IWE GIRLS SCHOOL

SENIOR III
ENGLISH NOTES

PREPARED BY ENGLISH TEACHER

Emmanuel BENIMANA

2022-2023
UNIT 1. CAREERS

LESSON I: TENSES AND THEIR USES

English tenses differ from the following timeline that shows three main tenses and their sub-
tenses.
PAST TENSE PRESENT TENSE FUTURE TENSE
-Simple past tense -simple present tense -Simple future

-Past perfect tense -present continuous -Future perfect

-Past continuous -present perfect -Future continuous

-Past perfect continuous -present perfect continuous -fut. perf. Contin.

-Past conditional -present conditional -Near future (going to)

A. PRESENT TENSES
1.SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE
(a) Definition: the simple present is a present tense which indicates that an action is present
now related to the speaker or the writer generally. Simply, it is called today tense.
Form: subject personal pronouns/nouns + infinitive-to (bare infinitive)
E.g. ●I go to school every day.
 ●We study English.
●They always drink milk.
Notes: Generally, on the third persons singular he, she, and it, we add s on a conjugated verb.
E.g. –Karangwa often eats potatoes.
-It barks loudly.
-Mary cooks potatoes.
But when a verb is ended by one of the following consonants: “s, x, ch, sh, and o”,
we add es on that conjugated verb.
E.g. –She goes to Kigali.
-He finishes his task.
-A boy guesses the subject.
-Our teacher fixes the date.
-Alpha teaches English well.
Verbs ending in “e” we add “s” on them to form their simple present.
E.g.-She lives in the city.
-It seldom dies.
-Peter writes a letter.
Verbs that end in y followed a consonant they change in I and we add es in simple present.
E.g.-He studies English at school.
-It flies very fast.
-She often cries in the classroom.
Keywords (signal words) of simple present.
*Usually *Every time *in these days
*Often *Never *Nowadays

*Sometimes *Only *Ever

*Seldom *Always *Frequently
*Every day, month, week, year
*Generally
 *Once a week
*Twice a day
*Thrice a day.
2. PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE
(a) Definition: present continuous tense is the present tense used to show that we are in the
middle of an action, to mean that the action is in progress at this time. Simply the words and the
actions happen at the same time.
Form: verb “to be” in simple present + main (given) verb + ing form
E.g. –I am going to school.
-He is walking on foot.
-We are eating cassava.
-A Lion is shouting loudly.
Note: • Some verbs we double their last consonant when used in continuous tenses. Are those
ones which consist of consonant + vowel + consonant (CVC)
E.g. –put →putting
Cut → cutting
Hit → hitting
Sit → sitting
Commit → committing
Dig → digging
• Verbs ending in y preceded by a consonant add ing form directly after it
E.g. Study → studying
Worry → worrying
Key/signal words of present continuous.
-Now –still now
–any longer
-Still
–At this moment
-anymore
-At present
-even now -until/till now
3.PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
(a) Definition: Present perfect tense is the present tense which shows that an action has finished
in a short (few) passed time.
Form: verb “to have” in simple present + past participle of main (given) verb.
I/you/we/they: have + past participle of main (given) verb.
He/she/it: has + past participle of main (given) verb.
E.g.-I have finished my task.
-Mary and Mutoni have done many exercises.
-He has studied English.
-My brother has not come since 1997.
-There has been no rain for six months.
(b)Usage of present perfect tense

•Used with for, for something that started in the past and continues in the present

E.g.-They have sold English newspapers in Rwanda for many years.

-Raja has lived in Salem for three years. (To mean Raja is still in Salem)
• With since for something that started in the past and is still happening
E.g.-The journalist has worked in RBA since he left University.
-I have not met my grandmother since June.
•When talking about an experience up to now.
E.g.-This is the most interesting article I have ever read.

Key/signal words of present perfect.

-Just -until/till now -in the past week
-Already -not yet -in the last few years.

-Yet -so far -up to now

-Never -recently -early

-Ever -this year (until now) -for

-Today (until now) -since.
4.PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
1) Definition: present perfect continuous is the present tense that describes an action started in
the past but is still happening in the present.
Form: verb to be in present perfect + main verb + ing form.
I/you/we/they → have been + main verb + ing
He/she/it → has been + main verb + ing
E.g.-I have been waiting for you for 2hours.
-She has been writing many letters.
-We have been studying to become lawyers.
-They have been doing this job for three years now.

