Lecture Title: Introduction, Stresses and Strains University Of Technology

Lecture Notes on Strength of Materials (2017-2018) Mechanical Engineering Department

INTRODUCTION, STRESSES AND STRAINS

Introduction
The study of the strength of materials is the study of the behavior of solid bodies
under load. The way in which they react to applied forces, the deflections
resulting and the stresses and strains set up within the bodies, are all considered
in an attempt to provide sufficient knowledge to enable any component to be
designed such that it will not fail within its service life. Typical components
considered in this course include beams, shafts, cylinders and struts.

Analysis of Internal Forces

Consider a body of any shape acted upon by the forces shown in Figure 1-a, the
forces 𝐹⃗1 , 𝐹⃗2 , 𝐹⃗3 , and 𝐹⃗4 are the external forces acted on the body. This body is
considered in static equilibrium (i.e. remains at rest). To study the internal forces,
a section a-a through the body will cut the body into two pieces, Figure 1-b shows
one piece of section a-a of the body balanced by components of internal forces.
If the X axis is normal to the section, Y and Z axes are chosen parallel to the
section.

Page 1 of 13 Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin N. Hamzah

 Lecture Title: Introduction, Stresses and Strains University Of Technology
Lecture Notes on Strength of Materials (2017-2018) Mechanical Engineering Department

Section a-a
(a) (b)

Figure 1: (a) Body of any shape subjected to external forces; (b) Balance of
forces through section a-a.

Each component reflects a different effect of the applied loads on the member
and is given a special name, as follows:

𝑃𝑥𝑥 Axial forces, if the forces try to pull the body, it is called tensile
forces and called compressive if it tends to shorten the body.

𝑃𝑥𝑦 , 𝑃𝑥𝑧 Shear forces, usually designated by V, which acts parallel to the
plane of section.

𝑀𝑥𝑥 Torque T, this component measure the resistance to twisting the

member.

𝑀𝑥𝑦 , 𝑀𝑥𝑧 Bending moments, these components measure the resistance to

bending the member about Y or Z axis.

Simple Stress
The unit strength of a material is usually defined as the stress in material. Stress
is expressed as:
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹
𝜎= =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴

where 𝜎 (Greek lower case letter sigma) is the intensity of forces per unit area, or
stress (N/m2), F is the applied load (N), and A is the cross sectional area (m2).

Page 2 of 13 Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin N. Hamzah

 Lecture Title: Introduction, Stresses and Strains University Of Technology
Lecture Notes on Strength of Materials (2017-2018) Mechanical Engineering Department

The above equation of stress represents an average stress, and means that the
stress is known as a simple stress. A more exact definition of stress is obtained
by dividing the differential load, dF, by differential area, 𝑑𝐴, over which it acts:

𝑑𝐹
𝜎=
𝑑𝐴

Example 1:
An aluminum tube is rigidly fastened between a bronze rod and a steel rod as
shown in the figure. Axial loads are applied at positions indicated. Determine the
stress in each material.

Solution:
From the free body diagram

𝑃𝑏 = 20 𝑘𝑁 , 𝑃𝑎 = 5 𝑘𝑁 , 𝑃𝑠 = 10 𝑘𝑁

The stresses can be computed as:

𝐹
𝜎=
𝐴

20×103 𝑁
For Bronze: 𝜎𝑏 = = 28 × 106 = 28 MPa
700×10−6 𝑚2
Page 3 of 13 Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin N. Hamzah
Lecture Title: Introduction, Stresses and Strains University Of Technology
Lecture Notes on Strength of Materials (2017-2018) Mechanical Engineering Department

5×103
For Aluminum: 𝜎𝑎 = = 5 MPa
1000×10−6

10×103
For Steel: 𝜎𝑠 = = 12.5 MPa
800×10−6

Example 2:
For the truss shown in figure, determine the stress in the member BD. the cross
sectional area of each member is 900 𝑚𝑚2

Solution
∑ 𝑀𝐻 = 0: 𝑅𝐴𝑌 × 16 − 30 × 12 − 70 ∗ 4 = 0

∴ 𝑅𝐴𝑌 = 40 𝑘𝑁

From figure (b), section 1-1,

∑ 𝑀𝐸 = 0: 𝐹𝐵𝐷 × 3 + 40 × 8 − 30 × 4 = 0

∴ 𝐹𝐵𝐷 = −66.7 𝑘𝑁

Therefore, the force in member BD is 66.7 kN ←,

66.7×103
𝜎𝐵𝐷 = = 74.1 MPa
900×10−6

Home work:
Redo Example 2 by determining the stress in member EG.

