BUS 272

Motivation

Melissa McCrae, EdD

Motivation
Motivation is the intensity, direction, and persistence of effort
a person shows in reaching a goal.
• Intensity: how hard a person tries
• Direction: where effort is channeled
• Persistence: how long effort is maintained
Theory X and Y
• Theory X is the assumption that employees dislike work, will
attempt to avoid it, and must be coerced, controlled, or
threatened with punishment to achieve goals.
• Theory Y is the assumption that employees like work, are
creative, seek responsibility, and will exercise self-direction
and self-control if they are committed to the objectives

… Individual + Situation
Motivators
Motivators
Motivation theories

Needs Maslow Hierarchy of Needs

and
Herzberg Two Factor Theory
Process
McClelland’s Theory of Needs
Maslow’s
hierarchy Self-Actualization
of
needs

But …NO
evidence!!
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene
(Two-Factor) Theory

Hygiene
Motivators
factors

But …research
does not
support!
McClelland’s theory of needs
Need for achievement
• The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of
standards, to strive to succeed
Need for power
• The need to make others behave in a way that they would
not have behaved otherwise
Need for affiliation
• The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships
Summary of needs theories
• All the needs theories propose a similar idea: Individuals have
needs that, when unsatisfied, have the potential to create
motivation
• Maslow: lower-order needs must be satisfied before higher-
order needs
• Herzberg: Hygiene factors met to avoid dissatisfaction;
motivators lead to satisfaction
• McClelland: People vary in the types of needs they have:
achievement, affiliation, or power
Summary of impact
• Maslow: wide recognition among practising managers, no
evidence, criticized for data collection/interpretation
• Herzberg: popular, satisfaction versus engagement,
empowerment, questionable research (assumes a link between
satisfaction and productivity that was not measured or
demonstrated)
• McClelland: Mixed empirical support, but theory is consistent
with our knowledge of individual differences among people.
Good empirical support on needs achievement
Motivation theories
Expectancy
Goal-setting
Needs Self-efficacy
and Reinforcement
Process Equity
Fair Process/Justice
Self-determination
Expectancy Theory
Expectancy Theory
Goal setting theory
Goals:
• Direct attention
• Regulate effort
• Increase
persistence
• Encourage
development of
action plans
SMART STRETCH
MBO
Goal Research
• Specific goals when not too complex
• Difficult , when attainable
• Feedback
• Set together, assigned, or self set = equally effective
• Goal commitment
• Financial incentives for difficult goals
SMART Goals
• Specific – What needs to be accomplished? Steps? Do… by…
• Measurable – By how much or how many? (educated guess)
• Achievable – Realistic to achieve
• Relevant – Why does this matter? What is the impact?
• Time-bound – When will you start and finish?

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MBO
• Specific goals (tangible, verifiable, and measurable)
• Participative decision-making
• Explicit time period
• Performance feedback
Self-efficacy

Low High
Self-efficacy

• Enactive mastery
• Vicarious modeling
• Verbal persuasion
• Arousal
Reinforcement Theory Behaviour is a
function of its
consequences
Positive reinforcement
• Following a response with something pleasant
Negative reinforcement
• Following a response by the termination or withdrawal of
something unpleasant
Punishment
• Causing an unpleasant condition in an attempt to eliminate an
undesirable behaviour
Extinction
• Eliminating any reinforcement that is maintaining a behaviour
 Reinforcement Theory
Reinforcement Type Example
Positive reinforcement (+) A manager praises an employee for a job well done.
Negative reinforcement (−) An instructor asks a question and a student looks through
lecture notes to avoid being called on. This student has
learned that looking busily through notes prevents the
instructor from calling on the student.
Punishment (+) A manager gives an employee a two-day suspension
from work without pay for showing up drunk.
Extinction (−) An instructor ignores students who raise their hands
to ask questions. Hand-raising becomes extinct.
Reinforcement Theory
• Continuous reinforcement reinforces desired behaviour each
and every time it is demonstrated
• Intermittent reinforcement: a desired behaviour is
reinforced often enough to make the behaviour worth
repeating, but not every time it is demonstrated
Reinforcement

Reinforcement Theory
Schedule Nature of Reinforcement Effect on Behaviour Example
Continuous Reward given after each Fast learning of new Compliments
desired behaviour behaviour with rapid
extinction
Fixed-interval Reward given at fixed time Average and irregular Weekly
intervals performance with rapid paycheques
extinction
Variable-interval Reward given at variable Moderately high and stable Pop quizzes
time intervals performance with slow
extinction
Fixed-ratio Reward given at fixed High and stable performance Piece-rate pay
amounts of output attained quickly with rapid
extinction
Variable-ratio Reward given at variable Very high performance with Commissioned
amounts of output slow extinction sales
 Equity Theory

• Self • I am really good at my job

• Other • I am required to work
• Inside long hours
• Outside • Most people in my role
are paid $100,000
• My coworkers in different
roles are paid $85,000
• I am paid $70,000
• What should I do?
Correcting Inequity
• Change input
• Change outcome
• Adjust perceptions of self
• Adjust perceptions of others
• Choose a different referent
• Leave
Justice = Overall perception of what is fair in the workplace

