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UNIT - 1
Basics of scientific investigation
Introduction
This unit contains two sub units: scientific measurement and doing scientific investigation. Under
scientific measurement the indigenous and modern methods of measurement, the classification of
physical quantities into fundamental and derived quantity and the difference between accuracy and
precision will be discussed.
Under doing scientific investigation, the importance, procedures and ethical issues of a scientific
investigation will be discussed.
Finally using locally available materials, a simple investigation will be conducted.

Scientific measurements

Making observation is common experience in science. Similarly, it is usual asking the basic questions like
how big an object is? How tall are you?

To answer these questions, measurements have to be made. Measurement is the process of obtaining
the magnitude of a quantity relative to an agreed standard.

Indigenous Methods of Measurements

An indigenous method of measurement refers to measurement
methods that are practiced locally for a long period of time and are
passed from generations to generation. In this section, we will pay
attention to the measurement of length, mass, and time.
A. Length
Length is a measure of the distance between two points. In Ethiopia we
use different indigenous units of length measurement. The commonly
used ones are:
1. Hand-span: The hand-span is the measure from the tip of your little

finger to the tip of your thumb when your hand is stretched out,
2.Digit: A digit is the width of an adult human male fingertip,
3.Cubit: A measure of distance from the tip of one’s elbow to
the tip of the middle finger when your arm is extended,
4.Foot: A measure of distance from the back of the heel
to the tip of the big toe,
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5.Pace: A linear distance measure of a person’s extended

walk. A pace is a unit of length consisting either of one normal
walking step. The pace is the distance measured from the
heel of one foot to the heel of the same foot when it next touché the ground.
6. Arm span: Arm span also known as fathom is the distance from
the middle fingertip of the left hand to that of the right hand when
you stretch your arms out as far as they can reach,

B. Mass
The amount of matter present in a substance is called mass. Like
length, there is also an indigenous method of measuring mass. The
following are some examples of the indigenous unit of mass
measurement used in Ethiopia.

1. Weqet- Weqet is a mass measuring unit usually used to measure the mass

of powder of gold in local markets.

2. Quntal – Quntal (may be taken from the English word quintal)
is a bag used to measure the mass of grains.

It is equal to a hundred kilogram.

3. Feresula:- is used to measure the mass of pepper and coffee. It is equal to 17 kilogram.

C. Time
Time is the measure of the duration for an interval. There is also an
indigenous method of measuring time. Our elders were used the
shadow of a tree to measure time. As the position of the Sun changes
from morning to evening the length of the shadow of a tree varies. In
the morning and late in the afternoon, the length of the shadow is high.

D. Volume
Volume is the measure of the space occupied by an object. In the local
markets of Addis Ababa the following tools are used for different
size volume measurements.
1. Jog: A plastic cup used for measuring the volume of liquids.
2. Tassa: A can used to measure cereals, pulses ,liquids and solids.
3. Sini: A small ceramic cup often used for measuring coffee, pulses
and spices.
4. Birchiko: A glass often for measuring pulses and liquids.
5. Kubaya: A mug, often used for measuring cereals, pulses.
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Physical Quantities and Scientific Methods of Measurement

In our day to day life, we measure many things such as the mass of
vegetables, the volume of liquids, the speed of a car, the temperature
of the day etc. Such quantities which could be measured are called
physical quantities.

A physical quantity is a property of an object that

can be measured or calculated from other physical quantity. Examples
of physical quantities are: length, mass, time, temperature, area,
volume, density, force etc.
Generally, physical quantities are classified into two types, namely:

fundamental quantities and derived quantities

1.Fundamental Physical quantities and their units

Fundamental quantities, also known as base quantities, are quantities

which cannot be expressed in terms of any other quantity. They are
the bases for other quantities. There are seven fundamental (basic)
physical quantities: length, mass, time, temperature, electric current,
luminous intensity and amount of a substance.

