Section-1

I. Introduction
Basic concepts used in understanding crime, criminality and criminal behavior

Crime:
“Crime is an intentional act in violation of the criminal law, committed without defense or
excuse and penalized by the state as felony or misdemeanor.”

(Paul Tappan)

1
How criminologists view crime?
There are three most common concepts of crime used by criminologists which are as follows:

1. Consensus view of crime:

According to this view:

 The law defines crime

 The law reflects public opinion
 Agreement exists on outlawed behavior
 Law apply to all citizens equally

2. Conflict view of crime

According to this view:

 The law is the tool of ruling class

 Crime is a politically defined concept
 “Real crimes” are not outlawed
 Law is used to control the underclass

e.g: street crimes (burglary, robbery and larceny) are penalized but real crimes which cause
more damages (price fixing, police brutality and corruption) often do not.

3. Interactionist view of crime

According to this view:

 Moral entrepreneurs define crime

 Crimes are illegal because society defines them that way
 The definition of crime evolves according to the moral standard of those in power.

Considering all the three school of thoughts the definition of crime becomes:

“Crime is a violation of societal rules of behavior as interpreted and expressed by a criminal

legal code created by people holding social and political power. Individuals who violate these
rules are subject to sanctions by state authority, social stigma and loss of status”.

2
Criminality:
Criminality is a clinical or scientific, rather than legal, term, and one that can be defined
independently of legal definitions of crimes. Crime is an intentional act of commission or
omission contrary to the law; criminality is a property of individuals that signals the
willingness to commit those and other harmful acts.

(Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990)

Criminal Behavior:
“Criminal behavior is behavior in violation of the criminal law. . . . It is not a crime unless it is
prohibited by the criminal law [which] is defined conventionally as a body of specific rules
regarding human conduct which have been promulgated by political authority, which apply
uniformly to all members of the classes to which the rules refer, and which are enforced by
punishment administered by the state”.

(Edwin Sutherland and Donald Cressey)

3
 II. Understanding criminology
Definition and meaning and scope of criminology; Criminology and criminal law; crime as
social problem; Deviance, Sin, Vice, Evil, Norms, Values, Security (Physical, social and
economic)

Definition and meaning and scope of criminology

Meaning:
The term ‘criminology’ is the combination of two Latin terms, ‘crimin’ which means ‘accusation
or guilt’ and ‘ology’ which means ‘study of’. So, ‘criminology’ means study of accusation or
guilt. Theorists believe that the word criminology was coined in 1889 by a Frenchman, Paul
Topinard, to describe the study of criminal body types within the field of anthropology

Definition
According to Webster, 1959 criminology is “the scientific study of crime and criminals”.

Preeminent criminologists Edwin Sutherland and Donald Cressey define criminology as:

“Criminology is the body of knowledge regarding crime as a social phenomenon. It includes

within its scope the processes of making laws, of breaking laws, and of reacting toward the
breaking of laws. . . . The objective of criminology is the development of a body of general
and verified principles and of other types of knowledge regarding this process of law, crime,
and treatment.”

In other words criminology can be defined as an academic discipline that uses the scientific
method to study the nature, extent, causes and control of criminal of criminal behavior.

4
Scope of criminology:

5
 Criminology and criminal law

Definition:
“The criminal law is a body of specific rules regarding human conduct which have been
promulgated by the political authority which apply uniformity to all members of the classes
to which the rules refer and which are enforced by punishment administered by the state.”

(Sutherland)

Division of Law:
In contemporary society, the law governs almost all phases of human enterprise, including
commerce, family life, property transfer, and the regulation of interpersonal conflict.

1- Civil law:
The set of rules governing relations between private parties, including both individuals and
organizations (such as business enterprises or corporations), is known as civil law. The civil law
is used to resolve, control, and shape such personal interactions as contracts, wills and trusts,
property ownership, and commerce.

2- Criminal Law:
The set of rules that govern relationship between individual and the government is called
criminal law. It is divided into two parts:

 Substantive criminal law:

The branch of the law that defines crimes and their punishment is known as substantive
criminal law. It involves such issues as the mental and physical elements of crime, crime
categories, and criminal defenses.

 Procedural criminal law:

Those laws that set out the basic rules of practice in the criminal justice system are procedural
criminal laws. Some elements of the law of criminal procedure are the:

 rules of evidence
 the law of arrest
 the law of search and seizure
 Questions of appeal, jury selection, and the right to counsel.