Distributive
• amount and allocation of rewards among individuals
Procedural
• process to determine the distribution of rewards
Informational justice
• degree to which employees are provided truthful explanations for
decisions
Interpersonal justice
• degree to which employees are treated with dignity and respect
Justice
Self-Determination Theory
• Self-determination theory is a theory of motivation that is
concerned with the beneficial effects of intrinsic motivation
and the harmful effects of extrinsic motivation
• If a previously enjoyed task feels more like an obligation than
a freely chosen activity, it will undermine motivation
• People prefer to feel they have control over their actions
• Much research on self-determination theory in O B has focused
on cognitive evaluation theory (offering extrinsic rewards aka
pay for work effort that was previously rewarding intrinsically
will tend to decrease motivation)
Self-Determination Theory
Motivation “The science shows that the
secret to high performance
Intrinsic isn’t our biological drive or
our reward-and-punishment
drive, but our third drive –
or our deep-seated desire to
direct our own lives, to
Extrinsic? extend and expand our
abilities, and to make a
contribution”
(Pink, 2009, p. 144-145)
Motivation
Recognize individual differences
• Employees have different needs
• Don’t treat them all alike
• Spend the time necessary to understand what’s important to
each employee
Use goals and feedback
Allow employees to participate in decisions that affect them
Link rewards to desired performance
Check the system for equity
JCM
Job Design
• Job enlargement (horizontal loading)
• Job rotation
• Job enrichment (vertical loading)
• Relational Job Design
• Alternative Work Arrangements (Flextime, Job Sharing,
Telecommuting)
Employee Involvement & Participation
• Participative processes that use the input of employees and
are intended to increase employee commitment to an
organization’s success
• Participative management is a process in which subordinates
share a significant degree of decision-making power with their
immediate superiors
• Representative participation is a system in which employees
participate in organizational decision-making through a small
group of representative employees
What about $$money$$??
Money can strongly motivate people to achieve
specific goals

BUT use it carefully!

Beware of mismatch between rewards and goals

AND motivation theories differ across cultures

We hope for But we reward
Teamwork and collaboration The best team members
Innovative thinking and risk-taking Proven methods and not making mistakes
Development of people skills Technical achievements and accomplishments
Employee involvement and Tight control over operations and resources
empowerment
High achievement Another year’s effort
Long-term growth; environmental Quarterly earnings
responsibility
Commitment to total quality Shipping on schedule, even with defects
Candour; surfacing bad news early Reporting good news, whether it’s true or not;
agreeing with the manager, whether or not they are
right
Employee Recognition Programs
• Gifts
• Awards
• Frequently, but still special
• Examples of poor implementation????
• D: fairness, those left out

Human Resource Management

Four
Drives
Nohria
•
et al
2008
The Power of Small Wins (Amabile & Kramer, 2011)
Progress, even small wins, has a huge impact on how
people see their day and their work

Single most important predictor and inner work life is

making progress on meaningful work

Small wins boost inner work life, setbacks have a larger

negative effect

40
Motivation & Meaningful Progress
“The managerial actions
that constitute catalysts
and nourishers are not
particularly mysterious;
they may sound like
Management 101, if not
just common sense and
common decency. But our
diary study reminded us
how often they are ignored
or forgotten.”
(Amabile & Kramer, 2011, p. 77)

Amabile & Kramer, 2011 41

Motivation & Meaningful Progress
Catalysts (actions that Inhibitors:
support work):
• Failing to provide
• Setting clear goals
support
• Allowing autonomy
• Actively interfering
• Providing sufficient
resources and time with work
• Helping with the work
• Openly learning from
problems and successes
• Allowing a free exchange
of ideas
42
Motivation & Meaningful Progress
Nourishers (acts of Toxins:
interpersonal support): • Disrespect
• Respect and recognition • Discouragement
• Encouragement • Disregard for emotions
• Emotional comfort • Interpersonal conflict
• Opportunities for
affiliation

43
Motivation & Meaningful Progress
Undermining meaningfulness of work:
• Dismissing importance – Mediocrity signals
• Reducing sense of ownership – Micromanagers (fail to
allow autonomy, ask about work without helping,
blame, hoard information)
• Shifting goals (will we finish?)
• Not keeping ees up to date

44
Next Class
• Chapter 6 – Groups & Teamwork

45
Pay for performance
• Pay linked to productivity, profitability, performance
• Top performers paid the most, therefore paid the most
• Individual incentives (timed or spot)
• Group incentives
• Organizational incentives
• Profit-sharing
• Gain sharing $
• ESOPs $
$
$
$

Human Resource Management

Pay structures
• Piecework
• A: easy to calculate, paying for outcomes
• D: cutting corners, incorrect estimates
• Group incentives
• Performance of best, worst, average
• Final output
• A: encourage others to perform
• D: can’t control own bonuses

Human Resource Management

Pay structures
• Commission only:
• A: results, costs proportional to sales, attract performers, easy to calculate
• D: pushy, short-term, less team work, support
• Merit raise
• A: rewards performance
• D: appraisal system, politicking, fairness

Human Resource Management

Pay structures
• Profit-sharing (20% Can)
• A: easy, OCB
• D: line of sight, actual effect, annual payout, diminishing returns
• ESOPs (50% Can)
• A: ownership, focus on quality
• D: Line of sight
• Gainsharing
• A: cost savings if stable, measurable

Human Resource Management