In this section we will discuss only about the first four commonly
measured fundamental quantities: length, mass, time and temperature.
The names and symbols of the units of the fundamental quantities
in the International System of units (SI) are shown in table 1.1.The
International System of Units (SI, abbreviated from the French
System international (d’unités)) is a system of measurement based on
base units. An International System of units (SI) is currently used all
over the world.
Measurement is the comparison of an unknown quantity with some
known quantity. This known fixed quantity is called a unit. Thus,
the result of a measurement is expressed in two parts. One part is
a number and the other part is the unit of the measurement.

For example, if a student has a mass of 32 kg:

the quantity being measured is mass, the value of the measurement is

32 and the unit of measure is kilograms (kg).
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This tells us that any measurement consists of two parts. The first is
the number which indicates the magnitude of the quantity and the
second indicates the unit (standard) of that quantity.

Units can be classified into two groups: fundamental units and derived units.

The units used to measure fundamental quantities are called

fundamental units. It does not depend on any other unit.

2.Derived Physical Quantities and their Units

Physical quantities which depend on one or more fundamental quantities
for their measurements are called derived quantities. Speed, area,
volume, density and force are examples of derived quantities. The
units used to measure derived quantities are called derived units. It
depends on fundamental units for their measurement. SI derived units
are described by mathematically combining (dividing, multiplying or
powering) the base units.

Prefixes and Conversion of Base Units

Prefix
In science we deal with quantities which are both very large and
very small. A short hand form of writing very large and very small
numbers is known as a prefix.

Prefix. Symbol Name. Decimal representation

Mega- M million- 1 000 000
Kilo k thousand - 1 000

Centi. c hundredth 0.01

milli. m thousandth 0.001
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Conversion of base units

It is often necessary to convert between units of measurement. Conversion of base units
It is often necessary to convert between units of measurement. For
example, a mass measured in grams may be required to convert into kilogram.
To convert from one unit to another within the SI, usually means
moving a decimal point. If you can remember what the prefixes mean,
you can convert within the SI system relatively easily by simply multiplying or dividing the number by
the value of the prefix.

Conversion of base units

It is often necessary to convert between units of measurement. For
example, a mass measured in grams may be required to convert into kilogram.
To convert from one unit to another within the SI, usually means
moving a decimal point. If you can remember what the prefixes mean,
you can convert within the SI system relatively easily by simply
multiplying or dividing the number by the value of the prefix.

Measuring Physical Quantities

The measurement of a physical quantity is done by using measuring instruments. In this section we will
discuss how to measure mass,length, time, and temperature using their appropriate devices.
Measuring the mass of objects
Instruments which are used to measure mass are known as balances.
The balance compares the mass of an object with a known mass.

The SI unit of mass is kilogram (kg). For small mass we use gram
(g). To measure the mass of objects less than 1 gram, we can use
milligram.

To measure the mass of big objects we use quintal and tone.

The relationship between different units of Length.

1 kg = 1000 g.
1 g = 1000 mg
1 quintal = 100 kg

1 tone = 1000 kg
Example 1.4: How much is 1200 gram in kilogram.
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Measuring Length
Length is a measure of how long an object is. Depending on the size of
the length of the object, we are going to use different types of length
measuring instrument.

The SI unit of length is meter (m). When we want to measure

larger lengths, we can use kilometers. If we want to measure
small lengths, we can use centimeters or millimeters.

The relationship between different units of Length.

1km = 1000 m

1 m = 100 cm
1cm = 10mm
Note that when we are measuring length using these device do not
forget to place the zero mark exactly at one end of the thing you are
measuring and read the scale at the other end.

Measuring time
Time is used to quantify the duration of events.

Time is measured with a stop watch or clock.

The SI unit of time is second (s). For longer intervals of time we use:
day, month , year, decades, century and millennium.