6
Criminal Law in Pakistan:
 The substantive criminal law of Pakistan is known as “Pakistan Penal Code, 1860” (PPC)
 The procedural criminal law of Pakistan is known as “Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898”
(CrPC).

Elements of criminal law:

 Legal Definition of a Crime

Today, in all jurisdictions, the legal definition of a crime involves the elements of the criminal
acts that must be proven in a court of law if the defendant is to be found guilty

 Actus Reus

To satisfy the requirements of actus reus, guilty actions must be voluntary. Even though an act
may cause harm or damage, it is not considered a crime if it was done by accident or was an
involuntary act. For example, it would not be a crime if a motorist obeying all the traffic laws hit
a child who ran into the street.

 Mens Rea

In most situations, for an act to constitute a crime, it must be done with criminal intent, or
mens rea. Intent, in the legal sense, can mean carrying out an act intentionally, knowingly, and
willingly.

 Strict Liability

Though common-law crimes require that both the actus reus and the mens rea must be present
before a person can be convicted of a crime, several crimes defined by statute do not require
mens rea. In these cases, the person accused is guilty simply by doing what the statute
prohibits; intent does not enter the picture. These strict liability crimes, or public welfare
offenses, include violations of health and safety regulations, traffic laws, and narcotic control
laws. For example, a person stopped for speeding is guilty of breaking the traffic laws regardless
of whether he or she intended to go over the speed limit or did it by accident. The underlying
purpose of these laws is to protect the public; therefore, intent is not required.

7
  Criminal Defenses

When people defend themselves against criminal charges, they must refute one or more of the
elements of the crime of which they have been accused. A number of different approaches can
be taken to create this defense.

 Defendants may deny the actus reus by arguing that they were falsely accused and that
the real culprit has yet to be identified.
 Defendants may claim that although they engaged in the criminal act of which they are
accused, they lacked the mens rea (intent) needed to be found guilty of the crime.
 Insanity, intoxication, and ignorance are types of excuse defenses. A defendant might
argue that because he suffered from a mental impairment that prevented him from
understanding the harmfulness of his acts, he lacked sufficient mens rea to be found
guilty as charged.
 Another type of defense is justification. Here the individual usually admits committing
the criminal act but maintains that he or she should not be held criminally liable
because the act was justified. Among the justification defenses are necessity, duress,
self-defense, and entrapment.

Importance of criminal law:

Acts prohibited by the criminal law constitute behaviors considered unacceptable and
impermissible by those in power. People who engage in these acts are eligible for severe
sanctions. By outlawing these behaviors, the government expects to achieve a number of social
goals:

 Enforcing social control:

Those who hold political power rely on criminal law to formally prohibit behaviors believed to
threaten societal well-being or to challenge their authority

 Discouraging revenge:

By punishing people who infringe on the rights, property, and freedom of others, the law shifts
the burden of revenge from the individual to the state.

 Expressing public opinion and morality:

Criminal laws re ect constantly changing public opinions and moral values. Criminal law is used
to codify these changes.

8
  Deterring criminal behavior

Criminal law has a social control function. It can control, restrain, and direct human behavior
through its sanctioning power. The threat of punishment associated with violating the law is
designed to prevent crimes before they occur.

 Punishing wrongdoing

The deterrent power of criminal law is tied to the authority it gives the state to sanction or
punish offenders. Those who violate criminal law are subject to physical coercion and
punishment.

 Maintaining social order:

All legal systems are designed to support and maintain the boundaries of the social system they
serve. It is the needs of those who control the existing economic and political system than a
representation of some idealized moral code.

 Providing restoration

Victims deserve restitution or compensation for their pain and loss. The criminal law can
be used to restore to victims what they have lost.

9
 Definitions
Deviance:
‘Deviance’ refers to those actions that depart from social norms, values and beliefs. Included
within the broad spectrum of deviant acts are behaviors ranging from violent crimes to joining a
nudist colony.

All crimes are not deviant and many deviant acts are neither illegal nor criminal.

For example:

A significant percentage of population use drugs. It may be illegal but can it actually be considered
deviance? No. So, all crimes are nor deviant.

Similarly,

Suppose a passerby witnesses someone floundering in the river and makes no rescue attempt. It is
deviance but not illegal because citizen is not required by law to risk his life for others.