USES OF PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

We use the present perfect continuous to talk about;
a. An action which began in the near past and is still continuing. It does not matter how
long the near past is.
E.g. He has been working as a doctor for a very long time. (He still works as a doctor)
b. The time interval and length of an action up to present using since and for.
E.g. 1. She has been lecturing since she finished her university.
2. We have been waiting for the new manager for five months
c. Drawing conclusions
E.g. 1. His eyes are red. It is clear he has been crying after that difficult.
2. Look at his hands. He must have been cultivating for his entire.

Remember: Since and for help us to know the time interval an action has taken.
E.g.-Musafiri has been teaching since 2000. (Begun teaching this year up to now)
-Musafiri has been teaching for fifteen years. (Has spent these years teaching)
Key/signal words used in present perfect continuous
-since
-for
 5.PRESENT CONDITIONAL
Form: would + bare infinitive
E.g.-Peter would go to Kampala.
-I would teach Mathematics.
-He would finish his homework.

B. PAST TENSES
1.SIMPLE PAST TENSE
(a) Definition: simple past tense is a past tense which is used to express an action that took
place in the past. Generally, it is formed by adding “ed” or “d” to a verb. Simply, it is called
yesterday tense.
Form: -regular verbs+ ed or d
-Irregular verbs (to be memorized), the second column.
E.g.-I played football yesterday.
-Last week he saw an elephant.
-We travelled to Delhi.
(b)Exceptions to some verbs
●Generally, we form the simple past tense by adding “ed” to the verbs in their base form.
E.g. Verb Simple past
-Stay→ stayed
-Pack→ packed
-Visit→ visited
●The verbs ending in “e” we add d to form their simple past.
E.g. Verb Simple past
Invite→ invited
Arrive→ arrived
Lodge→ lodged
●If a one syllable regular verb ends in consonant +vowel + consonant/CVC double the final
consonant and add ed.
E.g.-plan →planned
-travel →travelled
-omit →omitted
-commit →committed
-stop →stopped
-rob →robbed
-beg →begged
●If a regular verb ends in “y” preceded by a consonant, they changed to I and ed is added to
form their simple past.
E.g.-hurry →hurried
-party →partied
-study →studied
-supply →supplied
-carry →carried
-try →tried

•If a regular verb has more than one syllable and ends in CVC we double the final consonant
only if the final syllable is stressed.
E.g.-prefer →preferred
-regret →regretted
•In British English verbs ending in l have ll before ed whether the final syllable is stressed or
not.
E.g.-travel →travelled
-label →labelled
Key or signal words of simple past tense.
-Yesterday -one day last week/month/year
-Last day/week/month/year -once

-Long ago -in ancient time

-In1980 -lastin2001
-two years ago
-ago
2.PAST PERFECT TENSE
1.Definition: the past continuous tense is a past tense used to express a continued or an ongoing
action in the past.
Form: verb “to be” in simple past + main (given) verb + ing form.
I/he/she/it: was + main verb + ing form.
We/you/they: were +main verb + ing form.
E.g.-I was running very fast.
-Peter and Karangwa were shouting loudly.
2.Use of past continuous.
●Used to express an action going on at some time in the past.
E.g.-I was reading a story for a long time yesterday.
-They were playing football last week.
●Two parallel actions happening at the same time in the past/actions in progress at the same,
we use past continuous on both actions.
E.g.-I was studying while she was making dinner.
-While others were reading the books, John was watching a television.
-While I was cooking, my mother was watching TV.
●If a subordinate clause starts with “while” past continuous should be used in it.
E.g.-While she was cooking vegetables, I danced pop.
-All the students fell in the river while they were crossing the bridge.
●To make a polite inquires
E.g.-I was wondering whether we could meet tomorrow.
●To set the scene at the beginning of the story.
E.g.-It was Christmas when Moses and I decided to go shopping. The sun was shining brightly
and dust was everywhere. The driver was driving very fast when he suddenly saw a lorry in
front of us.
Key(signal) words used in past continuous.
-All last night -all yesterday
-From two o’clock to four -all morning yesterday

-All last week -at 9o’clock this morning

-All last month -For a long time yesterday.

