Condenser
Microscope
 Published his observation in a book called
Micrographia   Holds
PARTSUsed to examine
OF
and the
theexternal
eyepiecestructure
THE MICROSCOPE
connects to the of
a specimen such as insects
objective
Antonie (Anton) van Leeuwenhoek (1674- Mirror/ light bulb
1683)
Coarse Adjustment Knob Phase-Contrast Microscope
 Made the first practical single lens
 Controls the amount of light reflected by
microscope and first to observe protozoa
 Used to move(animalcules)
the body tube up and down  the mirror
Used to examine highly transparent
and bacteria Arm objects such as unstained cells
 to focus
Also the microscope
observe the spermatozoa (1677) and
 Used
plaquewhen focusing
between the under
teeth low power
Electron Microscope
objective/LPO
Robert Brown (1831) Fine Adjustment
Inclination Knob
Jointof
Uses beams electrons to enlarge
 Discovered the nucleus of the cell objects up to 250 000 times their original
 Used when focusing under high power size
Matthias Jakob Schleiden (1838)
objective/HPO
2 TYPES
 Proposed that all plants are made up of Pillar
Revolving Nosepiece
cell 1. Transmission Electron Microscope
 Hold and rotates the objectives in place  used to study internal structures of cells
Theodor Schwann (1839) through sectioned specimen
Objective Lenses 2. Scanning Electron Microscope
Base
 Proposed that all animals are made up of
 Used to examine the surfaces or shapes of
cell
specimen such as viruses
 Used to view the object in the microscope
Light Fluorescent Microscope
Rudolf Virchow (1858)
TYPES
 Concluded that cell come from pre-  Illuminates object stained with
-Highexisting
Powercell
Objective/HPO fluorescent dyes (colors that glow in the
-Low Power Objective/LPO dark)

THE CELL
-Oil Immersion THEORY
Objective/OIO
Confocal Scanning Microscope
(Schwann, Schleiden, Virchow)
Stage  Used to examine the three-dimensional
structure of cell or organelle without
 It is where we place the specimen for cutting the specimen
1. All organisms are made up of cells.
viewing
2. The cell is the basic unit of structure and
function of all organism. Stage Clips
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells
(omnis cellula e cellula)  It secures the specimen/ glass slide
GENERAL BIOLOGY 1

Types of Cell NUCLEUS

1. PROKARYOTES/PROKARYOTIC CELLS
 Serves as the control center of the cell /
-simple cells(no true nucleus)
brain of the cell
-unicellular organisms  Contains the DNA of an organism
2. EUKARYOTES/EUKARYOTIC CELLS  Composed of the nucleolus, nucleoplasm,
-complex cells(with true nucleus) nuclear pores and the nuclear envelope
-multicellular organism

MITOCHONDRIA or
MITOCHONDRION

CELL ORGANELLES and  Acts as the powerhouse of the cell

their FUNCTIONS  Produces the energy (ATP) needed by the
cell

PROTOPLASM CHLOROPLAST

 Site of photosynthesis
 all the living parts of the cell (all the living  Contains the chloropyll (green pigment in
matter in a cell) plants)

CYTOPLASM RIBOSOMES

 Made up of RNA and proteins

 The living parts outside the nucleus (liquid  Site of protein production
surrounding the nucleus)  Forms compartments and vesicles

PLASMA/CELL ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

MEMBRANE (ER)
 controls what materials are allowed to enter  Participate in protein and lipid synthesis
and exit the cell TYPES
 Made up of phospholipid bilayer
 SMOOTH ER
-without ribosomes
CELL WALL
-site if the lipid synthesis
 Serves as boundary between the cell and its  ROUGH ER
external environment -with ribosomes
 Allows plant cell to change shape if needed -helps in the synthesis of proteins
 Can be made up of cellulose or chitin  Packages proteins for export from cell
GOLGI APPARATUS/COMPLEX
CYTOPLASM(animals)
 Forms secretory vesicles
 The liquid portion of the inside part of the
cell
GENERAL BIOLOGY 1

VESICLES PROKARYOTIC VS
 Carry materials in and out of the cell like EUKARYOTIC
food particles and waste products
CELLS
 Cells vary in shape, size, structures, and
VACUOLES functions.

 stores food, oil, carbohydrates, WATER PROKARYOTIC

 Helps the cell maintain its rigidity
CELLS
LYSOSOMES DEFINITION
 acts as the suicidal or digestive part of the  Any unicellular organism that does not
cell contain membrane bound nucleus or
 Digest waste materials in the cell organelles.