10
Sin:
A sin is a deliberate act against religious or moral laws or in other words transgression against
divine laws.

A sin may or may not be a crime.

For example:

Drinking is sin (in Islam and Christianity) but not crime in European countries but it is crime in
Pakistan.

Vice:
The ‘Vice’ is originated from a Latin word ‘vitium’ which means ‘failing or defect’. Vice is the
behavior generally considered immoral, rude, taboo, depraved or degrading in the associated
society.

In UK, this term is often used by law and law enforcement to refer to criminal offences related
to prostitution pornography, whereas, in the US it refers to drugs, alcohol and gambling.

Evil:

11
III. Crime and criminals
Habitual, Professional and occasional criminals

White-collar crimes, corporate crimes and organized crimes

12
 IV. Crime and criminality: theoretical perspective
Biological theories, psychological theories and sociological theories

Crime and Criminality: Theoretical perspective

Classical Criminology

13
Biological Theories/Biosocial Theories
The school of “positive criminology” during mid nineteenth century introduced biological
explanation of criminality under medical conditions. Cesare Lombroso’s “born criminal” was the
first step towards the biological method to the study of crime.

Modern biological theorists consider some biological factors leading to crime and on the basis
of them biological theories are further divided into following theories:

1. Biochemical

Biological theorists believe biochemical conditions, including both those that are genetically
predetermined and those acquired through diet and environment, control and in uence
antisocial behavior. Some of the more important biochemical factors that have been linked to
criminality are set out in detail here:

 Smoking and Drinking: Maternal alcohol abuse and/or smoking during gestation have
long been linked to prenatal damage and subsequent antisocial behavior in
adolescence.
 Exposure to Chemicals and Minerals: Biological criminologists maintain that minimum
levels of minerals and chemicals are needed for normal brain functioning and growth,
especially in the early years of life. Over or undersupply of certain chemicals and
minerals—including sodium, mercury potassium, calcium, amino acids, monoamines,
and peptides—can lead to depression, mania, cognitive problems, memory loss, and
abnormal sexual activity.
e.g.: Research shows that excessive intake of certain metals such as iron and manganese
may be linked to neurological dysfunctions such as intellectual impairment and
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). These neurological conditions are
believed to be a precursor of delinquent and criminal behaviors.
 Diet and Crime: Food intake and diet are related to crime. Biocriminologists who believe
in a diet–aggression association claim that in every segment of society there are violent,
aggressive, and amoral people whose improper food, vitamin, and mineral intake may
be responsible for their antisocial behavior. If diet could be improved, they believe, the
frequency of violent behavior would be reduced.
 Sugar Intake: Research efforts allege a sugar– violence association. Many people who
maintain diets high in sugar and carbohydrates are not violent or crime prone. In some
cases, in fact, sugar intake has been found to possibly reduce or curtail violent
tendencies.

14
  Glucose Metabolism/Hypoglycemia: Hypoglycemia occurs when glucose in the blood
falls below levels necessary for normal and effcient brain functioning. Research studies
have linked hypoglycemia to outbursts of antisocial behavior and violence.48 Several
studies have related assaults and fatal sexual offenses to hypoglycemic reactions.
 Hormonal Influences: Biological criminologists suggest that abnormal levels of male sex
hormones (androgens) do in fact produce aggressive behavior. One area of concern has
been testosterone, the most abundant androgen, which controls secondary sex
characteristics, such as facial hair and voice timbre. Excessive levels of testosterone
have been linked to violence and aggression. Studies of prisoners show that
testosterone levels are higher in men who commit violent crimes than in the general
population. Hormonal differences may be a key to understanding gender differences in
the crime rate.
Hormonal research has not been limited to male offenders. The suspicion has long
existed that the onset of the menstrual cycle triggers excessive amounts of the female
sex hormones, which affect antisocial, aggressive behavior. This condition is commonly
referred to as premenstrual syndrome, or PMS.
 Allergies: Allergies are def ned as unusual or excessive reactions of the body to foreign
substances. Cerebral allergies cause an excessive reaction in the brain, whereas
neuroallergies affect the nervous system. Neuroallergy and cerebral allergy problems
have also been linked to hyperactivity in children, a condition also linked to antisocial
behavior. The foods most commonly involved in producing such allergies are cow’s milk,
wheat, corn, chocolate, citrus, and eggs; however, about 300 other foods have been
identifed as allergens.
 Environmental Contaminants: Prolonged exposure to many dangerous substances in
the environment, including lead, copper, cadmium, mercury, and inorganic gases such
as chlorine and nitrogen dioxide can cause severe illness or death; at more moderate
levels, they have been linked to emotional and behavioral disorders.