The relationship between different units of time

1 hour = 60 minutes
1 minute = 60 seconds
1 day = 24 hours
1 week = 7 days
1 year = 365 or 366 days
Example 1.6: Convert one hour into seconds.
Solution: 1 hour = 60 minutes = 60 × 60 second = 3600 secondsMeasuring

Temperature
Thermometer is the device used to measure the temperature of an
object or place. The SI unit of temperature is Kelvin.
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Degree Celsius (°C) and degree Fahrenheit (0F) are other units of temperature
Thermometers could be analogue or digital.

Accuracy and Precision in Measurement

Accuracy refers to how close a measurement is to its accepted or
known value.
Example 1.7: If in a laboratory you obtain a mass measurement of 8.2 kg for a given substance, but
the actual or known mass is 10 kg, is your measurement accurate?
Answer: This measurement is not accurate, because your measurement
(8.2 kg) is not close to the known value (10kg).

Precision refers to how close two or more measurements are to each other, regardless whether those
measurements are accurate or not.
Example 1.8: In the above example 1.4, if you measure the mass of
the given substance five times, and get 3.2 kg, 3.1 kg, 3.25 kg, 3.3 kg
and 3.2 kg. Is your measurement precise?
Answer: This measurement is precise, because the values are close
to each other but not accurate because it is far from the known value
(10 kg). This shows that precision is independent of accuracy.

You can be very precise but inaccurate. You can also be accurate but not precise.

* Scientific investigation

Introduction to Scientific Investigation

Science is a process of learning about the world through observation, inquiry, formulating and
testing hypotheses, gathering and analyzing data, and reporting and evaluating findings.This process is
referred as the scientific investigation or scientific method.

1.2 Scientific Method

What are the applications of scientific method?
All sciences, including the social sciences, employ variations of what
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is called the scientific method. Scientific method is the process by

which scientists approach their work.
* The Steps of the Scientific Method
Based on the type of question being asked, the type of science being
applied and the laws that apply to that particular branch of science, you
may need to modify the method and alter or remove one or several of
the steps.

1. Ask Questions

A scientific investigation typically begins with observations.

Observations often lead to questions. This question will include one
of the key starters, which are, how, what, when, why, where, who or
which. The question you ask should also be measurable and answerable
through experimentation. It is often something that can be measured
with a numerical result, although behavioral results are part of the
scientific method as well.

2. Perform Background Research

With your question formulated, conduct preliminary background
research to prepare yourself for the experiment. You can find
information through online searches or in your local library, depending
on the question you are asking and the nature of the background data.
You may also find previous studies and experiments that can help
with your process and conclusions.
3. Establish your Hypothesis
Based on the data that were gathered, the researcher formulated a
hypothesis. A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for a set of
observations. Your hypothes should also include your predictions that
you can measure through experimentation and research.A hypothesis
must be based on scientific knowledge, and it must be logical.

4. Test your Hypothesis

Next, test your hypothesis by conducting an experiment. Your
experiment is a way to quantifiably test your predictions and
should be able to be repeated by another scientist. Assess your
scientific process and make sure that the conditions remain the same
throughout all testing measures. If you change any factors in your
experiment, keep all others the same to maintain fairness. After you
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complete the experiment, repeat it a few more times to make sure the
results are accurate.
5. Analyze the Results and Draw a Conclusion
You can now take your experiment findings and analyze them to
determine if they support your hypothesis or not. Drawing a conclusion
means determining whether what you believed would happen actually
happened. If it did not happen, you can create a new hypothesis and
return to step three, then conduct a new experiment to prove your new
theory. If what you hypothesized happened during the experimentation
phase, the final step is putting together your findings and presenting
them to others.
6. Communicating Results
The last step in a scientific investigation is communicating what you
have learned with others. This is a very important step because it allows
others to verify your methods and results. If other researchers get the
same results as yours, the hypothesis becomes stronger. However,
if they get different results, they may not support the hypothesis.
When scientists share their results, they should describe their
methods and point out any possible problems with the investigation.
Finally, communicating results can be done in a variety of ways
including scientific papers, blogs, news, articles, conferences, etc.