3.PAST PERFECT TENSE
(a) Definition: past perfect tense is a past tense used to express an action which occurred in the
past (usually a long time ago).
Form: verb to have in simple past + past participle of main/given verb
I/you/he/she/it/we/they + had + past participle
E.g.-I had gone to New York.
-Karangwa had eaten cassava.
(b)Use of past perfect tense
●To describe an action completed before a certain period or point of time in the past.
E.g.-We had taken our dinner by eight.
-The plane had arrived before 10 o’clock.
-By lunch time the batsman had scored sixty-five runs.
●Subordinate clause starts with “after” is to be mentioned in past perfect tense and the main
clause should be mentioned in simple past.
E.g.-We reached the railway station after the train had left.
-After the tailor had taken the measurements, he cut the cloth.
●Subordinate clause starts with “before” is to be mentioned in simple past and the main clause
should be mentioned in past perfect tense.
E.g.-Barath had prepared thoroughly before he went to the examination.
-We had reached home before it began to rain.
C. FUTURE TENSES
1. SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE
(a) Definition: simple future tense refers to a time later than today; it indicates that an action is
in the future related to the speaker or writer.
Form: shall/will + bare infinitive
I/we + shall + bare infinitive
 He/she/it/you/they + will + bare infinitive
E.g.-I shall go to Kigali next week.
-They will speak English next year in senior 2.
Note: we generally use will in simple future tense.
Key/signal words used in simple future
-Tomorrow -in 2023
-Next day/week/month/year -later
-In future -here after
-Soon -today evening
-Shortly -in a little time
-In the coming day -in the years to come
-Within a week
2.FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE
It is the future tense which is used to expressing a continued action or an ongoing action in the
future.
Form: verb “to be” in simple future + main verb + ing form
E.g. –We will be studying English tomorrow at 8 o’clock.
-My sibling will be doing his homework next Monday by 10 o’clock.
Key/signal words used in future continuous
-By this time tomorrow/next week
-Next year/tomorrow at this time
-By this month next year
-By 8 o’clock tomorrow

LESSON II: MIXED TENSES

Mixed tenses is how two tenses are used in one sentence.
E.g. –When the teacher had entered the class, we did our homework.
-While I was reading the books, Peter shouted to me.
a) Simple past and past perfect tense
 Rule: two actions happened in the past, one occurred before another, use past perfect to the first
action and simple past to the second one.
E.g.-I had gone to bed when someone rang the bell.
-The wounded person had already died when the ambulance arrived.
-When I had played football, I saw him.
b) Simple past and past perfect tense
Rule: two simultaneous actions happened in the past, one is long the other is short, we use past
continuous to long/continued action and simple past/past perfect for the short action.
E.g.-He was watching TV when I called him.
-When the phone rang, she was toasting the bread.
-While they were having the picnic, it started to rain.
c) Simple present and future continuous
Rule: two actions which will happen in the future, the longer action is put in future continuous,
the shorter one in simple present.
E.g.-He will be watching TV when she arrives tonight.
-We will be revising our notes when our father enters the house.
-When she cooks dinner, my young brother will be crying.

LESSON III: CONDITIONAL CLAUSES (IF CLAUSES)

1. Definition: conditional clauses (if clauses) refer to two actions, one occurs when there is a
condition to be fulfilled by the other one.
2.Types of if clauses
There are four types of if clauses: -zero if or zero conditional
-if (1) or first conditional
-if (2) or second conditional
-if (3) or third conditional
A. ZERO IF OR ZERO CONDITIONAL
In this type, it is possible to fulfill a condition which is given in if clause.
Form: If clause main clause
 If + simple present…………………………simple present
E.g.-If it rains, the grass gets wet. /The grass gets wet if it rains.
-If the sun shines, it gets hot.
-If you heat up water up to 100 Celsius degrees, it bolts.

B. IF (1) OR FIRST CONDITIONAL.

In this type, it is possible to fulfill a condition which is given in if clause.
Form: If clause main clause
If + simple present……………………….......simple future
E.g.-If I have money, I will buy a car.
-If you study every day, you will pass the exams.
-If you study medicine, you will become a doctor.

Note1: if clause can come at the beginning and at the end of a sentence, when it is at the
beginning of a sentence we have to put a comma and when it is at the end we don’t put a
comma.
E.g.-I will buy a car if I have money.
-He will beat you if Peter is a boy.
-You will suffer from lack of energy if you don’t eat enough potatoes.

C. IF (2) OR SECOND CONDITIONAL

In this type, it is impossible to fulfill a condition which is given in if clause.
Form: If clause main clause
If + simple past present conditional (would + bare infinitive)

E.g.-If you went to bed earlier, you would not be so tired.

–If I studied hard, I would pass the exams.
-I could buy a car if I had money.
-If he were an architect, he would design the city.
 In this case for the verb “to be” it is better to use “were” to say what is formal instead of using
“was” which is less formal.
D. IF (3) OR THIRD CONDITIONAL
In this type, it is impossible to fulfill a condition which is given in if clause.
Form: If clause main clause
If + past perfect…………past conditional (would + have + past perfect of main verb)
E.g.-If I had had money, I would have bought a car.
-If he had studied harder, he would have passed the exam.
-I could have got a job in England if my English had been good.
-If they had worked hard, they wouldn’t have failed.
Note2: we can use if clause negatively to mean unless or if…not.
Form: Unless + affirmative form…………Or…………………………….+ unless +
affirmative form
E.g.-Unless you work hard, you will not succeed my exam.
-I will not leave your house unless you pay me.
-Unless I had money, I would not buy a car.
-Unless Peter had been in the class, the teacher would have punished him.
-The teacher would have punished him unless Peter had been in the class.