2. Neurological

Some researchers focus their attention on neurophysiology, the study of brain activity.
Children who suffer from measurable neurological deficits at birth are believed to also suffer
from a number of antisocial traits throughout their life course, ranging from habitual lying to
antisocial violence.

There are numerous ways to measure neurological functioning, including memorization and
visual awareness tests, short-term auditory memory tests, and verbal IQ tests. These tests have
been found to distinguish criminal offenders from non-criminal control groups.

15
Traditionally, the most important measure of neurophysiological functioning is the
electroencephalograph (EEG), which records the electrical impulses given off by the brain. It
represents a signal composed of various rhythms and transient electrical discharges, commonly
called brain waves, which can be recorded by electrodes placed on the scalp. The frequency is
given in cycles per second, measured in hertz (Hz), and usually ranges from 0.5 to 30 Hz. Studies
using the EEG find that violent criminals have far higher levels of abnormal EEG recordings than
nonviolent or one-time offenders.

Newer brain scanning techniques, using electronic imaging such as positron emission
tomography (PET), brain electrical activity mapping (BEAM), single photon emission computed
tomography (SPECT), and the superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) have
made it possible to assess which areas of the brain are directly linked to antisocial behavior.

 Minimal Brain Dysfunction Minimal brain dysfunction (MBD) is related to an

abnormality in cerebral structure. In its most serious form, MBD has been linked to
serious antisocial acts, an imbalance in the urge-control mechanisms of the brain, and
chemical abnormality. Included in the category of minimal brain dysfunction are several
abnormal behavior patterns: dyslexia, visual perception problems, hyperactivity, poor
attention span, temper tantrums, and aggressiveness. One specific type of MBD that has
generated considerable interest is learning disability (LD).

What is the association between learning disabilities and crime? There are two popular
explanations:

 Susceptibility rationale argues that the link is caused by certain side effects of learning
disabilities, such as impulsiveness, poor ability to learn from experience, and inability to
take social cues.
 School failure rationale assumes that the frustration caused by the LD produces poor
school performance leading to a negative self-image and acting-out behavior.
 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Many parents have noticed that
their children do not pay attention to them—they run around and do things in their
own way. Sometimes this inattention is a function of age; in other instances, it is a
symptom of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), in which a child shows
a developmentally inappropriate lack of attention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity.

 Tumors, Lesions, Injury, and Disease The presence of brain tumors and lesions has
also been linked to a wide variety of psychological problems, including personality
changes, hallucinations, and psychotic episodes.

16
  Brain Chemistry Brain structure, chemistry, and development are believed to exert a
strong in uence on human behavior. E.g.: some people have brains with many more
nerve cells with receptor sites for neurotransmitters than others.

3. Genetic

The major premise of the theory is that criminal traits and predispositions are inherited. The
criminality of parents can predict the delinquency of children.

On July 14, 1955, Richard Franklin Speck broke into a dormitory and systematically tortured,
raped, and murdered eight student nurses in one of the most horrific cases of mass murder in
the nation’s history. Genetic testing showed that Speck had an abnormal XYY chromosomal
structure (XY is normal in males). So man with an extra chromosome-the 47, XYY is labeled as
deviant.

 Sibling Similarities It stands to reason that if the cause of crime is in part genetic, then
the behavior of siblings should be similar because they share genetic material. Research
does show that if one sibling engages in antisocial behavior, so do his/her brothers and
sisters. The effect is greatest among same-sex siblings.
 Twin Behavior: An even more rigorous test of genetic theory involves comparison of the
behavior of identical monozygotic (MZ) twins with fraternal dizygotic (DZ) twins; while
the former have an identical genetic makeup, the latter share only about 50 percent of
their genetic combinations. Research has shown that MZ twins are significantly closer in
their personal characteristics, such as intelligence, than are DZ twins.

4. Evolutionary

Some criminologists believe the human traits that produce

violence and aggression are produced through the long process of human evolution. The
strengths of the theory are that it explains high violence rates and aggregate gender differences
in the crime rate.

17
 Psychological theories
The second branch of trait theories focuses on the psychological aspects of crime, including the
associations among intelligence, personality, learning, and criminal behavior.

