Unsteady flow in pipes ▪ 7-1

Chapter 7: Unsteady flow in pipes

7-2 ▪ Hydraulics

7.1 Introduction
Flow, where the different fluid parameters such as depth, velocity, pressure, density etc
change with time is known as unsteady flow.
y v 
 0;  0; 0 7-1
t t t
Unsteady or transient flows in pipelines traditionally have been associated with hydropower
piping and with long water and oil pipeline delivery system. When designing a pipeline
(generally penstock in hydropower) it is important to ensure that it will be capable of
withstanding the maximum or minimum pressure resulting from valve adjustment and other
possible action. In this section we examine only the most fundamental aspects of unsteady
flow in piping. Initially we will consider unsteady flow in a single constant diameter pipe
assuming rigid and incompressible conditions; that is followed by analysis of a system in
which elasticity and compressibility play a significant role in the response of the pressure and
velocity to an excitation. The first assumption results in the phenomenon called surging,
while the second is called water hammer.
Let the liquid is flowing from a reservoir through a pipe AB having a value regulator at the
end of the pipe as shown in Figure 7.1. Let V be the mean velocity of flow when the value is
completely open. At the time if the regulating value is suddenly closed, the flowing water will
be obstructed and momentum will be destroyed and consequently a wave of high pressure
will be created which travels back and forth starting at the valve, traveling to the reservoir,
and returning back to the valve and so on. The kinetic energy of the water moving through
the pipe is converted into potential energy stored in the water and the walls of the pipe
through the elastic deformation both. The water is compressed and the pipe material is
stretched.
This wave of high pressure has very high speed (called celerity, C) which may reach the
speed of sound wave and may create noise called knocking. This wave of high pressure will
be transmitted along the pipe. It has the effect of hammering action on the walls of the pipe
and hence is commonly known as water hammer phenomenon.

Pressure rise dp due to

sudden closing of valve

Static pressure

Valve

A B

Figure 7-1: Reservoir with pipe, fitted with valve at the end
A pipeline supplying a turbine plant and a long pumping main are instances where careful
consideration needs to be given to possible transient pressure. Velocities in turbine
penstocks are relatively high (3 to 6 m/s) and it is the function of the turbine gates to regulate
 Unsteady flow in pipes ▪ 7-3

the flow so as to the output at all times accords with the variable electrical demand. The
potentially most dangerous transient condition is when a total rejection of load (e.g. due to
transmission failure) suddenly occurs during period of peak output as result of which turbines
gates immediately move to the closed position in order to shut of the flow. The rise in
pressure is some cases may be so large that the pipe may even burst, so it is necessary to
take care when designing penstock pipe. (In decrease in velocity 1m/s, increase is pressure
about 10-12 atm).
In the case of a very long pipe, it is not economical to design such a strong pipe which could
withstand such pressure so safety devices are considered. The effective length may be
considerably reduced by the provision of a large capacity regulating tank, called a surge tank
( refer section 7.9), located as near as possible to the turbine as shown in Figure 7-2.
Upstream water level

Total head loss in conveyance

Intake TEL
Head loss
Reservoir in penstock

Dam
Headrace tunnel

Surge tank

Penstock Power house Downstream water level

Figure 7.2: Hydropower with its major components

On a sudden load rejection, the continuing discharge from the low pressure conduit is
prevented from flowing down the penstock and is diverted into the surge tank. The
consequent rise in water level within the tank applies the necessary retarding force to the
water column, which, after a period of damped oscillation, finally reaches static equilibrium.
Likewise, on sudden starting up of the turbine, water flows temporarily out of the surge tank
into the penstock, the resultant lowering of the tank water level imparting a desirable
acceleration to the draw-off from the reservoir.
The determination of water hammer pressure is accountable to mathematical analysis.
Having many variables, however, practical problems may be of considerable complexity.
Hence as mentioned before, our consideration must necessarily be limited to the most
elementary cases. The simplest procedure is to regard the water as incompressible, but this
assumptions leads to appreciable error when flow adjustment is rapid. Elasticity of water and
pipeline must then be taken into account.
Magnitude of pressure rise depends on the time taken to close the valve (gradual or sudden
closure), the velocity of flow, length of the pipe and the elastic property of pipe material and
flowing liquid.
Increase in pressure Δp = f (t, V, L, T, Ep; K),
7-4 ▪ Hydraulics

where
t- Time of closing of valve,
T- Thickness of pipe,
V – Velocity of flow,
L- Length of pipe,
K - Bulk modulus of elasticity of liquid,
Ep - Modulus of elasticity of pipe material.

7.2 Equation of motion for unsteady flow

Let us develop both the Navier-Stokes and the Euler’s equations of motion along the
streamline for general flow i.e. for unsteady as well as viscous flow. Referring to Figure 7.3,
let us consider unsteady and viscous flow of the fluid along the streamline with direction S.
Consider a small cylindrical element with cross-sectional area dA and let ds be the length of
the element. We shall consider the forces acting on a small cylindrical element with cross-
sectional dA of the fluid in the direction of the streamline and apply Newton’s second law of
motion. Since, we are dealing with unsteady flow, the velocity does vary at a point and with
position i.e., u = f(S, t).

dz
dA



Streamline

W = .gdAds
Figure 7.3: Forces acting on the fluid element along streamline
Let  be the angle between the direction of flow and line of action of gravitational force (see
Figure 7.3) and let p be the intensity of the pressure on the flowing side of the element.
Forces acting on the elements are:
 Unsteady flow in pipes ▪ 7-5

(i) Pressure force pdA in the direction of flow (pressure intensity times its cross-sectional
area). Here it is assumed that the intensity of pressure is distributed uniformly across
the cross-sectional area.

 p 
(ii) Pressure force  p + ds  dA in the opposite to the direction flow.
 s 
(iii) Self weight W of element which is equal to mass times acceleration due to gravity
W = mg =  dA ds and acts vertically downward and its components in the flow
direction would be Wcosθ.
(iv) Tangential force or shear force due to the viscous shear, which is equal to shear stress
times its contact area

dFs =  D ds, This force is acting opposite direction of flow. Here D is the diameter of
the pipe and ds be the length (see Figure 7.3). Now, sum of forces acting in the flow
direction S is equal to:

 p 
F s = mas  p dA −  p +

ds dA − W cos −   Dds = m.as
s 
It may be recalled that the velocity of an elementary fluid particle along a streamline is
function of position as well as time.

