Engineering Physics I

Course Code : Phy 4121

Course Title : Engineering Physics I
Credit : 3.00

Course Teacher
Prof. Dr. Aminul I. Talukder
 Engineering Physics I

Syllabus
Atomic structure. Thompsons, Rutherford and Bhor’s atomic model.
Atomic arrangement in solids. Different types of bonds in solids- metallic,
Vander Walls and ionic bond.
Electronic structure of materials: Free electron the theory, Metallic
conduction. Energy bands, Brillouin zones, Temperature dependence of
metallic conductivity. Semiconductors: Band theory, intrinsic and extrinsic
semiconductors, Fermi levels, mobility and electrical conductivity, carrier
diffusion and life time, P-N junction, biasing conditions, V-I characteristics,
effects of temperature on diode characteristics. Magnetic materials:
Properties, Dia-, Para- and Ferro-magnetism, Hysteresis loop, B-H curve,
Energy losses in magnetic materials and their measurements. Soft and
hard magnetic materials, ferrities.
Optics: Interference. Young’s double slit experiment, fringe width,
determination of wavelength of light and thickness of a transparent sheet.
Interference due to reflection. Newton’s ring. Determination of refractive
 Syllabus continued ….
index of a liquid. Fresnel and Fraunhoffer diffraction through single slit.
Intensity of diffracted beam. Polarization: Polarized and Non-polarized light.
Light polarization by reflection. Double refraction, Malus law, Intensity of
polarized light.
Photoelectricity: Laws of photoemission and Einstein’s equation. Photoelectric
cell and its use. Introduction to superconductivity and its application.

Reference Books:
1. Optics – Eugene Hecht (Publishing: Addision Wesley)

2. Outline of Physics – Dr. Giasuddin Ahmad

3. A Text Book of Optics – Dr. N Subrahmanyam, Brijlal, Dr. M N Avadhanulu

4. Optics – Ajoy Ghatak (Publisher McGraw Hill)

Optics
 Interference of Light
When two light waves from different coherent sources meet, then the distribution of energy
due to one wave is disturbed by the other. This modification in the distribution of light energy
due to superposition of two light waves is called "Interference of light".

Principle of superposition:
when two or more waves overlap, the resultant displacement at any point and at any instant
may be found by adding the instantaneous displacements that would be produced at the
point by the individual waves if each were present alone. It means that the resultant is simply
the sum of the disturbances.
The principle of superposition applies to electromagnetic waves also and is the most
important principle in wave optics. In case of electromagnetic waves, the term displacement
refers to the amplitude of the electric field vector. So, the interference is an important
consequence of superposition of coherent waves.

Now, if two or more light waves of the same frequency overlap at a point, the resultant effect
depends on the phases of the waves as well as their amplitudes. The resultant wave at any
point at any instant of time is governed by the principle of superposition. The combined
effect at each point of the region of superposition is obtained by adding algebraically the
amplitudes of the individual waves.
 Interference of Light continued
Let us assume here that the component waves are of the same amplitude as shown in the Fig.
below.

At certain points, the two waves may be in phase. The amplitude of the resultant wave will then be
equal to the sum of the amplitudes of the two waves, as shown in Fig. (a). Thus, the amplitude of
the resultant wave
𝐴𝑅 = 𝐴 + 𝐴 = 2𝐴 . … … … (1)
Hence the intensity of the resultant wave,
𝐼𝑅 ∝ 𝐴2𝑅 = 22 𝐴2 = 4𝐼 . … … … 2

It is obvious that the resultant intensity is greater than the sum of the intensities due to individual
waves.
𝐼𝑅 > 𝐼 + 𝐼 = 2𝐼 . … … … (3)

Therefore, the interference produced at these points is known as constructive interference.

A stationary bright band of light is observed at points of constructive interference.
 Interference of Light continued
At certain other points, the two waves may be in opposite phase. The amplitude of the resultant
wave will then be equal to the sum of the amplitudes of the two waves, as shown in Fig. (b).
Thus, the amplitude of the resultant wave,
𝐴𝑅 = 𝐴 − 𝐴 = 0. … … … (4)

Hence, the intensity of the resultant wave is,

𝐼𝑅 ∝ 02 = 0 . … … … 5

It is obvious that the resultant intensity is less than the sum of the intensities due to individual
waves.
𝐼𝑅 < 2𝐼 . … … … (6)

Therefore, the interference produced at these points is known as destructive interference. A

stationary dark band of light is observed at points of destructive interference. Thus, we see that a
redistribution of energy took place in the region.
 Interference of Light continued
Thus, when two or more coherent waves of light are superposed, the resultant effect is brightness
in certain regions and darkness at other regions. The regions of brightness and darkness alternate
and may take the form of straight bands, or circular rings or any other complex shape. The
alternate bright and dark bands are called interference fringes. The phenomenon of redistribution
of light energy due to the superposition of light waves from two or more coherent sources is
known as interference.