This section is organized along the lines of the predominant psychological views most closely
associated with the causes of criminal behavior. Psychologists view antisocial behavior from the
following:

 psychoanalytic or psychodynamic perspective (focus is on early childhood experience

and its effect on personality)
 Behaviorism (stresses social learning and behavior modeling as the keys to criminality)
 Cognitive theory (analyzes human perception and how it affects behavior)

1. Psychodynamic theory:

Psychodynamic (or psychoanalytic) psychology was originated by Viennese psychiatrist Sigmund

Freud (1856 1939) and has since remained a prominent segment of psychological theory.

The psychodynamic model of the criminal offender depicts an aggressive, frustrated person
dominated by events that occurred early in childhood. Perhaps because they may have suffered
unhappy experiences in childhood or had families that could not provide proper love and care,
criminals suffer from weak or damaged egos that make them unable to cope with conventional
society. Weak egos are associated with immaturity, poor social skills, and excessive dependence
on others. People with weak egos may be easily led into crime by antisocial peers and drug
abuse. Some offenders have underdeveloped superegos and consequently lack internalized
representations of those behaviors that are punished in conventional society. They commit
crimes because they have diff culty understanding the consequences of their actions.

2. Behavioral theory

Psychological behavior theory maintains that human actions are developed through learning
experiences. Rather than focusing on unconscious personality traits or cognitive development
patterns produced early in childhood, behavior theorists are concerned with the actual
behaviors people engage in during the course of their daily lives. The major premise of behavior
theory is that people alter their behavior according to the reactions it receives from others.

18
Social Learning Theory

Social learning is the branch of behavior theory most relevant to criminology. Social learning
theorists, most notably Albert Bandura, argue that people are not actually born with the ability
to act violently, but that they learn to be aggressive through their life experiences.

Social learning theorists view violence as something learned through a process called behavior
modeling. In modern society, aggressive acts are usually modeled after three principal sources:

 Family interaction: Studies of family life show that aggressive children have parents
who use similar tactics when dealing with others. For example, the children of wife
batterers are more likely to use aggressive tactics themselves than children in the
general population, especially if the victims (their mothers) suffer psychological distress
from the abuse.
 Environmental experiences: People who reside in areas in which violence is a daily
occurrence are more likely to act violently than those who dwell in low-crime area
whose norms stress conventional behavior.
 Mass media: Films and television shows commonly depict violence graphically.
Moreover, violence is often portrayed as an acceptable behavior, especially for heroes
who never have to face legal consequences for their actions.

3- Cognitive theory

Psychologists with a cognitive perspective focus on mental processes and how people perceive
and mentally represent the world around them and solve problems. The pioneers of this school
were Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920), Edward Titchener (1867–1927), and William James (1842–
1920). Today, there are several subdisciplines within the cognitive area.

 The moral development branch is concerned with the way people morally represent
and reason about the world. Moral development theory suggests that people who obey
the law simply to avoid punishment or have outlooks mainly characterized by self-
interest are more likely to commit crimes than those who view the law as something
that benefits all of society.
 Humanistic psychology stresses self-awareness and “getting in touch with feelings.”
 The information processing branch focuses on the way people process, store, encode,
retrieve, and manipulate information to make decisions and solve problems. According
to this cognitive approach, people who use information properly, who are better
conditioned to make reasoned judgments, and are the ones best able to avoid antisocial

19
behavior choices. In contrast, crime-prone people may have cognitive deficits and use
information incorrectly when they make decisions.

Sociological theories

Social structure theories Social Process theories

20
Social structure theories

Criminologists recognize that the various sources of crime data show that crime rates are
highest in neighborhoods characterized by poverty and social disorder (income inequality).
Although members of the middle and upper classes sometimes engage in crime, these are
generally nonviolent acts, such as embezzlement and fraud, which present little danger to the
general public. In contrast, lower-class crime is often the violent, destructive product of youth
gangs and marginally and underemployed young adults. The real crime problem is essentially a
lower-class phenomenon, which breeds criminal behavior that begins in youth and continues
into young adulthood. Kids growing up poor and living in households that lack economic
resources are much more likely to get involved in serious crime than their wealthier peers. To
explain this phenomenon, criminologists have formulated social structure theories.