V = f ( s, t )
V V
dV = ds + dt
s t
dV V ds V
= +
dt s dt t
V V
as = V +
s t
dz
And taking cos = , we can write the above equation of motion as:
ds
p dz V V
− ds dA −  g dA ds −  D ds =  dA ds(V + )
s ds s t
Dividing both sides of the above equation by weight of the element i.e.,  dAds
p dz 4 1 V V
− − − = (V + )
 s ds  D g s t
Since all the variables are the function of only one coordinate, we can change the partial
differential equation to full differential equation.
7-6 ▪ Hydraulics

1 dV 1 dV dp dz 4
V + + + + = 0 , or this can be written as:
g ds g dt  ds ds  D

dV dV dp dz 4
V + + +g + =0
ds dt  ds ds  D 7-2
Equation 7-2 represents the Navier-Stokes equation of motion along a streamline for
unsteady and viscous flow. In this equation,

dV
The term V represents the convective acceleration experienced by the fluid as it moves
ds
from a region of one velocity to another velocity; in fact it represents a change in kinetic
energy;

dV
The term represents the local acceleration, valid for unsteady flow,
dt
dp
The term represents force per unit mass due to the pressure distribution,
 ds
dz
The term g represents the force per unit mass due to the gravity,
ds
4
And, finally the term represents the force per unit mass caused by the friction due to
D
viscosity. The shear stress in turbulent flow can be expressed by Darcy’s formula as:

1
 =  fV2
8
Here f is the Darcy’s friction factor. Putting the value of  in equation 7-2, results

dV dV dp dz f V 2
V + + +g + =0
ds dt  ds ds 2 D 7-3
This is similar equation as 7-3 and also known as Navier-Stokes’s Equation for one
dimensional unsteady flow.

4 dV
For an ideal flow (non-viscous) the term = 0 and for steady flow the term = 0 and
D dt
the equation 7.3 would be reduced to

dV dp dz
V + +g =0
ds  ds ds 7-4
 Unsteady flow in pipes ▪ 7-7

Equation 7-4 represents the Euler’s equation of motion along the streamline valid for steady
and non-viscous flow (ideal flow). It can be rearranged by

dp
+ g dz + V dV = 0 (Since ds is not equal to zero)

The equation 7-4 is commonly referred to as the one-dimensional Euler Equation, because it
was first derived by Leonhard Euler (1707-1783), a Swiss mathematician, in about 1750. It
applies to both compressible and incompressible flow, since the variation of density over the
element length ds is small.

7.3 Continuity equation

The continuity equation is based on conservation principle of mass. Let the liquid is flowing
in one dimensional flow (control volume) is streamwise direction as shown in Figure 7.4
below.

Figure 7.4: Control volume for the continuity equation

The diameter of the control volume will expand and or contract depending on the pressure in
the control volume. Rate of entering of mass can be written as  AV and rate of leaving of

mass can be expressed as  AV + ( AV ) ds . Total accumulation of mass in the system
s
per unit time is the differences of entering and leaving of masses as:



 AV −   AV + ( AV )ds = −  ( AV ) ds
 s  s
Now, by mass balance, the net accumulation of mass per unit time within the control volume
must be equal to the rate of change of mass of the element itself (this is because mass of
element will be changed due to accumulation).


( Ads ) = −  ( AV ) ds
t s
7-8 ▪ Hydraulics


(A) ds +  (AV ) ds = 0 We can change partial derivate to full derivative
t s
d
(A) ds + d (AV ) ds = 0 , keeping ds = 0, the equation may be written as
dt ds
d
(A) + d (AV ) = 0
dt ds
 dA Ad
= 0 , diving by ( A)
dV
+ + A
dt dt ds

1 dA 1 d dV
+ + =0 7-5
A dt  dt ds
1 dA D dp 1 d 1 dp TKE
Since = ; = ; and  C 2 = (for detail derivation refer
A dt T E dt  dt K dt T E + DK
section 7.6.1 and 7.6.2)

D dp 1 dp dV
+ + =0
T E dt K dt ds

dp  1 D  dV
 + + =0
dt  K T E  ds

dp  TE + DK  dV
 + =0
dt  K T E  ds

dp  1  dV
  + =0
dt   C 2  ds
1 dp dV
+ C2 =0 7-5a
 dt ds
Equation 7-5 or 7-5a is the expression for the continuity equation for unsteady pipe flow.

7.4 Pressure rise in gradually closure of valve (incompressible theory)

The first case we are dealing with gradual closure of valve in a rigid pipe conveying an
incompressible fluid. Let the liquid is flowing with mean velocity of flow V, and let the cross
sectional area of the pipe be A, and its length L, Let "t" time taken to close the value. The
time of pressure wave travel from the valve to inlet and end and back again can be
expressed as:
 Unsteady flow in pipes ▪ 7-9

2L
t = 2 times the length of pipe/velocity of pressure wave  t = .
C
2L 2L
If t  , value is said to be gradually close and the valve is suddenly close if t <
C C
Here, C is the velocity of pressure wave (equal to speed of sound).
Now, the mass of the water in motion is the product of density with volume

Mass =   A  L.
During a period of flow adjustment the instantaneous velocity is V and retardation –dV/dt
(negative because = dV/dt is acceleration). Thus is accordance with Newton’s second law
the pressure force developed at the valve is given (retarding force is equal to mass times
acceleration);
dV
dp A = −  A L
dt
Here dp is the surge pressure that is superimposed on the normal pressure. The dynamic or
acceleration head ha at the valve is therefore:

L  dV
ha = −
g  dt 7-6

And it decreases linearly toward the reservoir.

Taking into account pipe friction losses, the instantaneous pressure head h at the valve
during the period of flow adjustment is given by:

f LV 2 L  dV
h = Hs − +
2gd g  dt 7-7

If the retardation is known, equation 7-7 may be solved. Now, if a steady flow velocity V is
reduced to zero at a uniform flow rate during a period t c , then the maximum pressure head
at the valve occurs at the instant of total closure and is

L V
hmax = Hs +
g  tc 7-8

Figure 7.5 shows the sudden rise in pressure head at the valve due to its closure. This
figures shows the development of pressure wave celerity towards surge tank or reservoir
after closing of valve.
7-10 ▪ Hydraulics

Pressure wave
celerity
Water hammer pressure head

C
(After valve closing)
P


C
P


Ho (Static head)

V=0

Valve

Figure 7.5 Pipe, reservoir and valve

From the equation 7-8 it will be observed that when closure is instantaneous i.e. t c = 0 the
pressure rise is infinitive. But instantaneous closure of valve is not possible and as such
concept of infinitive pressure rise is only theoretical. As it has been mentioned above that
equation 7-7 has been developed on the assumption that an incompressible fluid flows
through a rigid pipe. However at elevated pressure, the liquids also get compressed and
hence behave like compressible fluids.

7.5 Pressure rise in sudden closure of valve (elastic theory)

If the time of the closure of the valve, t< 2L/C, the closure is known as sudden closure. There
are two cases to be considered. They are rigid and elastic pipes.

7.5.1 Rigid pipe

The Figure 7.6 shows the downstream end of rigid pipeline. Under condition of steady flow
the velocity is V and the pressure p. A sudden closure of the valve is affected and as a
result a pressure wave is propagated upstream at celerity C

Valve
C
A B

Figure 7.6 Pressure wave in a closed conduit

 Unsteady flow in pipes ▪ 7-11

From the equation 7.4 we have seen that if the time of the closure of valve is 0 the head
would be infinitive, but pressure head can not be infinitive, so, the moving water can not
brought in rest in time lesser than it taken a sound wave travel to water from the value to the
reservoir, Thus minimum time at which the water can be brought to rest is
L L
t= C =
C t 7-9
Where l is the length of pipe, C is the velocity of sound wave in water medium. Now it is
important to find the expression for the C. As flow come to the rest, the pressure wave
passes and due to transformation of kinetic energy the pressure and density of liquid are
increased to p + dp and  + d respectively (see Figure 7-6).