Page 4 of 13 Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin N. Hamzah

Lecture Title: Introduction, Stresses and Strains University Of Technology
Lecture Notes on Strength of Materials (2017-2018) Mechanical Engineering Department

Shearing Stress
Shearing stress is the stress caused by force acting along or parallel to area
resisting the forces and can be defined as:
𝑉
𝜏=
𝐴

where 𝜏 (Greek lowercase letter tau) is the shearing stress (N/m2), V is the
shearing force (N), and A is the area (m2).

Examples of shearing stresses:

Example 3:
A 750 mm pulley, loaded as shown in the figure, is keyed to a shaft 50mm
diameter. Determine the width b of the 75mm-long key if the allowable shearing
stress is 70 MPa.

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 Lecture Title: Introduction, Stresses and Strains University Of Technology
Lecture Notes on Strength of Materials (2017-2018) Mechanical Engineering Department

Solution:
The torque on the pulley can be calculated as,
0.75
𝑇 = (10 × 103 − 6 × 103 ) × = 1.5 × 103 N. m = 1.5 kNm
2
This torque will be transferred to shaft as,
50×10−3
𝑇 = 1.5 × 103 = 𝑉 ×
2

2×1.5×103
𝑉= = 60 kN
50×10−3

The shearing stress in the key is,

𝑉
𝜏=
𝐴

Therefore,
60×103
70 × 106 =
75×10−3 ×𝑏

∴ 𝑏 = 0.0114 m = 11.4 mm

Home work:
For the pulley shown in the figure, determine the diameter of the four similar
bolts needed to connect the shaft with the pulley via the coupling shown.

40 kN
700-mm diameter

300-mm diameter

24 kN

Page 6 of 13 Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin N. Hamzah

 Lecture Title: Introduction, Stresses and Strains University Of Technology
Lecture Notes on Strength of Materials (2017-2018) Mechanical Engineering Department

Bearing Stress
If two bodies are pressed against each other, compressive forces are developed
on the area of contact. The pressure caused by these surface loads is called
bearing stress. Examples of bearing stress are the soil pressure beneath a pier and
the contact pressure between a rivet and the side of its hole. If the bearing stress
is large enough, it can locally crush the material, which in turn can lead to more
serious problems.

As an illustration of bearing stress, consider the lap joint formed by the two
plates that are riveted together as shown in Figure 2(a). The bearing stress caused
by the rivet is not constant; it actually varies from zero at the sides of the hole to
a maximum behind the rivet as illustrated in Figure 2(b). The difficulty inherent
in such a complicated stress distribution is avoided by the common practice of
assuming that the bearing stress b is uniformly distributed over a reduced area.
The reduced area Ab is taken to be the projected area of the rivet:

𝐴𝑏 = 𝑡 𝑑

where t is the thickness of the plate and d represents the diameter of the rivet, as
shown in the free body diagram (FBD) of the upper plate in Figure 2(c). From
this FBD we see that the bearing force Fb equals the applied load P, so that the
bearing stress becomes

𝐹𝑏 𝑃
𝜎𝑏 = =
𝐴𝑏 𝑡 𝑑

where 𝐴𝑏 is the projected area of the rivet hole.

Page 7 of 13 Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin N. Hamzah

 Lecture Title: Introduction, Stresses and Strains University Of Technology
Lecture Notes on Strength of Materials (2017-2018) Mechanical Engineering Department

Figure 2: Bearing stress: (a) a rivet in a lap joint; (b) bearing stress is not constant;
(c) bearing stress caused by the bearing force Pb is assumed to be
uniform on projected area t d.

Example 4:
The lap joint shown in the figure is fastened by four rivets of 19 mm diameter.
Find the maximum load P that can be applied if the working stresses are 96 MPa
for shear in the rivet and 124 MPa for bearing in the plate.

Solution:
We will calculate P using each of the two design
criteria. The largest safe load will be the smaller of
the two values. The FBD is shown of the lower
plate. This cut exposes the shear forces V that act
on the cross sections of the rivets. We see that the
equilibrium condition is V =P/4.