There are three independent yet overlapping branches within the social structure perspective:

1. Social disorganization
2. Strain theory
3. Cultural deviance theory

21
 1. Social disorganization theory

Proponents of theory:

Social disorganization theory was first popularized by the work of two Chicago sociologists,
Clifford R. Shaw and Henry D. McKay, who linked life in disorganized, transitional urban areas to
neighborhood crime rates.

Basic assumptions of theory:

 Social disorganization theory links crime rates to neighborhood ecological

characteristics.
 Communities where the fabric of social life has become frayed and torn are unable to
provide essential services to their residents, such as education, health care, and proper
housing.
 Residents in these crime-ridden neighborhoods want to ee the area at the earliest
opportunity. Because they want out, they become uninterested in community matters.
As a result, these neighborhoods are destabilized.
 There is constant population turnover; people are not interested in investing in these
communities.
 Streets are littered and untidy, housing becomes deteriorated, and the neighborhood is
rezoned for mixed-use (i.e., residential and commercial property exist side by side).
 Because the area is undergoing stress, the normal sources of social control common to
most neighborhoods—the family, school, neighbors, business owners, the church, law
enforcement, and social service agencies—become ineffective, weak, and disorganized.
 Personal relationships are strained because neighbors are constantly relocating to
better areas. Resident turnover further weakens communication and blocks the
establishment of common goals. The result: any attempt at community-level problem
solving ends in frustration.
 The problems encountered in this type of disorganized area take the form of a
contagious disease, destroying the inner workings that enable neighborhoods to
survive; the community becomes “hollowed out.” Crime and violence take the form of a
“slow epidemic,” spreading to surrounding areas and infecting them with inner-city
problems.

22
Community deterioration

Poverty concentration

Chronic unemployment

Gang formation

High crime rate

Community fear

23
 2- Strain theory

Roots of the theory:

The roots of strain theories can be traced to Émile Durkheim’s notion of anomie (from the Greek a
nomos, “without norms”). According to Durkheim, an anomic society is one in which rules of behavior
(i.e., values, customs, and norms) have broken down or become inoperative during periods of rapid
social change or social crisis such as war or famine.

Basic assumptions:

 Strain theorists believe that most people share similar values and goals. They want to
earn money, have a nice home, drive a great car, and wear stylish clothes. They also
want to care for their families and educate their children.
 Unfortunately, the ability to achieve these personal goals is stratified by socioeconomic
class. While the affluent may live out their dream, the poor are shut out from achieving
their goals.
 Because they can’t always get what they want, they begin to feel frustrated and angry, a
condition that is referred to as strain.
 Strain is related to criminal motivation. People who feel economically and socially
humiliated may perceive the right to humiliate others in return. Psychologists warn that
under these circumstances those who consider themselves “losers” begin to fear and
envy “winners” who are doing very well at their expense. If they fail to take risky
aggressive tactics, they are surely going to lose out in social competition and have little
chance of future success. These generalized feelings of relative deprivation are
precursors to high crime rates.

Causes/ sources of strain in strain theory by Agnew:

I. Failure to achieve positively valued goals.

This type of strain occurs when people aspire for wealth and fame, but, lacking financial and
educational resources, assume that such goals are impossible to achieve. These people,
wracked by despair, who feel few opportunities for success, are at risk for crime.

II. Disjunction of expectations and achievements.

Strain can also be produced when there is a disjunction between expectations and
achievements. When people compare themselves to peers who seem to be doing a lot better
financially or socially (such as making more money or getting better grades), even those doing
relatively well feel strain. For example, when a high school senior is accepted at a good college
but not a “prestige school” like some of her friends, she will feel strain. Perhaps she is not being

24
treated fairly because the “playing feld” is tilted against her; “other kids have connections,” she
may say. Perceiving inequity may result in adverse reactions, ranging from running away from
its source to lowering the benef ts of others through physical attacks or vandalizing their
property.

III. Removal of positively valued stimuli.

Strain may occur because of the actual or anticipated removal or loss of a positively valued
stimulus from the individual. Divorce can produce strain, as can the death of a loved one,
moving to a new neighborhood, or getting a new job. The loss of positive stimuli may lead to
criminality when a person tries to prevent the loss, retrieve what has been lost, obtain
substitutes, or seek revenge against those responsible for the loss.