Thus, in one unit of time a mass of   A V is compressed into a mass of dp  A  C so,

that

  A  V = d  A  C   V = d C
7-10

Again in one unit time a column of water, volume C x A, moving at V0, is brought to rest, so in
accordance with Newton’s second law of the force produced is given

dp  A =   A  C  V  dp =  CV
7-11

Equation 7-11 is known as Joukowsky’s law and is the fundamental equation in pressure
wave analysis. Eliminating V0 by combining equation 7-10 and 7-11 we obtain

dp dp
C2 = or C =
d d 7-12

The bulk modulus of elasticity can be expresses (refer fluid properties)

dp K  d dp  1 d 1 dp
K= C = ,  =  or =
d    K   dt K dt 7-12a

We can tentatively calculate the value of celerity C. If considering bulk modulus K of water is
about 2.05 x 109 Pa and its density 1000 kg/m3 gives the celerity C =1430 m/s. It is
interesting to note that this is approximately four times the speed of sound in air calculated
on the same basis.
Another approach to calculate the pressure rise could be the principle of conservation of
energy. The kinetic energy of flowing fluid can be expressed as:
1
mV
2
=
1
( AL ) V 2

2 2 7-13
7-12 ▪ Hydraulics

Strain energy of the liquid

dp 2 dp 2
 volume of liquid body = AL
2K 2K 7-14

Equating 7-13 and 7-14, the kinetic energy lost to the strain energy gained (per unit time) we
obtain the same result as above.

dp 2
1
(AL )V =
2
AL  dp = V K  dp =  V C
2 2K

7.5.2 Elastic pipe

Elasticity of the pipe material has the effect of reducing the celerity of the compression wave
and therefore the pressure rise. When applying the principle of energy conservation to the
instantaneous closure problem, we must now make the allowance for the strain energy
gained by the pipe. Although longitudinal and circumferential extensions of the pipe or
stresses are produced, longitudinal extension of pipe is prevented by suitable anchors
(pipeline is constrained in the longitudinal direction) while free to expand circumferentially.
When the valve suddenly close, the wave of high pressure is created, hence the liquid inside
the pipe get compressed and pipe surface's material gets stretched as shown in Figure 7.7.
Figure 7.7 also shows the reservoir with pipe with the valve at the end. Here d is the
diameter of pipe and ΔD be the increase of diameter of the pipe due to rise in pressure.

pa

C p0
V
D
A C B

Figure 7.7: Pressure wave in a closed non-rigid pipe.

We have already mentioned that longitudinal extension of pipe is prevented by suitable
anchors, but circumferential stretching is allowed to take place. Hence circumferential tensile
stress can be expressed as:
dp  D dp  r
t = =
2T T 7-15
Here, σt is the circumferential stress, D is the diameter of pipe, r is the radius and T is the
thickness of pipe. For detail information regarding the equation 7-15, readers are requested
to refer any standard book of strength of material.
 Unsteady flow in pipes ▪ 7-13

Pressure rise would be the same as found in equation 7-11, but the main issue in this case is
to develop the expression for the celerity C, because the pressure rise is directly linked with
the celerity.
The pipe is not rigid and liquid is compressible, in such case the change of total volume of liquid
inside the stretched pipe due to water hammer is equal to the sum of
a) The change in volume of liquid within the stretched part of the pipe dv 1 (due to tensile
stress of the pipe material with which the pipe wall stretched).
b) The change in volume of water due to its elasticity dv 2 (liquid will be compressed due to
high pressed or due to compressibility), as shown in Figure 7-8.
dv1

C d

D dv2

V
D
D + d

C
dl

Figure 7.8 : Compressed pipe with valve

Hence, total volume dv = dv1 + dv 2 (volume of liquid entered in pipe for l portion) as
shown in Figure 7.8. Total volume dv is equal to the discharge passing through the pipe with
unit time, dv = Q  dt. Now, the increased volume due to tensile stress dv 1 would be
equal to its increase in area with considered length dv1 = dA  

The change volume due the compressibility of the liquid is determined its bulk modulus of
elasticity K. It is defined as:

dp dv dp v  dp A    dp
K=  2 =  dv2 = =
dv v K K K
v
The total volume is the sum of the two volumes dv = dv1 + dv 2
A    dp
Q  dt = A  V  dt = dA   + , now dividing both side by volume A   .
K
dt dA dp
V = +
 A K
V dA dp
= +
 A K
dt
7-14 ▪ Hydraulics

V dA dp dA V dp l
= +  = − , C= 7-16
C A K A C K dt
dp  g V dp  g
dp =   C V  V =  =
 C C  C2 7-17
dA
Now the ration can be determined as
A

dA  ( D + D) 2 − D 2
=  4
=
D 2 + 2 D  D + D 2 − D 2 2 D  D 2D
= =
A 4.D 2 D2 D2 D
dA 2D
=
A D 7-18
Now modulus of elasticity E of the material is the ration of stress by its strain
t dp  D
E= and  t =
D 2T
D 7-19
σt - tensile stress or hoop stress, dp is the pressure caused the stress, D is pipe diameter
and T is pipe thickness. D - Circumferential strain.
D
With equation 7-18 and 7-19 we can establish relation as:

t D dp  D D D dpD dA
E=  t = E  =E 2 = =
D D 2T D D TE A
D
 
From equation 7-16 2D = dA = dpD or  1 dA = D dp 
 
D A TE  A dt T E dt 
Substituting the value of A and V from equation 7-16 in equation 7-18
A C

A

V A dp
= +
C A K

dp  g dp  D dp g D 1
= +  = +
 C 2
TE K  C 2
TE K
 Unsteady flow in pipes ▪ 7-15

g 1 TKE TKE
C2 =  C2 =
. Or  C 2 =
 D
+
1  (T E + D K ) (T E + D K )
TE K 7-20

g 1 g 1
C= C = .K .
 1 D  DK
+ 1+
K TE TE

g 1
C= K
 DK
1+
TE 7-21

Equation 7-20 or 7-21 is the general expression for the velocity of sound wave in water
medium. Now, if the pipe material is absolute rigid, for that case E =.

g K - Velocity of sound wave in water for rigid pipe.