LESSON IV: RELATIVE CLAUSES

1) Definition: a relative clause is one kind of dependent clause that adds information to another
clause, it has a subject and a verb but can’t stand alone as a sentence.
All relative clauses describe a noun, and they begin with one of these relative
pronouns or relative adverbs.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS

Who (to describe people –subject)

E.g.-The woman who works in the bank is my neighbor.

Whom (to describe people –object)

E.g.-This is my cousins, whom I like so much.
Whose (to describe possession)
E.g.-The man whose car was stolen went to the police station.

That (to describe things –defining relative clauses)

E.g.-I’m selling the computer that I bought in the U.S.

Which (to describe things –non –defining relative clauses)

E.g.-I’m selling this computer, which has a 250GB hard drive, for $500.

RELATIVE ADVERBS

When (to describe time)

E.g.-My favorite season is fall, when all the leaves change color.

Where (to describe places)

E.g.-I visited the neighborhood where I grew up.

Why (to give a reason)

E.g.-Do you know the reason why the stores are closed today?

2) TYPES OF RELATIVE CLAUSES

(a) Defining relative clause
(b)Non-Defining Relative Clauses.

(A)DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES

Defining relative clauses add essential information about someone or something.

We usually use relative pronouns such as: who, which, that, whom, whose and relative
adverbs such as: where, when, and why.

E.g.-They are people who want to buy our house.

-Here are cells which have been affected.
-The man with whom I was in the hotel is mad.

Note: Defining relative clause does not use a comma.

(B)NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSE.

Non-defining relative clauses add extra information about the person or thing.
 E.g.-Clare, who I work with, is doing the London marathon.
-The dog, which I saw yesterday, was running very quick.

-The boy, whose bag was cut, came late to school.

Note: •In non-defining relative clause commas are used at the beginning and at the end of it.

•In non-defining clause “that” isn’t used, instead we use who or which.

You can see if a relative clause is defining or non-defining by removing it from the sentence. If
you remove a non-defining relative clause, the sentence still has the same meaning. If you
remove a defining relative clause, the sentence has a different meaning or is incomplete.

Example of a sentence with defining relative clause:

That is the student who failed English subject three times.
If you remove “who failed English subject three times” The sentence will be incomplete.
That is the student.
Therefore, the relative clause “who failed English subject three times” is essential
information, because it defines which student, specifically, we are talking about.

Example of a sentence with a non-defining relative clause:

-My brother, who lives in California, is an engineer.

If you remove “who lives in California,” the sentence still has the same meaning (is complete):
My brother is an engineer.
The relative clause “who lives in California” is extra information.

UNIT 2. RUNNING A BUSINES

LESSON V: PRONUNCIATION OF SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

Letter “s” which is used on third personal singular in simple present tense is pronounced
differently in the following cases:

→We pronounce/s/as/s/ after these sounds:

/f/laughs, scarfs, stiffs….
/p/drops, mops, stops, drops, shops, weeps….
 /k/or/ke/takes, wakes, awakes, kicks, talks, breaks, seeks, clicks, stalks, speaks….
/t/or/te/creates, puts, cuts, acts, hits, heats, meets, eats, beats, completes, deletes……
→We pronounce/s/as/iz/ after the sounds:
/z/or/ze/loses, rises, sneezes, squeezes, supposes….
/dʒ/manages, judges, lodges, stages….
/s/passes, dresses, possesses, confesses….
/ʃ/pushes, finishes, washes, pushes, bushes….
/tʃ/stiches, catches, fetches, stretches, touches….

/ks/mixes, foxes…

→We pronounce/s/as/z/after all other sounds:

/b/robs, tabs, crabs….
/d/or/de/adds, upgrades, grades, downloads, uploads….
/g/digs, tags, begs, plugs….
/l/fills, till, wills….
/m/dreams, steams, films….
/n/runs, means, turns, funs, fans….
/η/rings, sting, sings….
/y/says, stays, plays, prays, decays…….
/r/stirs
After vowels: sees, dies, flies…. After vowel + w: draws

LESSON VI: COMPARATIVES, SUPERLATIVES AND PARALLEL INCREASE

1) Definition: a comparative form is when two people, animals, or things are compared.
It is divided into three types:

A) Comparative of inferiority

B) Comparative of equality

C) Comparative of superiority

A) Comparative of inferiority

Comparative of inferiority is used to showing that one side is on less level comparing
with the other side.