CYTOSKELETON EXAMPLES

 Bacteria and Archaebacteria

 serves as the bones of the cell
 Provides support and allows movement of NUCLEUS
the cell
 Absent (no true nucleus)
CENTRIOLES CELL SIZE

 Helps animal cells to reproduce during cell  Less than 1 micrometer to 5 micrometer
 Found outside the cell
DNA REPLICATION

CILIA AND FLAGELLA  Highly regulated with selective origins

and sequences
 Locomotory organelles of the cell
ORGANISM TYPE

 Multicellular
CELL TRIVIA RIBOSOMES

 Small
 The average human being is composed of
100 trillion individual cells STRUCTURE OF GENETIC INFORMATION
 The egg yolk from an ostrich egg is the
 DNA is packaged into a single circular
largest cell. They are about half foot long.
chromosome
 It would take as 50 cells to cover the area
of a dot on letter “i” on your paper. LOCATION OF GENETIC INFORMATION

 Cytoplasm
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1

CELL WALL LOCATION OF GENETIC INFORMATION

 Complex: Present in all prokaryotes  Nucleus
GROWTH RATE CELL WALL
 Faster  Simple: Present in Plants and Fungi
HISTORY GROWTH RATE
 Evolved at least 3.5 billion years ago  Slower
REPRODUCTION HISTORY
 Binary Fission  Evolved at least 2.7 billion years ago
REPRODUCTION
 Mitosis and Meiosis
EUKARYOTIC CELLS
DEFINITION
 Any cell that contains a distinct membrane
bound nucleus and organelles.
EXAMPLES

 Plants, Animals, Fungi

NUCLEUS

 Present (with membrane bound nucleus)

CELL SIZE

 10-100 micrometer in size

DNA REPLICATION

 Replicate entire genome at once

ORGANISM TYPE

 Unicellular
RIBOSOMES

 Large
STRUCTURE OF GENETIC INFORMATION

 DNA is packaged into multiple linear

chromosome
GENERAL BIOLOGY 1

CELL TYPES
AND
FUNCTION Cells and Function

 Cell’s shape is related to their functions.

 There are over 200 different cell types in the
human body.
 Each type of cell is specialized to carry out a
particular function, either solely, but usually
by forming a particular tissue.
 Different tissues then combine and form
specific organs, where the organ is like a
factory where every type of cell has its own
job.
GENERAL BIOLOGY 1

STEM CELLS BLOOD CELLS

 Cells that originate as unspecialized cells and

have the ability to develop into specialized
cell type that can be used to build specific
organ or tissue.

Also known as blood corpuscles. Includes the

following:
Red Blood Cell- transport oxygen and nutrients
to all part of the body
White Blood Cell- fights infectious foreign
substances or molecules that enter our body
BONE CELLS
Platelets- perform the blood clotting that stops
 Cells that make up the bones. Consists of our wound from bleeding
four types of cells:
- Osteoblasts MUSCLE CELLS
- Osteoclasts
- Osteocytes  Forms muscular tissue that enables body
- Osteogenic cell movements.
GENERAL BIOLOGY 1

SKIN CELLS CANCER CELLS

 Make up the epithelial tissue of the skin  Cells that work to destroy the body. Cancer
which protects our body from the external results from the development of abnormal
environment. cell properties that cause cells to divide
uncontrollably and spread to other locations.

NERVE CELLS DIFFERENT TYPES

 Basic unit of communication of the nervous
system.
OF CELLS IN PLANTS
PARENCHYMA CELLS
ENDOTHELIAL CELLS
 Form the inner lining of the cardiovascular  These are the major cells in plants that make
system and lymphatic system structures up their leaves. These are responsible for
plant’s metabolism and food production.