C= .K =
 

As an example the bulk modulus of elasticity of water K  (2.025 to 2.07)  10 9 Pa and

density   1000 kg/m 3 ,

We can calculate the celerity as for non rigid pipe as:

2.05  10 9
C=  1430 m / sec
1000
Now, for elastic pipe if we consider a typical case cast iron (K/E = 0.02) pipeline with
diameter thickness ration d/T = 100, we will get the celerity as:

g 1 2.05  10 9 1
C= K = = 826 m / s
 DK 1000 1 + 100  0.02
1+
TE
This shows that celerity in the elastic pipe will decrease significantly. It indicates that
appreciable over-estimation of water hammer pressures results if pipe elasticity is ignored.
Now we can develop the pressure rise during the water hammer putting the value of C in the
equation 7-11

 g 1
dp = .V . .
g  1 + D
K TE

 1
dp = V  .
g 1 D
+
K TE
7-16 ▪ Hydraulics

1
dp = V   .
1 D
+
K TE

Expression 7-21 is the general equation for increment of pressure due to suddenly closure
the value. For absolutely rigid pipe E =  , the equation reduced to:

1
dp = V   .  dp = K  V
1
K
This is similar to the equation 7-7
For gradually closure of value as we have already received that pressure rise can be
expresses as:
p..V
dp =
time

7.6 Progress of water hammer pressure wave

We are now in a position to trace the subsequent history of the surge wave produced by
instantaneous closure of the valve at the end of a pipeline connected to a reservoir. Let us
consider a pipe length L, with inside diameter D, wall thickness t and velocity of flow V 0. For
simplicity, friction is neglected i.e. the hydraulic gradient line appear horizontal and the pipe
line is assumed horizontal. The sequence of events is as follows (refer Figures 7.7).

In Figure 7.7a an initial steady condition exists, the velocity is V 0, and the valve is suddenly
closed at time t = 0. Subsequent to closure of the valve, the wave travel upstream (Figure
7.7b). Behind the wave, the velocity is zero, the pressure rises by the amount Δp, the liquid
has been compressed, and the pipe wall slightly expanded.

At time L/C the wave reaches the reservoir, the whole water column has been brought to
rest and the pressure inside throughout the pipe is higher than normal pressure (Figure
7.7c). The stationary condition is only momentary because pressure at the open end must
remain constant but the pipeline pressure is in excess of hydrostatic, hence, a flow of water
back into the reservoir initiated.

At time L/C to 2L/C (Figure 7.7d and 7.7e), as the wave front travel back at the pressure
wave C towards the valve pressure is reduced behind it. On reaching the valve at time 2L/c,
(Figure 7.7e) pressure is momentarily normal throughout the pipeline, but a state of
disequilibrium still exist because the entire water column is moving at the velocity V 0 towards
the reservoir. Owing to fluid inertia, pressure at the valve instantaneously falls to below
normal and a negative wave, is propagated in the direction of the reservoir (Figure 7.7f).
 Unsteady flow in pipes ▪ 7-17

When the negative pressure wave reaches the reservoir at time 3L/C, (Figure 7.7g), the water
column is again entirely at rest, but pressures throughout are below normal and the pipe
diameter has shrunk(become smaller) Consequently, water starts to flow again into the pipeline.

Equilibrium of forces will now cause a wave to travel downstream, pressure returns to normal
behind the wave front, so that when the latter reaches the valve the entire water column is at
normal pressure but moving towards the valve at velocity +V0 (Figure 7.7h). When the wave
reaches the valve at time 4L/C, initial steady-state conditions prevail once again throughout
the pipe (Figure 7.7i). Thus one complete surge cycle occupies a period t = 4L/C.

H0 (Static head)
Valve Steady state condition t = 0

V0

a)

P

H0 Transient condition t < L/C

V0

b) Wave front

P

H0 Transient condition t = L/C

Wave front

V=0
c)

C P

H0 Transient condition L/C < t < 2L/C

Wave front

V0
d)
7-18 ▪ Hydraulics

H0 Transient condition t = 2L/C

Wave front

V0
e)

C P

Region of Transient condition 2L/C < t < 3L/C

decreased pressure

V0

f) Wave front V=0

P

Transient condition t = 3L/C

Wave front

g) V=0

C P

Transient condition 3L/C < t < 4L/C

Wave front

h) V=0

H0 Transient condition t = 4L/C

Wave front

V0

L
i)

Figure 7.7: One cycle of wave motion in a pipe due to sudden valve closure
The process repeats itself every 4L/C seconds. Theoretically, or for the ideal, frictionless
situation shown here, the motion will perpetuate, but in practice, of course, frictional damping
rapidly reduces the intensity of the phenomenon.
 Unsteady flow in pipes ▪ 7-19

7.7 Time history of water hammer pressure wave

The time history of the pressure wave for a specific point on the pipe is a graph that simply
shows the relation between the pressure increase and the time during the propagation of the
water hammer (reaching time, duration of increase pressure and leaving time of wave).
The theoretical pressure-time diagrams for a point adjacent to the valve and for the mid-point
of the pipeline are shown in Figure 7-8. For a real pipe system, friction, pipe motion, and
inelastic behavior of the pipe material will eventually cause the oscillation to die down the
cease (Figure 7-9). An example of time history of water hammer pressure wave given below.

p2

dp = CV0

p1 = H

0 t
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
(a)
p4

dp = CV0

p1 = H

0 t
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
(b)
Figure 7.8 Theoretical pressure-time diagrams following instantaneous closure, (pressure
waveforms at the valve P2, and midpoint P4)
200

100

0
0 200 400 600 800
Time (ms)
Figure 7.9: Pressure waveform at the valve for an actual pipe system following rapid valve closure

The pressure rise Δp is based on the assumption that the valve closes instantaneously.
Actually, it can be used to predict the maximum pressure wave to travel from the valve to the
reservoir and back again. For valve closure times greater than 2L/C, a more comprehensive
7-20 ▪ Hydraulics

analysis is required. Keep in mind that the previous discussion pertains only to a single
horizontal pipe with a reservoir at the upstream end and a valve closing instantaneously at
the downstream end and one that contains a frictionless liquid.
Most of the water hammer analysis performed by engineers today makes use of computer-
based numerical methods for complex piping system, incorporating a variety of excitation
mechanism such as pumps, surge suppressers, and various types of valves. In real practice
friction effects are considered and hence a damping effect occurs and the pressure wave
dies out, i.e ; energy is dissipated as shown in Figure 7.10.

+ P
2L/C 2L/C 2L/C

Damping effect of friction

t, sec

– P

Figure 7.10: Time history for pressure at the end of pipe with friction included.

7.8 Relief devices against action of water hammer

Introduction section of this chapter provides the general information of surge and water
hammer. It also provides the information about the variation of water hammer effect during
the load rejection or load acceptance. In a hydroelectric power plant the flow of water to a
turbine must be decreased very rapidly whenever there is a sudden drop in load. As already
mention before, this rapid decrease in flow will result in high water hammer pressure and
may result in the need for a very strong and expensive pipe. There are several ways to
handle a situation of this sort; one is by use of a surge tank, or surge chamber. The
primary purpose of the surge tank is the protection of the long pressure tunnel in medium
and high head plants against water hammer pressure caused by sudden rejection of
acceptance of load.
The surge tank is an open topped large chamber provided so as to communicate freely with
the pipe line bringing water from the reservoir as shown in Figure 7.11. The surge tank
dividing the pressure tunnel into a short high pressure called a penstock downstream and a
long-pressure tunnel upstream also called a head race tunnel thus functions as a reservoir
for the absorption or delivery of water to meet the requirements of load changes. It quickly
establishes the equilibrium conditions, which greatly assist the speed regulation of the
turbine. Working principle of surge tank is explained below.
 Unsteady flow in pipes ▪ 7-21
Z