Form: a + verb + less + adjective + than + b

e.g.- Desire is less intelligent than Rachel.
-Father is less old than grandfather.
B) Comparative of equality

Comparative of equality is used to mentioning that both sides are on the same level.

Form: a + verb + as + adjective + as + b

A + verb + not + as + adjective + b

e.g. –Ram is as short as Raj.
-Kinyarwanda is as important as English.
-Robert is not as intelligent as Raul.
C) Comparative of superiority

Mostly comparative form is shown by comparative of superiority which is used to

mentioning that one side is on high level comparing with the other side. In this form the
adjective always takes er.

Forms: -a + verb + short adjective + er + than + b

-a + verb + more + long adjective +than + b

e.g.-Mary is taller than Juliet.
-Physics can be more difficult than Mathematics.

-Education will be better than it was before.

-Health provision will be higher than in the past.

-Economic growth will be higher than before.

-Poverty will be less than it is now.

-Farmers will be better trained than before.

More examples that show comparative form.

Short adjectives
Positive Comparative

Small Smaller

Tall Taller

Long Longer

Short Shorter

Poor Poorer

Rich Richer
 Hard Harder

Long adjectives
Positive Comparative

Beautiful More beautiful

Interesting More interesting

Dangerous More dangerous

Careful More careful

Intelligent More intelligent

Comfortable More comfortable

Important More important

Exceptions

● Some adjectives we double the last consonant (CVC adjectives: consonant + vowel +
consonant)
E.g. Positive Comparative
-big Bigger

-thin Thinner

-hot Hotter

-fat Fatter
● Adjectives ending in “e” we add “r” in comparative and “st” in superlative

E.g. Positive Comparative

-large larger

-fine finer

-simple simpler

● Adjectives ending in y they changed in I and we add er in comparative and est in

superlative.
E.g. positive Comparative
-easy Easier
 -dirty Dirtier

-happy Happier

-angry Angrier

-hungry Hungrier

-ugly Uglier

-heavy Heavier

● Irregular adjectives

Positive Comparative

-good Better

-bad Worse
-much More

-many More

-little Less

•Very + adjective
E.g.-It is a very expensive product. It costs more than the one we bought last week.
•Most + adjective/adverb = very + adjective/adverb
E.g.-He was most obliging/He was very obliging.
•Even/much/far/a bit + comparative
E.g.-My sister behaved even worse than before.
-Kayezu is much more patient with children.
•Any + comparative (used in negatives and questions)
E.g.-This budget was not any better than the previous one.
•Such + a/an(noun)…… + as……
E.g.-This is not such an exciting film as the last one.
-He was such a good girl as that I had seen in the party.
•The same + as
E.g.-Your shirt is the same as mine.
•Comparative + and + comparative
E.g.-Their life is getting better and better.
•Less…(adjective/adverb) …...than
The least…. (adjective/adverb) …. of/in
E.g.-The red sofa is less expensive than the blue one but the black is the least expensive of all.

PARALLEL INCREASE AND DECREASE

This is a way in English, how actions are increased and others decreased due to how someone
or something does those actions equally or inequally.
(A) PARALLEL INCREASE
In this case both actions increased in the same way.
E.g.-The more you read books, the more you gather enough vocabulary.
-The more you beat me, the more you cry loudly.
-The earlier you start, the sooner you will finish.
-The more intelligent he is, the more success he will get in the exams.
-The harder you try your best, the harder you achieve your goal.

(B) PARALLEL DECREASE

In this case both actions decrease in the same way. (One action causes the decreasing of the
other one)
E.g.-The less you read books, the less you gather enough vocabulary.
-The less you beat me, the less I cry.

(C)PARALLEL INCREASE AND DECREASE

In this case one event increase and the other decrease. (It is the contradiction making or saying)
E.g.-The more time you spend in working, the less poverty you.
-The less you beat me, the more I cry.