SCLERENCHYMA
CELLS
 Found in roots which are hard cells that
provide support for the whole plant.

COLLENCHYMA CELLS
 Provide support for young plants.
They
grow and stretch as grow.
 These are water conducting cells
XYLEM CELLS
that
allow water to flow freely
throughout the whole plant.

SEX CELLS
 Reproductive cells created in male and
female gonads that bring new life into
Existence

PANCREATIC CELLS
 Important for regulating blood glucose
concentration levels as well as for the
digestion of proteins, carbohydrates,
and fats.
GENERAL BIOLOGY 1

PHLOEM CELLS EXAMPLES

 These are cells that transport sugar
produced by the leaves to the other parts of Microvilli
the plant.
FUNCTION
 Increase surface area of the cell
 Absorption of nutrients and materials
 Secretion of enzymes.
 Motility

CILLIA
 Came from the word cilium which means
eyelash
 Short hair-like structures that function for
motility or movement of the cell.
 Greater in number than a
Flagella
 Movement is similar to rowing like an oar
 Types: Motile and Nonmotile
CELL FUNCTION
MODIFICATION
CELL  Locomotion of isolated cells like
paramecium (protozoan)
 Not every cell in a multi-cellular organism is  Plays a role in cellular communication;
the same. proper function of some proteins
 Cells need to be modified to carry out  Non-motile cilia serves as sensory
specialized functions. apparatus signal detection.
 Modification occurs after cell division a
process that occurs after cell division where STEREOCILIA
the newly formed cells are structurally
 Long, non-motile microvilli that increases
modified so that they can perform their
absorption in the surface of the cell
function efficiently and effectively
 Limited in the lining of the epididymis and
TYPES OF CELL vas deferens and the receptor hair cells of
the auditory and vestibular system in the
1. Apical Modification inner ear
2. Basal Modification  Serves as a sensory apparatus.
3. Lateral Modification
FLAGELLA
APICAL MODIFICATION
 Came from the term flagellum that means
whip
 Modification found on the top surface of the cell
 A whip-like projections extending to the
 Purpose plasma membrane allows movement of
- Absorption the cell in a propeller like movement or
- Locomotion wiggle.
GENERAL BIOLOGY 1

 Very strong in nature that can resist high

pressure and mechanical stress
 Present in the junction points between
cardiac muscle, tissues of bladder, mucosal
layer of the gastrointestinal tract, and
epithelium
 Any mutations or damage to it can lead to
arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy and various
autoimmune diseases

PSEUDOPODS
 “False Feet”
 A temporary, irregular lobes formed by
amoebas and some other eukaryotic cells
 It bulges outward to move the cell or engulf
prey

PSEUDOPODS
 Compound secreted by the cell on its apical HESMIDESMOSOMES
surface such as collagen, elastin, enzymes,
glycoproteins, hyaluronic acid and  Connect intermediate filaments of a cell to
hydroxyapatite the basal lamina, a combination of
 It supports and anchors the cell extracellular molecules on other cell surfaces
 Glycoprotein is the main ingredient of ECM  Adhesion of cells and the basement
in animal cells membrane.
 Involved in cell signaling pathways.
BASAL MODIFICATION  Mostly found in the epidermis of the skin
 Hemidesmosome I is present in stratified
 Modification found at the bottom of the cell and pseudostratified epithelium
 Facilities stable adhesion of basal cells to  Hemidesmosome II is contains integrin and
Basement membrane plectin and keratin.
 Damage to it may lead to loosing of integrity
EXAMPLES
of skin or skin health, muscle dystrophy
DESMOSOMES while mutation can lead to epidermolysis
bullosa
 Also known as macula adhesion - cell to cell
adhesion LATERAL MODIFICATION
 Provide connections that join the
intermediate filaments of neighboring cells  Known as cell junctions
 Primary composed of cadherins  Modification found at the sides of the cell
GENERAL BIOLOGY 1