Page 8 of 13 Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin N. Hamzah

 Lecture Title: Introduction, Stresses and Strains University Of Technology
Lecture Notes on Strength of Materials (2017-2018) Mechanical Engineering Department

Design for Shear Stress in Rivets

The value of P that would cause the shear stress in the rivets to reach its working
value is found as follows:
𝑉
𝜏=
𝐴

𝑃/4
96 × 106 = 𝜋(19×10−3)2
4

P=108.8 kN

Design for Bearing Stress in Plate

The shear force V =P/4 that acts on the cross section of one rivet is equal to the
bearing force Pb due to the contact between the rivet and the plate. The value of
P that would cause the bearing stress is,

𝑃𝑏
𝜎𝑏 =
𝐴𝑏

Therefore, 𝑃𝑏 = 𝜎𝑏 𝑡 𝑑
𝑃
= (124 × 106 )(22 × 10−3 )(19 × 10−3 )
4

P = 207.3 kN

Choose the Correct Answer

Comparing the above solutions, we conclude that the maximum safe load P that
can be applied to the lap joint is

P=108.8 kN Answer

with the shear stress in the rivets being the governing design criterion.

Page 9 of 13 Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin N. Hamzah

 Lecture Title: Introduction, Stresses and Strains University Of Technology
Lecture Notes on Strength of Materials (2017-2018) Mechanical Engineering Department

Strain
If a bar is subjected to a direct load, the bar will change in length. If the bar has a
length L and changes in length by ΔL, the strain produced is defined as

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
∆𝐿 𝛿
𝜀= 𝑜𝑟 𝜀=
𝐿 𝐿

Stress – Strain Diagram

The strength of material is not the only criterion that must be considered in
designing structures the stiffness of material is frequently of equal importance.

If a specimen of structural steel is gripped between the jaws of testing machine

and the unit load or stress was plotted against unit elongation (or strain). The
resulted diagram shown is called a stress-strain diagram.

Page 10 of 13 Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin N. Hamzah

 Lecture Title: Introduction, Stresses and Strains University Of Technology
Lecture Notes on Strength of Materials (2017-2018) Mechanical Engineering Department

Notes:

1. The material behaves elastically till elastic limit B.

2. Point A is called proportionality limit where stress is proportional to strain.

3. The material beyond elastic limit is plastically deformed.

4. C is called upper yield point, and D is the lower yield point.

5. E is where the ultimate stress occur, in this point necking occur.

6. F is the fracture point.

Discussion

Hooke’s Law
A material is said to be elastic if it returns to its original, unloaded dimension,
when load is removed. In most engineering materials this elastic behavior is
linear, i.e. the stress is directly proportional with strain, Hooke’s law states that:

Stress (σ) ∝ Strain (ε)

Therefore,

Page 11 of 13 Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin N. Hamzah

 Lecture Title: Introduction, Stresses and Strains University Of Technology
Lecture Notes on Strength of Materials (2017-2018) Mechanical Engineering Department

𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀

where E is called the modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus.

Note: In most common engineering applications strain is rarely exceeded 0.001

or 0.1%.

𝐹 𝛿
𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀, since 𝜎 = and 𝜀=
𝐴 𝐿

𝐹 𝛿
=𝐸
𝐴 𝐿

𝐹𝐿
𝛿=
𝐴𝐸

Poisson's Ratio

When a specimen subjected to axial tensile loading a reduction or lateral

contraction induces to the specimen's cross-sectional area. Similarly, a
contraction owing to an axial compressive load is accompanied by a lateral
extension. In the linearly elastic region, it is found experimentally that lateral
strains, say in the y and z directions, are related by a constant of proportionality,
, to the axial strain caused by uniaxial stress only 𝜀𝑥 = 𝜎𝑥 /𝐸 , in the x direction:
𝜎𝑥
𝜀𝑦 = 𝜀𝑧 = −𝜈 (6)
𝐸

Alternatively, the definition of v may be stated as

𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝜈=− (7)
𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

Here  is known as Poisson's ratio, after S. D. Poisson (1781-1840). The values

of Poisson's ratio are 0.25 to 0.35 for most metals. Extreme cases range from a
low of 0.1 (for some concretes) to a high of 0.5 (for rubber).

Page 12 of 13 Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin N. Hamzah

 Lecture Title: Introduction, Stresses and Strains University Of Technology
Lecture Notes on Strength of Materials (2017-2018) Mechanical Engineering Department

Hooke’s Law in Shear

Shear stress causes the deformation shown in the
figure. The lengths of the sides of the element do not
change, but the element undergoes a distortion from
a rectangle to a parallelogram. The shear strain,
which measures the amount of distortion, is the angle
 (lowercase Greek gamma), always expressed in
radians. It can be shown that the relationship between shear stress  and shear
strain  is linear within the elastic range; that is,
𝜏=𝐺𝛾

which is Hooke’s law for shear. The material constant G is called the shear
modulus of elasticity (or simply shear modulus), or the modulus of rigidity. The
shear modulus has the same units as the modulus of elasticity (Pa).

Page 13 of 13 Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin N. Hamzah