IV. Presentation of negative stimuli.

While the GST recognizes that the removal of positive stimuli produces strain, it relies more
heavily on the effects of negative or noxious stimuli. Included within this category are such
pain-inducing social interactions as child abuse and neglect, crime victimization, physical
punishment, family and peer con ict, school failure, and interaction with stressful life events
ranging from family breakup, unemployment, moving, feelings of dissatisfaction with friends
and school to verbal threats and air pollution. Becoming the target of racism and discrimination
may also trigger the anger and aggression predicted by Agnew.

25
 3- Cultural deviance theory

The third variation of structural theory is cultural deviance theory. It combines elements of
both strain and social disorganization. According to this view, because of strain and social
isolation, a unique lower-class culture develops in disorganized neighborhoods. These
independent subcultures maintain a unique set of values and beliefs that are in conflict with
conventional social norms. Criminal behavior is an expression of conformity to lower-class sub-
cultural values and traditions and not a rebellion from conventional society. Sub-cultural values
are handed down from one generation to the next in a process called cultural transmission.

26
Social Process theory
The key to understanding crime can be found in human socialization—the interactions people
have with various organizations, institutions, and processes of society. Most people are
influenced by their family relationships, peer group associations, educational experiences, and
interactions with authority figures, including teachers, employers, and agents of the justice
system. If these relationships are positive and supportive, people can succeed within the rules
of society; if these relationships are dysfunctional and destructive, conventional success may be
impossible, and criminal solutions may become a feasible alternative. Taken together, this view
of crime is referred to as social process theory.

Theorists who believe that an individual’s socialization determines the likelihood of criminality
adopt the social process approach to human behavior. The social process approach has several
independent branches (Figure 7.1):

1. Social learning theory

2. Social control theory
3. Social reaction theory

27
 1- Social learning theory
This theory suggests that people learn the techniques and attitudes of crime from close and
intimate relationships with criminal peers; crime is a learned behavior. Put another way, social
learning theory assumes people are born good and learn to be bad.

There are three most prominent forms of social learning theory.

Social Learning theory

Differential association Neutralizing

theory theory

Differential Reinforcement
theory

28
 I. Differential association theory
One of the most prominent social learning theories is Edwin H. Sutherland’s differential
association theory. Often considered the preeminent U.S. criminologist, Sutherland first put
forth his theory in his 1939 text, Principles of Criminology.

Principles of Differential Association

The basic principles of differential association are explained as follows:

 Criminal behavior is learned (Just like writing, painting, or reading)

 Learning is a by-product of interaction (e.g: People—family, friends, peers—have the
greatest in uence on their deviant behavior and attitude development)
 Criminal techniques are learned (e.g: Learning the proper way to pick a lock, shoplift,
and obtain and use narcotics)
 Perceptions of the legal code in uence motives and drives (e.g: The reaction to social
rules and laws is not uniform across society, and people constantly come into contact
with others who maintain different views on the utility of obeying the legal code)
 Differential associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity
(e.g the in uence of a father, mother, or trusted friend far outweighs the effect of more
socially distant figures)
 The process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal and anticriminal
patterns involves all of the mechanisms involved in any other learning process

 Criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values, but it is not excused
by those general needs and values because noncriminal behavior is also an expression
of those same needs and values.

In sum, differential association theory holds that people learn criminal attitudes and behavior
while in their adolescence from close and trusted friends and/or relatives. A criminal career
develops if learned antisocial values and behaviors are not at least matched or exceeded by
conventional attitudes and behaviors. Criminal behavior, then, is learned in a process that is
similar to learning any other human behavior.

29
 II. Differential Reinforcement Theory
Differential reinforcement theory is another attempt to explain crime as a type of learned
behavior. This was first proposed by Ronald Akers in collaboration with Robert Burgess in 1966.

Basic assumptions of theory

 According to Akers, the same process is involved in learning both deviant and
conventional behavior. People learn to be neither “all deviant” nor “all conforming,”
 Differential reinforcement, occurs when behavior is reinforced by being either rewarded
or punished while interacting with others. When behavior is punished, this is referred to
as negative reinforcement.
 Whether deviant or criminal behavior has been initiated or persists depends on the
degree to which it has been rewarded or punished and the rewards or punishments
attached to its alternatives.
 People learn to evaluate their own behavior through their interactions with significant
others and groups in their lives.

30
III. Neutralization theory
Major proponents

This theory is identified with the writings of David Matza and his associate Gresham Sykes.