 Specialized structure that serves as G1 phase (Growth or Gap 1

intercellular connection between two
Phase)
adjacent cells
 Longest phase in most cells
EXAMPLE  Cells undergo rapid growth and organelles
are formed.
TIGHT JUNCTION  Proteins are synthesized (produced) for S
 acts as barrier that regulates the movement phase
of water and solutes between epithelial  Cells that are not dividing (muscles and
layers nerve cells) enters the G0 phase from this
 It also prevents leakage of the extra cellular phase
Matrix
G0 phase (Resting Phase)
ADHERENS JUNCTION  Cells enter this phase when they stopped
 Anchoring junction on the lateral surface of dividing.
the cell  Cells can remain in this phase for a long
 It fastens cells to one another providing a period of time or indefinitely, neurons, nerve
strong mechanical cells, and muscle cells are examples of this.
 Damaged cells or degradation are some
GAP JUNCTION issues that lead to some cells to stops
dividing. This is called cellular senescence.
 Referred as communication junction
 Closable channels that connects cytoplasm S phase (Synthesis Phase)
of adjoining animal cells which allows the
 Chromosomes (DNA) are replicated or
direct exchange of materials between cells
copied in this phase
 Each chromosome is made up of two sister
chromatids attached at the centromere.
CELL CYCLE  Mutations may happen in DNA replication
that can result in the formation of cancer
 Process in which a cell replicates and cells. In cancer cells, the number of
produce two or four new cells depending on chromosomes is altered either an increase in
its M phase. number or decrease in it. These cells are said
 The stages of development of a cell is called aneuploid. These is the target of
divided into two main stages: chemotherapy agents.

INTERPHASE
 During the interphase, the cell undergoes
growth, accumulation of nutrients and
replication of genetic materials.
 The important events take place in
interphase. Interphase is divided into 3
stages: G1 phase, S phase, G2 phase.
GENERAL BIOLOGY 1


GENERAL BIOLOGY 1

G2 phase (Growth or Gap THE STAGES OF MITOSIS

2 Phase) AND CELL DIVISION
 Shortened growth period where many
organelles are reproduced or manufactured
like the centrioles.
 Microtubules, protein fibers that causes the
chromosomes to assemble, used for the
mitotic spindle during cell division are
produced.
MITOSIS
M PHASE
 Mitosis is a process where a single cell
 Stands for mitosis or meiosis divides into two identical daughter cells.
 The remaining time is spent for the M phase  A diploid (2n) parent cell containing two sets
or cell division. of chromosomes (paternal and maternal
(Meiosis/ Mitosis phase) chromosome sets) result in two diploid
daughter cells after mitosis. This only occurs
 Cells divide in a eukaryotic cell to be specific on body
 Division of the nucleus is called cells or somatic cell
karyokinesis, while division of the  It is used for growth and development,
cytoplasm is called cytokinesis. tissue repair and asexual reproduction.

STAGE 1:
CELL CYCLE PROPHASE
 Chromosome is condensed (coils) into x-
CHECKPOINTS shaped structure
Are group of proteins responsible for scanning  Spindle fibers are formed
if there are errors that occurred during a  Centrioles migrate at the opposite poles of
certain phase. These checkpoints are: the cell.
 At the end of this phase the membrane
G1 checkpoint – ensures that the cell can around the nucleus (nuclear envelope) in the
proceed to the S phase or DNA synthesis. cell dissolves releasing the chromosomes

G2 checkpoint – makes sure that the cell is  Chromosomes move and align themselves
mature enough to undergo M phase.
STAGE 2:
M checkpoint – occurs in the metaphase
stage of the cell division sees to it that the cell toMETAPHASE
the center of the cell called metaphase
has completed its division. plate.
 The spindle fibers connect each
In an event that there are error, abnormalities, chromosome on its centromere to the
or malfunction seen the cell is instructed to not centrioles located at the opposite poles
proceed to the next stage and repairs are done.
In case these errors are not fixed, the cell
undergoes apoptosis, programmed cell death.
 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1