Let us consider two sources of light S1 and S2, as shown in Fig. (below) Let us assume that the
sources are identical and produce harmonic waves of same wavelength and that the waves are in
the same phase at S1 and S2. Light from these sources travel along different paths, S1P and S2P, and
meet at a point P. We now wish to know whether we get brightness or darkness at P due to the
superposition of waves.
Referring to the Fig., we find that the waves
move along the geometric paths S1P = r1
and S2P= r2 , which are different in length.
Also, the media through which the two waves
travelled, may be different. As a result, the
optical path lengths are different. If μ1 is the
refractive index of the medium in which the
ray S1P travelled, the corresponding optical path length is μ1r1. Similarly, if μ2 is the refractive index
of the medium in which the ray S2P travelled, the corresponding optical path length is μ2 r2.
 Interference of Light continued
The optical path difference between the waves at the point P is (μ2 r2 − μ1 r1). It may come to
a few full waves or a mixed fraction of waves. It means that though the waves started with
the same phase, they may arrive at P with different phases because they travelled along
different optical path lengths.
If this optical path difference Δ = 𝜇2 𝑟2 − 𝜇1 𝑟1 = 0, 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 λ ,
then the waves arrive at point P in phase and superpose with crest-to-crest correspondence.
That is, if
Δ = 𝑚𝜆 , ………… 7
where m is an integer and takes values, m = 0,1,2,3,4,5,……, then the waves are in phase and
their overlapping at P produces constructive interference or brightness.

On the other hand, if the optical path difference Δ = 𝜇2 𝑟2 − 𝜇1 𝑟1 is equal to an odd

integer multiple of half-wavelength, λ/2 , then the waves arrive out of phase at P and
superpose with crest- to- trough correspondence. That is, if
𝜆
Δ = 2𝑚 + 1 , ………… 8
2
where m is an integer and takes values, m = 0,1,2,3,4,5,……., then the waves are inverted with
respect to each other and their overlapping at P produces destructive interference or
darkness.

The regions of brightness and darkness are also known as regions of maxima and minima.
 Interference of Light continued
Interference Systems:
Interferometric devices will be divided into two groups: wavefront splitting and
amplitude splitting.

In the first case, portions of the primary wavefront are used either directly as sources of
secondary waves or in conjunction with optical devices to produce virtual sources of
secondary waves. These secondary waves are brought together, thereupon to interfere.

In the case of amplitude splitting, the primary wave itself is divided into two segments,
which travel different paths before recombining and interfering.
 Interference of Light continued
Young’s Double Slit Experiment- Wavefront Division
In the year of 1665 Grimaldi attempted to produce interference between two beams of light. He
directed sunlight into a dark room through two pinholes in a screen, with an expectation that bright
and dark bands would be observed in the area where the beams overlap on each other. He
observed uniform illumination instead. In 1801, about one hundred thirty-six years later, Thomas
Young gave the first demonstration of the interference of light waves. Young admitted the sunlight
through a single pinhole and then directed the emerging light onto two pinholes. Finally, the light
was received on a screen. The spherical waves emerging from the pinholes interfered with each
other and a few colored fringes were observed on the screen. The amount of light that emerged
from the pinhole was very small and the fringes were faint and difficult to observe. The pinholes
were later replaced with narrow slits that let through much more light. The sunlight was replaced
by monochromatic light. Young’s experiment is known as double-slit experiment.
Fig. below shows the basic arrangement of the double slit experiment. The primary light source is a
monochromatic source; it is generally a sodium lamp, which emits yellow light of wavelength at
around 5893Å. This light is not suitable for causing interference because emissions from different
parts of any ordinary source are not coherent. Therefore, the monochromatic light is allowed to
pass through a narrow slit at S. The light coming out of the slit originated from only a small region
of the light source and hence behaves more nearly like an ideal light source. Cylindrical wavefronts
are produced from the slit S, the primary light source, which fall on the two narrow closely spaced
slits, S1 and S2 as shown in the Fig. The slits at S1 and S2 are very narrow. The cylindrical waves
emerging from the slits overlap. If the slits are equidistant from S, the phase of the wave at S1 will
be the same as the phase of the wave at S2. Further, waves leaving S1 and S2 are therefore always in
phase. Hence, sources S1 and S2 act as secondary coherent sources. The waves leaving from S1 and
S2 interfere and produce alternate bright and dark bands on the screen.
Young’s Double Slit Experiment continued

Fig.: Young’s Double Slit Arrangement

 Young’s Double Slit Experiment continued
OPTICAL PATH DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE WAVES AT P:
Let P be an arbitrary point on the screen, which is at a distance D from the double slits. Let θ be
the angle between MP and the horizontal line MO. Let S1N be a normal on to the line S2P. The
Distances PS1 and PN are equal. The waves
emitted at the slits, S1 and S2 are initially in
phase with each other. The difference in the
path lengths of these two waves is S2N. We
assume that the experiment is carried out in
air. Therefore, the optical paths are identical
with geometrical paths. The nature of the
interference of the two waves at P depends
simply on how many waves are contained in
the length of the path difference S2N. If S2N
contains an integral number of wavelengths,
the two waves interfere constructively, producing a maximum in the intensity of light on the screen
at P. If it contains an odd number of half-wavelengths, then the waves interfere destructively and
produce a minimum intensity at P.