UNIT3: FOLKTALES
 LESSON VII: CONNECTORS
1) Definition: a connector is a word that joins or links the nouns, sentences, phrases and
clauses. It is there for linking the words of the same nature. There are different types of
connectors.
(A) SUBORDINATING CONNECTORS
They connect two clauses and they are divided into different types.
(a) Subordinating connectors of cause or reasons
They are used to mentioning the reason or the cause of something.
They include: because, because of, since, as, due to
•Because/because of
The difference between these two is that because is followed by a subject + verb, and because
of is followed by a noun.
E.g.-I cannot succeed because I didn’t study well.
-His family can’t pay for him the school fees because of poverty.
-The game was cancelled because of the rain.
-The game was cancelled because it was raining.
•Since/as
Since and as are more informal and they are followed by a subject + verb.
E.g. -They eat thrice a day as poverty has reduced.
-She started smoking since she thought it was funny.
•Due to
It is followed by a noun.
E.g. –We were not able to study due to corona virus pandemic.
-My father did not take care of me due to my laziness.
(b)Subordinating connectors of purpose or goal
They are used to reveal the aim of someone or something. They include:
-in order to (not to) + bare infinitive
-so as to (not to) + bare infinitive
-in order that + subject + verb + object
-So that + subject + modal verb + bare infinitive
 E.g.-I study hard in order to succeed the exams.
-Romeo stopped smoking so as to be healthier than before.
-Mary should stop drugs so as to think clearly.
-John likes playing football in order that he becomes a superstar.
-We are shouting in the class in order that our teacher be angry with us.
-She likes working hard so that she can prepare her future life.
(c) Subordinating connectors of contrast
They are used to mention contrasting ideas.
They include: -although/even though/even if/though
-however/but
-on the one hand/on the other hand
-nevertheless…

•but/however

But is more informal than however. You can use however at the beginning of a
sentence, but you can’t use but at the beginning of a sentence (in written English).

E.g.-I tried to lift the box, but it was too heavy for me.
-I tried to lift the box. however, it was too heavy for me.

• Although/even though/though/even if
These connectors are the same
E.g.-Although/though I exercise every day, I can’t seem to lose any weight.

-She still loves him, even though/even if he treated her very badly.

• on the one hand/on the other hand

These connectors are almost the same, they are used in the same clauses.

E.g.-On the one hand Peter has behaved well, on the other hand he has behaved
badly.

• On the contrary
E.g.-They told him to go to Kigali on the contrary he went to Gisenyi.
-Peter was supposed to be a head teacher on the contrary he became the mayor.

• Nevertheless/yet
These connectors are the same.
E.g.-We are good nevertheless the coronavirus.
-The executive secretary has visited our school yet it wasn’t clean.

(d) Subordinating connectors of time

They are used to mention the time.

They include: when, while, after, before, as soon as, until/till, by the time.
Generally, they are followed by a subject + verb.
E.g.-When I go to school, we study Mathematics.
-I will work hard until/till I become rich.
-While I was in primary school, I was the first.
-You teach me English as soon as I become a fluent speaker.
-After Peter fail the exams, he cried.
-We were shouting before the teacher comes.

(e)Subordinating connectors of addition

They are used to mentioning the additional ideas.

They include: and, in addition, furthermore, moreover, besides, in addition to, as well as,
also/too.
•also/too

Also can go in the middle of a sentence, whereas too is typically used at the end.

E.g.-We did a lot of sightseeing on our vacation. We also bought a number of souvenirs.
-We did a lot of sightseeing on our vacation. We bought a number of souvenirs too.

As well/as well as

As well goes at the end of the sentence (similarly to too). As well as must be followed by
another word.
E.g.-She’s not only extremely successful, she’s beautiful as well.

-She’s beautiful as well as being extremely successful.

In addition, /moreover/furthermore

These connectors are usually used at the beginning of a sentence to add another idea or further
develop the previous point.
E.g.-People who exercise regularly have more energy during the day and sleep better at night.
In addition, they tend to live longer.

E.g. –Construction of the new skyscraper has been delayed for months due to budget poor
planning. Moreover, the workers are preparing to return home.

E.g.-Our sales are expected to rise 30% in the next year. Furthermore, we will purchase new
equipment.

Besides
E.g. – I don’t want to go anywhere besides India
-- Peter can’t eat all food besides potatoes

(f) Subordinating connectors of results.

They are used to reveal the result of an idea.
They include: -so, consequently, as a result, therefore
-so + adjective or adverb + that
-such + a + noun + that

•Therefore/Consequently/As a result

These words are more formal, and are more commonly used in written English.

E.g.-Our company’s profits have increased 150% in the past year. Therefore, we’re going to
invest in new equipment and training programs.
-The tennis player had knee surgery consequently, she took the rest of the season off.
-There have been heavy rains throughout the interior of the state. As a result, several areas
have experienced flooding.

•So
E.g.-We were hungry, so we stopped at a café for a snack.

•so + adjective or adverb + that

E.g.-Alpha is so intelligent that he can teach seven languages.
-Julia works so badly that she will stay in senior three.
•such + noun + that
E.g.-Rujugiro has such much money that he can buy a hummer.
-Martin is such a friend of his father that he can give him a bicycle.