Questions for unit one

Choose the best answer from the given answer
1. Which one of the following is the decimal representation of centi ?

A. 0.001 B. 0.01 C. 0.0001 D. 0.000001

2. _____ is used to measure Small amount of objects.

A. Kilogram B. Quntal C. Milligram D. Tone

3. 1 milligram is equal to _______ kilogram.

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A. 1000000 kg B. 0.000001kg C. 0.0001kg D. 0.001kg

4. If in Laboratory you obtain the Mass measurement of 15 kg , 15.1 kg, 14.9 kg and 15.2kg

for given substance. But the actual value is 10 kg. Is your measurement is ....

A. Percise B. Accurate C. Nether percise nor accurate

D. Both percise and accurate

5. Reporting the results in the form of written or oral presentation is called ______.

A. Hypothesis B. Ask question C. Communicating the results D. Analysis

6. The si- unit of density is ______.

A. Kg/m3 B. M3/kg C. M/s D. M3

7.One of the following is not an indigenous measurement method of length.

A. Cubit B. Digit. C. Feresula. D. Hand span

8. ________ is a measure of the distance between two points.

A. Length B. Mass. C. Volume D. Speed

9. Mega is equivalent to _______.

A. 1000. B. 10000. C. 100000 D. 1000000

10 One of the following is different from the other.

A. Weqet B. Feresula C. Arm span D. Quintal

11.Which one of the following is an example of fundamental physical quantity ?

A. Length B. Volume. C. Area. D. Speed

12..5500 meter is equal to _________ km.

A. 55km B. 5.5 km. C. 550km. D. 50 km

14. Which one of the following is accurate measurement with 8.9 meter.
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A. 8.9,8.8 and 8.7

B. 5.4,5.5 and 5 .6

C. 4.9, 4.7 and 4.6

D. 3.5, 3.6 and 3.7

15.One of the following is indicating CO2 compound.

A. OO B. OOO C. OOO D. OOO

16. ________is the third step of scientific method

A. Hypothesis. B. Conclusion. C. Analysis D. Observation

10. "Is air is necessary for life" this question is belongs to ______.

A. Ask questions B. Hypothesis. C. Analysis. D. Conclusion

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UNIT -2
Composition of matter
The earliest recorded discussion of the basic structure of matter
comes from ancient Greek philosophers, the scientists of their day.
Some of them argued that matter is continuous i.e., it could be divided
endlessly into smaller pieces. Others believed that matter is discrete;
i.e., it cannot be infinitely divided.
Democritus (460 - 370 B.C) expressed the belief that all matter
consists of very small, indivisible particles, which he named atoms
(meaning uncut table or indivisible). He thought of atoms as moving
particles that differed in shape and size which could join together.
According to Democritus matter is discrete.
Aristotle (384 – 322 B.C) argued that matter is divided into smaller
and smaller parts, the division continuous forever without any limit.
He did not believe in microscopic building particles of matter.
Therefore, according to Aristotle, matter is continuous and he believed
that matter consisted of the combinations of fire, earth, air, and water.Table

2.1Comparison between the discrete and continuous theory of matter

Discreteness Theory. Continuous Theory

which matter is broken. Matter is infinitely divisible

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Parts of the atoms

What are the two parts of atom?

An atom consists of a tiny dense nucleus surrounded by electrons. The
nucleus contains positively charged protons and neutral neutrons, so
it is positively charged. The electrons are negatively charged. Protons
and neutrons have approximately the same mass and are about 1800
times more massive than an electron. This means that most of the mass
of an atom is in its nucleus. However, most of the volume of an atom is
occupied by its electrons.