Upstream water level

O
HGL
Intake O

Reservoir O
Y

Dam X

Headrace tunnel

Surge tank

Penstock Power house Downstream water level

Figure 7.11 Surge tank with variation of HGL

When the turbine is working under steady load and the flow through the pipe in uniform,
there will be a normal pressure gradient oay (see Figure 7.11). The water surface in the tank
will be lower than the reservoir surface by an amount equal to the major head loss in the
pipe connecting the reservoir and the surge tank. When the load on the generator is
reduced, turbines valves are closed and the water moving towards the turbine has to move
backward and hence, sudden rise in the pressure in the penstock. There will be sudden rise
in the water level in the surge tank so that the hydraulic gradient is now obz (see Figure
7.11). In this situation the water level in the surge tank will be higher than that in the
reservoir. This condition prevails only for short duration.
Now, if the load on the generator is needed to be increased, the governor opens the turbines
valves to increase the discharge to the runner. The increased demand of water by the
turbine is temporarily taken from the surge tank and hence, water level in the surge tank will
decrease corresponding to hydraulic gradient line oax (see Figure 7.11). Finally such
arrangement eliminates the instantaneous expansion of the pipe line and thus prevents pipe
bursting. It is to be noted that penstock are very short and they must be design to withstand
all kinds of water hammer effect. The design procedures and conditions are not explained
here so readers are requested to follow the standard book of hydraulic structures.
Various type of surge tank may be used in hydropower construction near power house
depending upon the geological, economical, topographical and other different factors. The
most common type of the surge tank is the cylindrical in cross section. They may be conical
type surge tank, or surge tank with internal bell mouthed spillway that allows the overflow to
be easily disposed of. Some time a differential surge tank is also found. This has the
advantage that for the same stabilizing effect its size can be very much less than that of the
ordinary surge tank. Inside the surge tank there is a riser pipe provided with ports at its
bottom. When there is an increase in pressure in the pipe, some small amount of water
enters the surge tank through these ports but the major bulk of the incoming flow mounts to
the top of the riser and then spills over into the tank. This provides a substantial retarding
7-22 ▪ Hydraulics

head while in the ordinary surge tank the head only builds up gradually as the tank gets
filled. Figures 7.12 shows the different kinds of surge tanks as explained above.

Surge Tank Surge Tank

Head race tunnel

Head race tunnel

a)Simple or elementary surge tank b) Conical surge tank

Surge Tank
High Surge level

Low Surge level

Head race tunnel

Head race tunnel

c) Surge tank with internal bell mouthed d) Surge tank with expansion chamber

Figure 7.12 Different kinds of surge tanks

 Unsteady flow in pipes ▪ 7-23

Solved Numerical Problems

Example 7.1

A steel pipe (E = 207 x 109 kPa, L=1500m diameter 300 mm and thickness of pipe e=10mm)
conveys water at 200C. Initial velocity V0 is 1m/s. A valve at the downstream end is closed so
rapidly that motion in considered to be instantaneous, reducing the velocity to zero.
Determine the pressure pulse wave speed in the pipe, the speed of sound in a unbounded
water medium, the pressure rise at the valve, the time it takes for the wave travel from the
valve to the reservoir at the upstream end, and the period of oscillation.

Solution:

The density and the bulk modulus of elasticity of water at 200C are found in any standard
level, they are 998 kg/m3 and 220 x 107Pa respectively. The pressure wave speed C is given
by equation 8-16

g 1
C= K
 DK
1+
TE

9.81  220  10 7 1
C=
9810 0.3  220  10 7
1+
0.01  207  10 9
1
C = 1483 .2 = 1291 .9m / s
1.318

The speed of sound in an unbounded water medium is found equation 8-9 as

K 220  10 7
C= = = 1483 .2m / s
 1000

Note that the sound speed is about 15% larger than the pressure wave speed. The pressure
rise at the valve ca be calculated using equation 7.7

p =  CV0 = 1000 1291 .9 1.0 = 1291 kPa

The wave travel time from the valve to the reservoir is L/C =1500/1291=1.16 seconds, and
the period of oscillation is 4L/C= 4x1.16 =4.64 seconds.

Example 7.2

Water flowing in a 1000m long pipe is suddenly closed by a valve located at the end of the
pipe. The diameter of the pipe is 18cm and the thickness is 8 mm. If the discharge passing
through the pipe is 25 lps find the rise of pressure due to instantaneous closure of valve at
7-24 ▪ Hydraulics

the end of the pipe, considering modulus of elasticity of the pipe material E = 2.07 x 20 11
N/m2 and bulk modulus of water K = 2.2 x 109 N/m2. Find also the hoops stress developed in
the pipe wall and the interval of time for the pressure wave to move from the valve to the
inlet end and back to the valve.

Given data:

Q = 25 lps = 25 x 10-3m3/s, d = 18 cm =0.18m, thickness of pipe e = 8 mm = 0.008m.

Solution:

Q 0.025  4
Velocity of flow V = = = 1m / s
A   0.18 2

The pressure wave speed is calculated as:

g 1
C= K
 DK
1+
TE

9.81  220  10 7 1
C=
9810 0.18  220  10 7
1+
0.008  207  10 9
1
C = 1483 .2 = 1332 .4m / s
1.239
Pressure rise p =  CV0 = 1000  1332 .4  1.0 = 1332 .4 kPa
pD 1332 .4  0.18
t = = = 14989 .5kPa
Hoop stress 2T 2  0.008
Pressure head at the end of pipe h = 1332.4/9.81 = 135.8 m

Interval of time for the wave to move from the valve to the inlet and back to the valve could
be:
2 L 2  1000
T = = = 1.50 sec onds
C 1332 .4
Example 7.3

Water is flowing through a pipe of diameter 200 mm and length 800 m with E = 150 GPa, K =
2.2 x 109 N/m2 and thickness of pipe material 12 mm. There is a reservoir at the upstream
end of the pipe and a valve at the downstream end. Under steady-conditions the discharge is
0.05 m3/s, when a valve at the end of the pipe is actuated very rapidly so that water hammer
occurs.
 Unsteady flow in pipes ▪ 7-25

(a) How long does it take for an acoustic wave to travel from the valve to the reservoir
and back to the valve?
(b) Determine the change in pressure at the valve if the valve is opened such that the
discharge is doubled?
(c) Determine the change in pressure at the valve if the valve is closed such that the
discharge is halved?