Let the point P be at a distance x from O (Fig. above). Then,

𝑃𝐸 = 𝑥 – 𝑑 / 2 and 𝑃𝐹 = 𝑥 + 𝑑 / 2.
 Young’s Double Slit Experiment continued
2 2
2 2 2
𝑑 2
𝑑
𝑆2 𝑃 − 𝑆1 𝑃 = 𝐷 + 𝑥+ − 𝐷 + 𝑥−
2 2

2 2
𝑆2 𝑃 − 𝑆1 𝑃 = 2𝑥𝑑

2𝑥𝑑
𝑆2 𝑃 − 𝑆1 𝑃 =
𝑆2 𝑃 + 𝑆1 𝑃

In case of very small angle ; 𝑆2 𝑃  𝑆1 𝑃  D

𝑥𝑑
Then the path difference, 𝑆2 𝑃 − 𝑆1 𝑃 = . … … … (9)
𝐷
Hence, we can find the conditions for bright and dark fringes.

Bright fringes:
Bright fringes occur wherever the waves from S1 and S2 interfere constructively. The first time this
occurs is at O, the axial point. There, the waves from S1 and S2 travel the same optical path length
to O and arrive in phase. The next bright fringe occurs when the wave from S2 travels one complete
wavelength further the wave from S1. In general, constructive interference occurs if S1 P and S2P
differ by a whole number of wavelengths.
 Young’s Double Slit Experiment continued
The condition for finding a bright fringe at P is that,
𝑆2 𝑃 − 𝑆1 𝑃 = 𝑚𝜆

𝑥𝑑
= 𝑚𝜆 , … … … (10)
𝐷
where m is called the order of fringe.

The bright fringe B0 (at O), corresponding to m = 0, is called the zero-order fringe. It means the path
difference between the two waves reaching at O is zero. Fringe at B1 is the first order bright fringe
from the axis corresponding to m = 1; the path difference between the two waves reaching at B1 is
one λ. The second order bright fringe (m = 2) will be located where the path difference is 2λ and so
on.
 Young’s Double Slit Experiment continued
Dark Fringes: The first dark fringe occurs when (S2P – S1P) is equal to λ / 2. The waves are now in
opposite phase at P. The second dark fringe occurs when (S2P – S1P) equals 3λ / 2. The mth dark
fringe occurs when
𝜆
𝑆2 𝑃 − 𝑆1 𝑃 = 2𝑚 + 1
2
Therefore, the condition for finding a dark fringe is,
𝑥𝑑 𝜆
= 2𝑚 + 1 . … … … (11)
𝐷 2
The first-order dark fringe D1 (Fig. last page) from the axis corresponds to m = 0, where the path
difference between the two waves is λ/2. The second order dark fringe (m = 1) will be produced
where the path difference is 3λ/2 and so on.
 Young’s Double Slit Experiment continued
Separation between neighboring fringes: The distance between any two consecutive bright fringes
is same or all bright fringes are equally spaced. The distance between two consecutive dark fringes
is also constant and independent of the fringe number and is the same as the distance between
two consecutive bright fringes. Thus, the distance between any two consecutive bright or dark
fringes which includes one bright and one dark fringe is same. This distance is called fringe width .

Now, the mth order fringe occurs when

𝑚𝜆 𝐷
𝑥𝑚 =
𝑑
and the (m+1)th order fringe occurs when
𝑚+1 𝜆𝐷
𝑥𝑚+1 =
𝑑
Hence, the fringe separation, β is given by,
𝜆𝐷
𝛽 = 𝑥𝑚+1 − 𝑥𝑚 = . … … … (12)
𝑑
From the Eq.(12), we find the following:
(i) The fringe width β is independent of the order of the fringe. It is directly proportional to the
wavelength of light, i.e., β ∝ λ. The fringes produced by red light are less closer compared to those
produced by blue light.
(ii) The width of the fringe is directly proportional to the distance of the screen from the two
slits, β ∝ D. The farther the screen, the wider is the fringe separation.
(iii) The width of the fringe is inversely proportional to the distance between the two slits.
The closer are the slits, the wider will be the fringes.