Basic theme of the theory

The process of becoming a criminal is a learning experience in which potential delinquents and
criminals master techniques that enable them to counterbalance or neutralize conventional
values and drift back and forth between illegitimate and conventional behavior.

Sykes and Matza base this theoretical model on these observations:

 Criminals sometimes voice a sense of guilt over their illegal acts

 Offenders frequently respect and admire honest, law-abiding people
 Criminals draw a line between those whom they can victimize and those whom they
cannot (e.g: They do not target people similar ethnic groups, church or families)
 Criminals are not immune to the demands of conformity (like most criminals frequently
participate in many of the same social functions as law-abiding people)

Techniques of Neutralization

According to Sykes and Matza, the techniques of neutralization include the following patterns:

 Deny responsibility (I didn’t do this)

 Deny injury (I borrowed not stole)
 Deny the victim (His attitude was not good so I did this)
 Condemn condemners. (Everyone do this)
 Appeal to higher loyalties. (I can’t help doing this)

In sum, the theory of neutralization pre supposes a condition that allows people to neutralize
unconventional norms and values by using such slogans as

 “I didn’t mean to do it,”

 “I didn’t really hurt anybody,”
 “They had it coming to them,”
 “Everybody’s picking on me,”
 “I didn’t do it for myself.”

31
 2- Social control theory
Basic theme

This theory maintains that everyone has the potential to become a criminal or all people have
the potential to violate the law and that modern society presents many opportunities for illegal
activity but that most people are controlled by their bonds to society. Crime occurs when the
forces that bind people to society are weakened or broken. In other words social control theory
assumes people are born bad and must be controlled in order to be good.

Main proponent

It is Travis Hirschi’s vision of social control (Hirschi’s Social Bond Theory), articulated in his
highly in uential 1969 book Causes of Delinquency, that remains the dominant version of the
theory.

Hirschi’s Social Bond Theory

In his insightful work, Hirschi links the onset of criminality to the weakening of the ties that bind
people to society. He assumes that all individuals are potential law violators, but they are kept
under control because they fear that illegal behavior will damage their relationships with
friends, parents, neighbors, teachers, and employers. Without these social ties or bonds, and in
the absence of sensitivity to and interest in others, a person is free to commit criminal acts

Elements of the Social Bond

Hirschi argues that the social bond a person maintains with society is divided into four main
elements: attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief (Figure 7.4).

 Attachment

Attachment refers to a person’s sensitivity to and interest in others. Without a sense of

attachment, psychologists believe a person becomes a psychopath and loses the ability to
relate coherently to the world. Hirschi views parents, peers, and schools as the important social
institutions with which a person should maintain ties. Attachment to parents is the most
important. Even if a family is shattered by divorce or separation, a child must retain a strong
attachment to one or both parents. Without this attachment, it is unlikely that feelings of
respect for others in authority will develop.

 Commitment.

Commitment involves the time, energy, and effort expended in conventional lines of action,
such as getting an education and saving money for the future. If people build a strong

32
commitment to conventional society, they will be less likely to engage in acts that will
jeopardize their hard-won position. Conversely, the lack of commitment to conventional values
may foreshadow a condition in which risk-taking behavior, such as crime, becomes a reasonable
behavior alternative. The association may be reciprocal. Kids who drink and engage in deviant
behavior are more likely to fail in school; kids who fail in school are more likely to later drink
and engage in deviant behavior.

 Involvement

Heavy involvement in conventional activities leaves little time for illegal behavior. When people
become involved in school, recreation, and family, Hirschi believes, it insulates them from the
potential lure of criminal behavior, whereas idleness enhances it.

 Belief.

People who live in the same social setting often share common moral beliefs; they may adhere
to such values as sharing, sensitivity to the rights of others, and admiration for the legal code. If
these beliefs are absent or weakened, individuals are more likely to participate in antisocial or
illegal acts.

33
 3- Social reaction theory/labeling theory
Basic theme of the theory

This theory says people become criminals when significant members of society label them
as such, and they accept those labels as a personal identity. In other words social reaction
theory assumes that, whether good or bad, people are controlled by the reactions of others.

Roots of this theory are

found in the symbolic
interaction theory of
sociologists Charles Horton
Cooley and George Herbert
Mead, and later, Herbert
Blumer.
e.g: People labeled insane are
also assumed to be dangerous,
dishonest, unstable, violent,
strange, and otherwise
unsound. Valued labels,
including smart, honest, and
hard working, suggest overall
competence.

34