Solution:
(a) The pressure wave speed is calculated as:

g 1
C= K
 DK
1+
TE

9.81  220  10 7 1
C= 
9810 0.2  220  10 7
1+
0.012  150  10 9
1
C = 1483 .2 = 1329 .5m / s
1.24

Wave travel time from valve to reservoir is

L 800
T= = = 0.60 seconds
C 1329 .5

The velocity of flow is

Q 0.05  4
V = = = 1.59 m / s
A   0.2 2
Pressure rise p =  CV0 = 1000 1329 .5 1.59 = 2113 .9 kPa

(b) pressure change at the valve due to doubling of discharge would be

2  Q 2  0.05  4
V = = = 3.18m / s
A   0.22
Pressure rise p =  CV0 = 1000 1329 .5  3.18 = 4227 .8 kPa

(c) pressure change at the valve due to halving of the discharge would be

0.5  Q 2  0.05  4
V= = = 0.795 m / s
A   0.2 2

Pressure rise p =  CV0 = 1000 1329 .5  0.795 = 1056 .95 kPa

7-26 ▪ Hydraulics

Example 7.4

Oil with specific gravity S = 0.90 and bulk modulus of elasticity K = 1.5 GPa, is flowing at a
rate of 0.5 m3/s through a 500 mm diameter 4 km long pipe with E = 200 GPa and its
thickness 10 mm. A valve at the downstream end of the pipe is partially closed very rapidly
so that a water hammer event is initiated and a pressure wave propagates upstream. If the
magnitude of the wave is not to exceed 600 kPa, determine:

(a) the percent decrease of flow rate tolerable during the valve closure
(b) The time it takes the pressure wave to reach the upstream end of the pipe.

Solution:
The pressure wave speed is calculated as:

g 1
C= K
 DK
1+
TE

9.81  1.5  10 9 1
C=
9810  0.9 0.5  1.5  10 9
1+
0.01  200  10 9
1
C = 1291 = 1100 .0 m / s
1.375

(a) The allowable changes in velocity and discharge due to pressure constraint are:

p 600  10 3
V0 = = = 0.606 sec onds
 C 900  1100

The discharge of flow is

Q   0.5 2
V = Q=  0.606 = 0.119 m 3 / s
A 4
Hence, the tolerable flow rate decrease is

 0.119 
1 −   100 = 76 %
 0.50 

Wave travel time from the downstream to the upstream end of pipes is
L 4000
T = = = 3.64 sec onds
C 1100

Example 7.5
 Unsteady flow in pipes ▪ 7-27

A steel pipe with absolute roughness height e = 0.045 mm, wall thickness 5 cm, 60 cm
diameter and 3.2 km long discharges freely at its lower end under a head of 60 m. What
water hammer pressure would develop if a valve at the outlet were closed in 4 sec and 60
sec? Calculate the stress that would develop in the walls of the pipe near the valve. If the
working stress in steel is 1.1 x 108 N/m2, what would be the minimum time of safe closure of
valve? Take bulk modulus for water and steel as 2.07 x 10 9 N/m2 and 2.07 x 1011 N/m2,
respectively and the viscosity of water 1.1 x 10-6 m2/s. Ignore minor head losses.

Solution:

We need to calculate the mean velocity of flow. The total head is 60 m and it will be lost after
freely discharging along 3200 m pipe. The velocity can be found by only trial and error
solution (see simple pipe problem section). The relative roughness ratio would be
e 0.045
= = 0.000075
D 600
The problem is solved by trial and error solution. Lets us first assuming the friction factor f =
0.0165. Knowing the friction factor (guess value only), velocity of flow can be estimated by
Darcy-Weisbach equation
0.5
 2 gD hf   2  9.81  0.6  60 
0.5
f lV 2 2 gD hf
hf = =V2 =  V =   =  = 3.65m / s
2 gD fl  fl   0.0165  3200 
VD 3.65  0.6
Reynolds number Re = = = 2.0  10 6
 1.1  10 −6
e
= 0.000075 and Re = 2.0  10 the friction factor f = 0.012 from the Moody
6
Now, with this
D
diagram. This corrects the trial value for f. The velocity is recalculated to be:
0.5
 2 gD hf   2  9.81  0.6  60 
0.5

V =   =  = 4.29 m / s
 fl   0.012  3200 
VD 4.29  0.6
The Reynolds number is then Re = = = 2.32  10 6
 1.1  10 −6

e
With the value of = 0.000075 and Re = 2.32  10 6 from the Moody diagram friction
D
factor f = 0.012 appears to be satisfactory. We can also calculate the rate of flow as
Q = AV =   0.32  4.29 = 1.21m 3 / s
The pressure wave speed is calculated as:
7-28 ▪ Hydraulics

g 1
C= K
 DK
1+
TE

9.81  2.07  10 9 1
C=
9810 0.6  2.07  10 9
1+
0.05  2.07  1011
1
C = 1438 .7 = 1359 .5m / s
1.12

Interval of time for the wave to move from the valve to the inlet and back to the valve could
be:
2 L 2  3200
t= = = 4.7seconds
C 1359 .5

(a) For time 4 sec, it is a rapid closure of valve then the pressure rise would be

p =  CV = 1000 1359 .5  4.29 = 5832 .25 kPa

The pressure at the valve is the sum of static pressure and the rise in pressure due to
sudden closure of valve, i.e.,

p valve=  H +  CV = 9.81 60 + 5832.25 = 6420.85 kPa

p valve  D 6420 .8  0.6

Hoop stress  t = 2T
=
2  0.05
= 38524 .8.5kPa

(b) For time 60 sec, it is a gradual closure of valve. A t = 60 sec is in excess of 2L/C. Let
C = 2L/ t , the pressure rise can be calculated as:

 2 LV 1000  2  3200  4.29

p = = = 457 .6 kPa
t 60
The pressure at the valve is the sum of static pressure and the rise in pressure due to
closure of valve in 60 seconds, i.e.,

 2 LV
p valve=  H + = 9.81  60 + 457 .6 =1046 .2 kPa
60
p valve  D 1046 .2  0.6
Hoop stress  t = 2T
=
2  0.05
= 6277 .2 kPa
 Unsteady flow in pipes ▪ 7-29

To calculate the minimum time of safe closure, first we need to find the differences of
working stress (allowable stress) and the stress created due to the static pressure as:
p ststic  D
 t =  working −  static = 1.1  10 8 −
2T

588.6  0.6
 t = 1.1  10 5 −
2  0.05

 t = 1.110 8 − 353.16 = 109646 .8 kPa

p  D D   2 LV  2L V D
 t = =  t=
2T 2T  t   t  2T

2  3200 1000  4.29  0.6 16473600

t= = = 1.5 seconds ,
109646000  2  0.05 10964600

This is the minimum time of safe closure.