LESSON VIII: PRONUNCIATION OF SIMPLE PAST TENSE

The pronunciation of final “ed” (regular verbs):
a) After unvoiced consonant sounds: sh, s, ch, p, k, f we pronounce /t/
E.g.-washed /t/, kissed/t/, fetched/t/, worked/t/, hoped/t/, laughed/t/

b) After a vowel and voiced consonant sounds: n, dg, y, and w we pronounce /d/

E.g.-phoned, turned, judged, lodged, played, prayed, stayed, followed

c)After/t/ and /d/ sounds we pronounce /id/

E.g.-visited
-started
-needed
-connected
-prohibited
-awarded

LESSON IX: LETTER WRITING

1) Definition: a letter is a written message that can be hand written or printed on a paper.

2)TYPES OF LETTERS
There are several types of letters:
a) Informal letter
b) Formal letter
c) Official letter
d) Business letter
e) Employment letter

A) INFORMAL LETTER
It is a personal letter; it doesn’t need to follow any set pattern (rules). It is generally written to
friends that’s why is called friendly letter.

The layout/format of informal letter

Sender’s address

The date
Receiver’s address
Salutation (greeting)
Dear John
Subject

Introduction

Body of the letter/the main content (say whatever you want to say)

Closing the letter

Your friend
Your dear love

Signature

Your name

Example of informal letter

Tresor HAGUMA
Western province
Rubavu District
Rugerero Sector
Tel: 0788888888
E-mail: josuemvuye@gmail.com

March13th,2020

To Mr. John
Kigali city
Kicukiro District
Muramba Sector
Subject: wishing success

I am glad/happy to write this letter to you, for wishing you success in national examination
2020. As you know both of us are students/learners of senior three, I take this opportunity to
write this letter to ask you nowadays news, how your studies are going on, to wish you success
in national examination which will be done in September 2022 and wishing you all the best.

Your dear love,

Signature

Tresor HAGUMA.

B) FORMAL LETTER
It is a letter which follow a certain pattern and formality. It is written to the authorities/leaders.

The layout/format of formal letter

Sender’s address

The date

Receiver’s address

Salutation
Dear sir/madam,

Reference/subject
Introduction

Body of the letter

Closing the letter/ending the letter

Yours faithfully/yours sincerely

Signature
Sender’s names

Example of formal letter

Juliet UMUTESI
Western province
Rutsiro district
Gihango sector

February 28th,2020

To the head teacher of

Groupe scolaire Mataba
Western province
Rutsiro district
Gihango sector

Dear sir,

Subject: requesting a permission

I would like to request you a permission of going to the hospital.
I am a student of senior here B, I am glad to write this letter to inform you that I need to go to
the hospital as a matter of being treated as I am sick, I feel as if am suffering from malaria
that’s why I am going because I cannot continue to be in the classroom since I am not safe.

I look forward to hearing from you

Yours faithfully,

Signature
Juliet UMUTESI

C) OFFICIAL LETTER
This is a letter that is written to inform offices, branches, subordinates of official information. It
is also formal in nature and it relays official information like rules and regulations.

D) EMPLOYMENT/APPLICATION LETTER
This is an official letter with respect to the employment process.

The layout/format of employment/application letter

1. Sender’s address
2. The date

3.Receiver’s address
4.Salutation/greeting

5.Reference/reference

6.Introduction

7.Body of the letter

8.Ending sentence

9.Closing the letter

10.Signature

11.Sender’s names

Example of application letter

 Jean Bosco GATABAZI
Kigali city province
Kicukiro district
Muyumbo sector
Tel: 0782222245

March13th, 2022
To,
The Mayor of Kicukiro District
Kigali city province
Muyumbo sector

Dear sir,

Reference: application for a job of teaching

Concerning to your announcement, I would like to apply for a post of teaching in your district,
advertised on Rwanda Broadcasting Agency (Rwanda radio) on 27th February,2022.

I have a bachelor’s degree, obtained at University of Rwanda College of Education, faculty of

language and humanities, option of English, Kinyarwanda with Education, I have the capacity
relating to the post you have advertised because I have a two years’ experience in languages
teaching and I feel able to serve you as well as expected.
Please, find attached a photocopy of my degree, a copy of my curriculum vitae, and a
photocopy of my National Identity card.

I look forward to hearing from you

Yours sincerely,
Sender’s signature
Jean Bosco GATABAZI.