The Sub atomic particle

Atoms possess internal structure; that is, they are made up of even
smaller particles, which are called subatomic particles. A subatomic
particle is a very small particle that is a building block for atoms. An atom contains three
fundamental sub atomic particles: proton, electron and neutron. An atom has a definite
number of protons, electrons and neutrons. The structure of the atom describes how these
particles are arranged to make an atom.
The relative charge of a proton is +1. The electron is assigned a
charge of −1. The neutron is assigned zero charge. Since an atom
has equal number of protons and electrons, it is electrically neutral.
A proton has a mass of 1.673 × 10–24 g, and a neutron has a mass of
1.675 × 10–24 g. Thus, a proton and a neutron have almost the same
mass. Since the mass of an electron is very small, 9.109 × 10–28 g,
its mass is assumed to be negligible or approximately zero because it is ≈ 2000 times less
heavier than both the proton and neutron.
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Atomic Number and Mass Number

All atoms can be identified by the number of protons and neutrons
they contain. The atomic number (Z) of an atom equals the number
of protons in its nucleus. The atomic number is also the number of
electrons that surround the nucleus of a neutral atom.
tomic number (Z) = Number of protons= number of electrons
Mass number (A) is the sum of the number of protons and the
number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. Except for the most
common form of hydrogen, which has one proton and no neutrons,
all atomic nuclei contain both protons and neutrons.
Mass number (A) = Number of protons + Number of neutrons.
= Atomic number + Number of neutrons.

- Determination of the electron, proton, and neutrons

Proton is equal to the atomic number of atoms.
Number of protons = atomic number (Z)
Electron: The atom is neutral therefore the number of electrons is equal to the number of
protons.
Number of electrons = atomic number (Z) = number of protons
The number of neutrons in an atom is equal to the difference between the mass number and
the atomic number or proton number.

Number of neutrons = Mass number (A) - Number of protons

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Molecules

Molecules of Elements
A molecule of an element consists of only one type of an atom.
Molecules of elements can be classified as monoatomic, diatomic and
polyatomic.

1. Monoatomic molecules are molecules that contain one atom

of the element. Examples: He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe and Rn are
monoatomic molecules
2. Diatomic molecules are molecules that contain two atoms of
the element. Examples: O2, H2, F2, Cl2, I2 are diatomic
molecules.

3. Polyatomic molecules are molecules that contain more than

three atoms of the element. Examples: O3, P4, S8 are polyatomic
molecules.
Molecules of compounds
A molecule of a compound always contains two or more atoms of different elements combined
chemically. Water (H2O), ammonia (NH3), carbon dioxide (CO2), etc. are some examples of
molecules of compounds.
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Question for unit - 2

I. Write ‘‘True’’ if the statement is correct and write ‘‘False’’ if the
statement is incorrect.
1. Nucleus consists of protons and neutrons.
2. Atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus.
3. Molecules of elements consist of two or more different type
of atoms.
4. Proton and electron have approximately the same mass.
5. Different elements have the same number of protons.
II. Choose the correct answer from the given alternatives.
6. The idea that matter is ‘continuous’ was proposed by
A. Democritus
B. Aristotle
C. Dalton
D. None
7. The idea of ‘atoms’ first proposed by the Greek philosopher----
A. Aristotle
B. Plato
C. Dalton
D. Democritus

8. Which of the following particles located in the nucleus of an

atom?
A. Proton and electron. C. Electron and neutron
B. Neutron and proton. D. Proton, electron and neutron
9. The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in an atom is
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known as
A. Atomic number

B. Atomic mass
C. Mass number
D. Number of electron

10. The number of neutrons in a Magnesium atom are

A. 12 B. 11

C. 24. D. 13

11.Which of the following statements concerning the nucleus of an atom is correct?