STAGE 3: MEIOSIS
ANAPHASE
The sister chromatids are pulled apart by  A cell division for the formation of
the spindle fibers moving to the opposite reproductive cells (gametes) like sperm
poles of the cell cells, egg cells, and spores.
 Certain spindle fibers begin to elongate  Both meiosis and mitosis have the same
the cell steps except that meiosis undergoes these
steps twice.
STAGE 4:  It produces 4 haploid (n) cells that
contains half the number of chromosomes
TELOPHASE
A full set of chromosomes gather at the
of the parent cells.
end of each pole of the cell.
 These daughter cells are not alike because
 The nuclear membrane forms around the
of how the chromosomes divide.
chromosomes that starts to uncoil.
 The first part of meiosis is called meiosis I
 The spindle fiber dissolves and disappears.
or reductional division because the
 Each daughter cell has one chromatid
number of chromosomes from diploid (2n)
is reduced to haploid (n). The second
STAGE 5: meiosis or meiosis II is also called
CYTOKINESIS
Cytoplasm divides equational division.
 Cytokinesis starts in cells without cell walls
at the exterior of the cell moving inwards
until they are divided is called cleavage STAGE 1: PROPASE
furrow formation.  I Chromosomes starts to coil and condense
 For plant cells and other cells with cell wall, into x-shaped structures.
cytokinesis starts in the middle and moves  The nuclear envelope disappears
outward in a process called plate  Homologous chromosome pair up in a
formation. process called synapsis and may exchange
DNA sequences in a process called
BONUS STAGE: recombination or crossing over
INTERPHASE  Cross over or trading or exchange of genes
 DNA in the cell is copied in preparation for between homologous chromosomes takes
cell division resulting in two identical full place at a point called chiasma
sets of chromosomes.
 Cells prepare for mitosis STAGE 2:
 METAPHASE
The pairs of homologous chromosomes
move and aligns at the metaphase plate.
 A chromosome of each pair is attached to
a spindle fiber.
 The centrioles moved to the opposite
poles of the cells
GENERAL BIOLOGY 1

STAGE 3:
 Cleavage furrow divides the cytoplasm of
ANAPHASE
 Homologous chromosomes separate each two haploid cells creating four haploid
 The chromosomes are pulled towards the cells
opposite poles by the spindle fibers.
GENETICS

STAGE 4: TELOPHASE 1
C  Genetics is a branch of biology concerned
AND CYTOKINESIS with the study of genes, genetic variation,
hromosomes completely move to the and heredity in organisms.
opposite poles.  Heredity are traits or alleles passed down
 Nuclear membrane forms followed by from parent to offspring.
cytokinesis.
GREGOR MENDEL
STAGE 5: PROPHASE   Father of Genetics
C  Experimented on pea plants to understand
2 hromosomes starts to coil and condense into how alleles or traits are passed from parent
x-shaped structures. to offspring in heritable factors now called
 The nuclear envelope disappears as genes.
 Spindle fibers formed around the  Published his studies inn a 1865 in his
chromosomes. paper entitled Experiment in Plant
Hybridization.
STAGE 6:   Proposed the Particulate Theory of
METAPHASE 2 T Inheritance that states that minute
he pairs of homologous chromosomes move particles form parents are transmitted to
and aligns at the metaphase plate. the offspring and form its characteristics
 A chromosome of each pair is attached to a
spindle fiber. MENDELIAN POSTULATE
 The centrioles moved to the opposite poles  Rule of Unit Factors in Pairs - states that in
of the cells a diploid organism a pair of homologous
chromosomes that contain the genes
STAGE 7: ANAPHASE  responsible for observed characteristic or
H dominant allele of the organism.
2
omologous chromosomes separate  Principle of Dominance and Recessive - in
 The chromosomes are pulled towards the contrasting alleles, traits, a dominant or
opposite poles by the spindle fibers. recessive allele exists. Dominant allele is
always expressed while recessive allele is
STAGE 4: TELOPHASE 2  masked by the dominant allele.
C  Law of Segregation – explains that a pair of
AND CYTOKINESIS 2 homologous chromosomes separate during
hromosomes completely move to the gamete formation or meiosis.
opposite poles.  Law of Independent Assortment - During
 Spindle fibers disintegrate meiosis, the segregation of various
 Nuclear membrane forms followed by homologous chromosomes is independent
cytokinesis. of each other