No.

of the Experiment : 04
Name of the Experiment : Mathematical operations using OP-AMP (Adder and
Subtractor).

Objectives :
Any kind of operations can be done using OP-AMP. In this experiment, only two i.e.
addition and subtraction operations will be performed.

Theory :
An operational amplifier (op-amp) is an integrated circuit that amplifies the
difference in voltage between two inputs. It is so named because it was developed
for perform arithmetic operations. Amplifiers, buffers, comparators, filters, etc.
can be implemented with simple external circuits. An op-amp has five terminals:
positive power supply, negative power supply, noninverting input, inverting input,
and output. An op-amp amplifies the difference in voltage between the noninverting
and inverting inputs, which is denoted as Vd. The output voltage is given as,
Vout = A*Vd, where A is the gain.
=> Vout = A*(Vin(-)-Vin(+))
The value of Vout cannot exceed the positive and negative supply voltages. The
voltage regulation curve is given below :
<insert curve>

Adder circuit :
An op-amp based adder produces an output equal to the sum of the input voltages
applied at its inverting terminal. It is also called as a summing amplifier, since
the output is an amplified one. According to the virtual short concept, the voltage
at the inverting input terminal of an op-amp is same as that of the voltage at its
non-inverting input terminal. So, the voltage at the inverting input terminal of
the op-amp will be zero volts.
The nodal equation at the inverting input terminal's node is,
V0 = Rf (V1/R1 + V2/R2)
If R1=R2=Rf=R, then output voltage will be,
V0 = -(V1 + V2)
Therefore, the op-amp based adder circuit discussed above will produce the sum of
the two input voltages V1 and V2 as the output, when all the resistors present in
the circuit are of same value. Here, the output voltage V0 of an adder circuit is
having a negative sign, which indicates that there exists a 180* phase difference
between the input and the output.

Subtractor circuit :
An op-amp based subtractor produces an output equal to the difference of the input
voltages applied at its inverting and non-inverting terminals. It is also called as
a difference amplifier, since the output is an amplified one. The output voltage is
calculated using the superposition theorem.
Using voltage divider rule, we get the specific output voltages for each input
voltage.
Vout1 = -(R2/R1)*V1
Vout2 = -(R2/R1)*V2
So, total output voltage will be, Vout = Vout1 + Vout2
=> Vout = (R2/R1)*(V2-V1)
When R1=R2, Vout=V2-V1
Thus, the op-amp based subtractor circuit discussed above will produce an output,
which is the difference of two input voltages V1 and V2 when all the resistors
present in the circuit are of same value.
In this experiment, we have observed the adder and subtractor op-amp circuits.

Ckt Diagram :

Data Table :
Discussion :
In the experimental data, we can see that the results we found from the op-amp
circuits were not accurate. Although very close to the expected result, some errors
were still observed. Adder and subtractor circuits using op-amps are common in
analog signal processing, where they combine or differentiate multiple input
signals. While ideal op-amp assumptions simplify analysis, practical
implementations face several non-idealities.
Firstly, in an op-amp circuit, ideally the internal impedance is infinite. But in
practical cases, the impedance is very high, not infinite. This allows some
current, albeit very less, to pass through. This small of amount of current can
cause some voltage drops, which is why the output voltage varies. In adder circuit,
the small input currents can create voltage drops across input resistors, causing
slight inaccuracies in the summed output. In subtractor circuit, similar effects
can occur, where the small currents can alter the balance between the input
signals, leading to slight errors in the differential output.
Secondly, in negative feedback configurations, the voltage difference between the
inverting and non-inverting inputs is considered zero (virtual short). In real op-
amps, a small offset voltage exists between the inputs, typically in the microvolt
to millivolt range. The virtual short assumption means the inverting input should
be at a virtual ground. The small offset voltage can lead to inaccuracies in the
difference calculation, especially if the input signals are close in magnitude.
This can be seen in the last reading of our subtractor circuit data. We used two
signals of the same magnitude, in which error was found the most.
Lastly, real circuits have resistances in wires and connections, and components
exhibit slight voltage drops due to bias currents. Internal resistances can cause
slight voltage drops along the signal path, affecting the accuracy of the output.
Bias currents through high-value resistors can introduce additional errors.
Some voltage drop can also be caused by the internal resistance of the wires. This
usually happens when using poor equipment, which causes errors in the output
voltage.
Adder and subtractor op-amp circuits are fundamental components in analog signal
processing, with wide-ranging applications including audio mixing, sensor fusion,
and differential signal processing. Adders combine multiple input signals or
perform weighted sums, essential in audio engineering, control systems, and noise
reduction. Subtractors compute differences between signals, crucial for
instrumentation amplifiers, analog differentiation, and edge detection in image
processing. These circuits play a key role in signal conditioning, analog
computation, modulation, demodulation, and feedback control systems. Their ability
to precisely manipulate signals makes them indispensable in various fields,
ensuring accurate and reliable analog signal processing in audio, instrumentation,
communications, and control systems.