Example 7.6

A 20 m long, 75 mm diameter and 6 mm thick steel pipe conveys water from a large
reservoir, held at a constant head of 6 m. The rate of flow is 0.022 m 3/s through a variable
speed valve located 10 m from the supply tank to a second tank with constant head at 2 m
as shown in Figure below. For the instantaneous closing of the valve, determine the
theoretical magnitudes of the pressure wave propagated away from the valve under
frictionless conditions. Draw pressure time curve at point 0.5 m, 2.5 m and 5.0 m from the
upstream tank considering K = 2 x 109 Pa and E = 2.04 x 1011 Pa ( both steady and
unsteady case)
6m

2m

Valve

A O B

10 m 10 m

Solution:

The velocity of flow is calculated as

Q 0.022  4
V = = = 4.98m / s
A   0.075 2
7-30 ▪ Hydraulics

The pressure wave speed (celerity of wave) is calculated as:

g 1
C= K
 DK
1+
TE

9.81  2.0  10 9 1
C=
9810 0.075  2.0  10 9
1+
0.006  204  10 9
1
C = 1414 .2 = 1334 .7 m / s
1.1225

Wave travel time from valve to reservoir is

L 10
T= = = 0.0075seconds
C 1334 .7

Now, if the valve is close instantaneously, the rise of dynamic pressure at the valve is

p =  CV = 1000 1334.7  4.98 = 6646.8 kPa = 6.646 MPa  677 m head

The pressure at the valve is the sum of static pressure and the rise in pressure (dynamic
pressure) due to sudden closure of valve. The static pressure is just the head times its
specific weight i.e,

p valve=  H = 9.81 4.0 = 39.24. kPa

This is about 170 times less than the dynamic pressure. The total rise in pressure is then:

p valve=  H +  CV = 9.81 60 + 6646 .8 = 6686 .04kPa

This is the rise is pressure under frictionless condition, because head losses are not
considered. In reality, the pressure rise could slightly be less than that of an ideal case.
Figure below shows the starting of pressure wave travelling to

the reservoir from the valve.

6m Dynamic pressure
head 677 m

5m Static head 4 m
2.5 m
Valve

A O

10 m
 Unsteady flow in pipes ▪ 7-31

Now, we can calculate the time history of pressure wave propagation for the distance from
0.5m; 2.5m; and 5.0m from the upstream tank.

(a) For the distance 5 m from the tank, (L/2), the reaching time of the pressure wave
would be
L 10.0
T= = = 0.00375 seconds
2C 1334 .7
Once the wave reached at a distance 5 m from the reservoir, it will move forward to the
reservoir and back from the reservoir to this point. During this time the pressure is both
dynamic as well as static at this point. The duration of time for this point with such pressure
is T = L , because the length of the pipe from that point to reservoir is L/2 (reaching and
C
backing length of the pipe from this point is L). Once the pressure wave reached this point
form the reservoir, the pressure will reduced to static at this point. The duration of time with
static pressure from this point to the valve is T = L .
C

Once the wave reaches the valve at time T = 2L/C, the velocity has magnitude –V
throughout the pipe (see wave propagation). Adjacent to the valve, which is now closed, the
velocity reduced to zero, and the pressure reduces by the amount Δp. The low-pressure
wave (negative pressure wave) travel upstream to the reservoir at speed C. The reaching
time of the wave to the point 5 m from the reservoir is again 0.00375 seconds (L/2C). The
negative pressure will start from the valve and moving toward reservoir. The duration of time
for this point with such pressure is T = L , because the length of the pipe from that point to
C
reservoir is L/2 (reaching and backing length of the pipe from this point is L). This process
continues for an ideal case, but because of friction and hence, head loss the amount of
pressure wave will be reduced. The summaries of calculation of reaching time of wave,
duration of wave and other information for points mentioned above are given in the table
below. Figure below shows the graphical representation of the pressure wave variation with
time for different points mentioned above. Table 7.1 provides the summary of the pressure
wave variation.
7-32 ▪ Hydraulics

Duration L/C = 0.00749

P (+)
Static head
Duration L/C = 0.00749
For 5 m distance t, Sec
0.00375 0.011 0.0187

5/C
P (–)

0.02619
2L/C = 0.0149

Duration L/2C = 0.00375

P (+)

1.5L/C = 0.0112

For 2.5 m distance t, Sec

0.0056 0.0093 0.0205

7.5/C
P (–)

0.02425
2L/C = 0.0149

Duration L/10C = 0.000749

P (+)

1.9LC = 0.0142

For 0.5 m distance t, Sec

0.0071 0.00785 0.02205

9.5/C
P (–)
0.022799

2L/C = 0.0149
 Unsteady flow in pipes ▪ 7-33

Table 7.1: Summary of the pressure wave variation.

Distance Reaching time of Leaving time Duration time of Duration of Reaching time Leaving time of
from the the wave from of (+) pressure time with static of the (-) wave (-) pressure
reservoir the valve, sec. pressure, sec Both (+ and (-) pressure from the valve
L 3L L L
= 0.00749
5L
= 0.0187
7L
5.0 m = 0.00375 = 0.011 = 0.00749 = 0.026
2C 2C C C 2C 2C

3L 5L L 1.5 L 11L 13 L
2.5 m = 0.00564 = 0.0093 = 0.00375 = 0.0112 = 0.0205 = 0.0225
4C 4C 2C C 4C 4C

19 L 21L 0.1L 1.9 L 59 L 61L

0.5 m = 0.00714 = 0.00786 = 0.000749 = 0.0142 = 0.022 = 0.0228
20C 20C C C 20C 20C

Example 7.9

Water is taking from a reservoir having an elevation of 50 m with a pipe of 1500 m long, 0.5
m diameter and 0.06 m thickness at the rate of 0.08 m3/s as shown in Figure below. The
point 3 is located at an elevation of 33.3 m. Develop temporal variation of water hammer
pressure wave at the point 3 with valve closing time 2 second, located at the end of the pipe.
What would be the hammer pressure at this point for 3 seconds time and hoop stress,
considering K = 2.07 x 109 Pa and E = 2.07 x 1011 Pa, taking friction factor f = 0.013.
50 m

33.3 m 3

0.0m

2
7-34 ▪ Hydraulics

Solution:

The velocity of flow is calculated as

Q 0.8  4 V2
V = = = 4 . 07 m / s  = 0.85m
A   0 .5 2 2g
The pressure wave speed (celerity of wave) is calculated as:

g 1
C= K
 DK
1+
TE

9.81  2.07  10 9 1
C=
9810 0.5  2.07  10 9
1+
0.05  2.07  1011
1
C = 1438 .7 = 1371 .7 m / s
1 .1

Critical time of closure

2 L 2 1500
T= = = 2.18seconds
C 1371 .7

So the given valve closing time 2 seconds is rapid closing of valve.

First of all it is necessary to calculate the static head for three with consideration of major
and minor head losses.

p1 v12 p v2 f Lv32
z1 + + = z3 + 3 + 3 +
 2g  2 g 2 gd
p3 v32  f L 
= z1 − z 3 −  + 1
 2g  d 
p3  0.013  500 
= 50 − 33.3 − 0.85 + 1 = 4.82 m
  0.5 

The corresponding pressure at point 3 is then would be 4.7x104 Pa (also called static head
when there is normal flow condition). Now, for instantaneously closure of valve, the rise of
dynamic pressure at the valve is:

p =  CV = 1000 1371.7  4.07 = 5.583 MPa

The corresponding pressure head would then be 569.1m.