A. Contains only neutrons
B. Contains all protons and all electrons
C. Is always positively charged
D. Accounts for most of the total volume of an atom

12. Which of the following molecule is diatomic molecule?

A. O2
B. O3
C. P4
D. S8
13. Which of the following statement is false?
A. Molecules of elements consist of only one type of atoms.
B. Nucleus is positively charged.
C. Molecules of compounds consist of only one type of atoms.
D. Neutrons have no charge.
14. Which of the following molecule is molecule of elements?
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A. H2O
B. NH3
C. H2
D. HCl
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UNIT - 3
Classification of Compound

Introduction
During the latter part of the eighteenth century and the early part
of the nineteenth century, chemists began to categorize compounds
into two types: organic and inorganic. Compounds obtained from
living organisms were called organic compounds, and compounds
obtained from mineral constituents of the earth were called inorganic
compounds. During this early period, chemists believed that a special
“vital force” supplied by a living organism was necessary for the
formation of an organic compound. This concept was disproved in
1828 by the German chemist Friedrich Wöhler. Wohler prepared
urea, an organic compound, from the reaction between solutions
of inorganic compounds ammonium chloride and silver cyanate.

NH4Cl (aq) + AgCNO (aq) NH4CNO (aq) + AgCl (s)

Ammonium chloride + Silver cyanate ----> Ammonium cyanate + Silver chloride
NH4CNO (aq) Heat (NH2)2CO (s) Urea

Soon other chemists had successfully synthesized organic compounds from inorganic starting materials.
As a result, the vital-force theory was completely abandoned.

The terms organic and inorganic continue to be used in classifying compounds, but the definitions of
these terms no longer reflect their historical origins.
All organic compounds contain carbon and hydrogen, along with other possible elements such as oxygen,
nitrogen, sulphur, halogens and phosphorus except the oxides of carbon, carbonates, hydrogen
carbonates, cyanides and cyanates.
Inorganic compounds are the compounds consisting of mineral
constituents of the earth or generally found in non-living things. The
term inorganic compound refers to all compounds that do not contain
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carbon. Although, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, carbonates and

hydrogen carbonates are carbon-containing compounds, which are
classified as inorganic compounds.

Hydrocarbons
A hydrocarbon is a compound that contains only carbon atoms and hydrogen atoms. Hydrocarbons
divided into three large classes

:alkanes, alkenes and alkynes.

1.Alkanes
Alkanes are hydrocarbons that have the general formula CnH2n+2,
where, n is the number of carbon atoms present, n = 1, 2, 3…..
For example, the molecular formulas of the first four alkanes are
C1H2×1+2 = CH4, C2H2×2 + 2 = C2H6, C3H2×3 + 2 = C3H8, and C4H2×4 + 2 =C4H10

When we compare the formulas of CH4 and C2H6 or C2H6 and C3H8,
they differ by one carbon and two hydrogen atoms or – CH2 – group
called the methylene group. A family of compounds in which each
member differs from the next by one methylene (-CH2-) group is called

homologous series (homo is Greek for “the same as). The members
of a homologous series are called homologues

Alkenes
Alkenes are hydrocarbons that have the general formula CnH2n,
where, n is the number of carbon atoms present, n = 2, 3….. For
example, the molecular formulas of the first three alkenes are
C2H2×2 = C2H4, C3H2×3 = C3H6, and C4H2×4 = C4H8, respectively

Alkynes
Alkynes are hydrocarbons that have the general formula CnH2n-2,
where n = 2, 3, 4, etc. For example, the formulas of the first three
alkynes are C2H2×2-2 = C2H2, C3H2×3-2 = C3H4, and C4H2×4-2 = C4H6,
respectively.
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Nomenclature (Naming) of Hydrocarbons

Form a group and perform the following activity. Share your opinion
with your group members.
1. How do we give specific name to a hydrocarbon?
2. Are hydrocarbons named based on certain rules or randomly?
The name of hydrocarbons is derived from the number of carbon atoms present (prefix) and the
ending it contains (suffix).

The names of alkanes, alkenes and alkynes end with the suffixes ‘-ane’, ‘-ene’
and ‘-yne’, respectively.
i. a prefix- indicating the number of carbon atoms .
ii. a suffix indicating the type of the functional group present in the molecule or the type of hydrocarbon.

Carbon number. Prefix. Carbon number. prefix

1- meth. 6. hex

2- eth. 7. hept

3. prop. 8. oct

4. But. 9. Non
5. pent. 10. dec