 Unsteady flow in pipes ▪ 7-35

The pressure at the valve is the sum of static pressure and the rise in pressure (dynamic
pressure) due to sudden closure of valve.

p valve=  H +  CV = 9810  4.82 + 5582819 = 5.63MPa

Reaching time of the pressure wave from valve to point 3 is

L − L' 1500 − 500
t= = = 0.73 sec
C 1371 .7
Once the wave reached at point 3 from the valve, it will move forward to the reservoir and
back from the reservoir to this point. During this time the positive pressure is both dynamic
as well as static at this point. The duration time is then,
2 L' 2  500
t' = = = 0.73 sec
C 1371 .7

The time of start of negative pressure for point 3 is:

2 L 2  1500
t' ' = = = 2.18 sec
C 1371 .7

It means at point 3, the duration of static pressure time is the (2.18-.73 = 1.45 sec. For 3
seconds, the pressure at point 3 would be negative. The value of the pressure is:

p = − CV +  H = − 5582819− 9810 4.82 = −5.53 MPa

The hoop stress for 3 second time is then

p  D − 5535534 .8  0.5
= = = −2.7677  10 7 Pa
2T 2  0.05
7-36 ▪ Hydraulics

Unsolved Numerical Problems

1. A concrete pipe 3.0 km long and 300 mm in diameter discharges into a reservoir at the
rate of 8 million liters per day. Find out the pressure rise in pipe if the pipe is gradually
closed by operating a valve located at the end of reservoir in 20 seconds.
2. Water flows from a reservoir along a rigid horizontal pipeline. The pipe is 1000 m long
and has a valve on the downstream end. Initially the head at the valve is 5 m, and the
head loss between the valve and the reservoir is 20 m. The pipe is 200mm in diameter
and has f = 0.015. If the valve is completely closed in a period of 1 second, compute the
maximum pressure in the pipe just upstream of the valve, assuming incompressible
flow. (238.166m).
3. Water is flowing in a pipe of 600 mm diameter, 3.0 km long and 6 mm thick at a velocity
of 3.5m/s. Assuming the value of bulk modulus of elasticity of water as 2.06 GPa and
that of pipe material is 206 GPa and the. Calculate the pressure rise in the pipe when
the valve located at its end is closed by 3 and 10 seconds.
4. A 1000m long, 250mm diameter horizontal pipe discharges through a valve. The
reservoir head is 55m, and the head just upstream of the valve is 5m. Valve movements
begin to take place, resulting in the valve area reduction by a factor of 0.5 each sound
(i.e. half its original area after 1 sec, a quarter of it after 2 sec, etc). Compute the
pressure immediately upstream of the valve 2 sec after the closure begins. (f = 0.015
and c = 1000m/s).
If the valve is fully closed after 3 sec, what will be the pressure upstream of the valve
after 4 seconds? (60m, 340 m).
5. Two reservoir with a head difference of 100m are connected by a 500m long, 500mm
diameter horizontal pipe. A valve is located just upstream of the lower reservoir, and
initially controls discharge to 200 l/s. If the valve is completely closed in 3 seconds,
compute the pressure rise immediately upstream of the valve after 4 seconds. Ignore
friction in the pipe, and assume a wave speed of 1000 m/s. (77.5 m)
6. A 900mm dia steel pipe carries water at the rate of 1.5m 3/s. The pipe wall has a
thickness of 1cm. The elastic modules of steel is 2.11x106 kg/cm2 and the bulk modulus
of water is 2.15 x 104 kg/cm2. Determine the incresase in pressure if the valve at the
end of 3.5km long pipeline is closed in 3.5 seconds.
7. A steel pipe of 3.5 km long 80 cm diameter and 1 cm wall thickness conveys water at
the rate of 1.75 cumecs. Determine the increase in pressure when a valve provided
downstream is closed suddenly, Consider pipe to be elastics and take K = 2GN per sq.
m., Modulus of elasticity E = 200GN per sq.m.
8. Water (density 1000 kg/m3, bulk modulus 2.2 GPa) is flowing at 0.5 m/s in a pipe when
the flow is suddenly halted. Assuming that the walls of the pipe are sufficiently thick for it
to be approximated as rigid. Find a) the speed of water hammer waves; b) the pressure
rise. (1480 m/s, 7.42 x 105 Pa).
 Unsteady flow in pipes ▪ 7-37

9. Repeat the question no 8) for pipes of internal diameter D = 200 mm and wall thickness
of 5 mm made of :
i) Steel (E= 210 GPa); ii) PVC (E = 2.6 GPa),
(1250 m/s and 6.23 x 105 Pa; 251 m/s and 1.26 x 105 Pa).
10. A main line of concrete, 5000m long and 30cm diameter, discharge water into a
reservoir at the rate of 10 million liters per day. The valve provided at the end of the
main line is closed in 20 seconds. If the test pressure for concrete main is 30m, indicate
whether there is any risk of pipe burst. Take Bulk modulus of water as 20x10 8N/m2.
11. Water flowing in a 3000m length cast iron pipe with velocity of 1.5m/sec is closed at its
outlet with time of closer of 20sec. Find the rising pressure in pipe. If the maximum
allowable pressure in the cast iron is 25m of water, check whether the pipe will burst or
not. Take the value of c = 1400m/s.
12. A steel pipeline of length 1155 m discharges water at velocity 2 m/s to atmosphere
through a valve. The pipe has diameter 500 mm and wall thickness 10 mm. The bulk
modulus of water is 2.0 GPa and the Young’s modulus of the pipe material is 200GPa. If
a sudden closure of the valve occurs,
a) determine the speed of water hammer waves;
b) show pressure variations in time at the points immediately next to the valve and 866
m upstream of the valve. Neglect friction in the pipe.
(1155 m/s; p = 2.31 x 106 Pa, t = 1 sec)
13. A steel pipe 1.2 m in diameter, 1000m long conveys 1.4 m3/s of water under head of
300m as shown. A valve at the end can be expected to close suddenly. Estimate the
water hammer pressure due to its closure. Also determine the minimum thickness of the
wall needed to withstand the pressure involved. Consider E = 210 GPA, K = 2.10 GPa
and σw = 2.10 kN/mm2.In such condition, describe and draw the pressure versus time
diagram for locations M, P, K as shown in Figure below. Three points M, P and K are
located at a distances 100m, 400m and 600m from the reservoir respectively.

300 m

600 m
400
Valve

M P K
1000 m
7-38 ▪ Hydraulics

14. Water is pumped between two reservoirs in a pipeline with an area of 1 m2, at a velocity
of 3 m/s. The static head difference between the reservoirs to be overcome by the pump
is 100 m. The pump is located just after the upstream reservoir. If the friction losses in
the pipe, which is 500 m long, can be ignored, what will be the head immediately
downstream of the pump two seconds after a sudden pump failure, assuming that
reverse flow does not occur through the pump? Take c = 1000m/s. (406 m).
15. Two reservoirs are connected by a 1000 m long horizontal pipeline. The upstream
reservoir level is 100 m, and the downstream reservoir level is 50 m (the pipe must be
buried very deep). A valve is located in the middle of pipeline, and is set such that the
initial velocity is 3 m/s. If the valve is closed over a period of 2 seconds, what will be the
pressure upstream and downstream of the valve at closure? Assume that f is 0.015, and
the wave speed is 1000 m/s .The pipe diameter is 500 mm.
(Hu/s = 328m, Hd/s = -178m).