CURRICULUM VITAE
I. PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION/PROFILE
Names: Jean Bosco GATABAZI
Father’s names: Jean MPABANO
Mother’s names: Mari Rose MUKANKUBANA
Birthdate: 27th September, 1990
Birth place: Nyamasheke
Residence place: Kicukiro
Nationality: Rwandan
Marital status: single
Contact/cell phone: +250781116798

E-mail: boscogatab@gmail.com

II. EDUCATION BACKGROUND (STUDIES)

From 2011 to 2015: I was studying at University of Rwanda College of Education
From 2008 to 2011: I was studying at GS St Vincent in Advanced level
From 2004 to 2008: I was studying at E.S Nyakabanda in ordinary level From 1997 to 2003: I
was studying at Kibirizi primary school

III. WORKING EXPERIENCE

From 2017 to 2019: a teacher at ES Nyakabanda
IV. LANGUAGE ABILITIES
Listening speaking writing
English Very good Very good Very good
French good good good
Swahili better better better
Kinyarwanda excellent excellent Excellent

V.COMPUTER SKILLS
I have got computer skills about the following programs:

-Microsoft office word

-Microsoft office excel

VI.INTERESTS
Learning new knowledge and skills, community services, making new friends, newspapers, at
tending social events, exchanging cultural as well as educational values, citizen’s ethics and
promoting reading culture.
VII. HOBBIES
-Sport
-Teaching/educational services
VIII. REFERENCES
-Charles KARENZI: The head teacher of ES Ruyenzi 0788569744
-Agnes Umutoni: the head teacher of GS Kanenge 0788845732
-Alexis Gasongo: the head teacher of GS Rwingogo 0783457252

I, Jean Bosco GATABAZI, hereby declare that the information provided on these curriculum
vitae are true and correct.

Jean Bosco GATABAZI

Signature.

LESSON X: PRONUNCIATION OF LONG /U:/ AND SHORT /U/

These are two pure vowels one is long and the other is short. Long /u:/ is mostly used in the
following words:
/u:/→oo: food, foot, moon, noon, spoon, smooth, stool, tooth, poolside, room, bridegroom,
shook, school, roof, scoop.
→o: do, who, whose, whom, to, move, lose, prove
→ou: group, soup, through, wound.
→u: June, truth, true, rude, cute, acute, abuse, abuser….
Short /Ʊ/ is mostly used in the following words:
/Ʊ/: →u: bush, push, full, pull, butcher, put, sugar
→o: woman, tonight.
→oo: good, woollen, hoods, book, look, wood…
 →ou: could, should, would, courier, routine….

UNIT4: Diet and Health

LESSON XI: COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

I. Countable nouns
Definition: countable nouns are the names of things which we can count using numbers. Simply
they can be put in plural form as they have singular and plural form.
E.g.-book -brother –doctor -tree
-Friend -teacher –cow -mango…
Examples in questions and answers.

Questions responses/answers

-How many eggs are in the basket? -There are fifty eggs in the
basket.

-How many potatoes are in the vegetables box?

-There are ten potatoes in the Vegetables box.
-Are there many books?
-Yes there are/there are many books.
2.Uncountable (non-countable) nouns.
Definition: uncountable (non-countable) nouns are the names of things that we cannot count.
Simply they can’t be put in plural.
Liquids and some food: water, butter, rice, milk, beer, wine, juice, meat, salt, meal, maize,
beans, wheat flour, bread, sugar, oil, chicken… Ideas and concepts: love, fun, work, money,
peace, safety,
Information: advice, information, news, knowledge, evidence, research, hardware, software
Categories: music, furniture, equipment, jewelry, accommodation, expenditure, cattle, soil,
people, sheep, deer, luggage, traffic, scenery, species
Body substances: saliva, weep/tears
Examples in questions and answers
Questions responses/answers
-Is there any milk in the fridge? -Yes, there is/there is some
milk.

-Do you drink much water? -Yes, I do/yes I drink water.

-How much money is there? -There is only a little money.

-How much beer do you drink? -I drink only a little beer.

Note: for countable nouns we use how many in asking questions and how much for
uncountable nouns.

LESSON XII: DETERMINERS

1) Definition: a determiner is a word that comes before a noun to make it clear. It shows what
the noun is referring to.
E.g.-These people. (To exhibit that group so as to be known well)
-A lot of milk. (To help to know how much is the milk or the amount of it)
General determiners include: a, an, the, another, any, each, either, every, neither, no, whole, all,
both, few, fewer, a lot of/lots of, many, more, most, several, some, enough, less, little, much.
Usages of determiners
•For singular countable nouns: a, an, another, any, each, either, every, neither, no, whole.
E.g.-She has not written any letter.
-I told each person to enter in the house
-Mary eats the whole bread
•For plural countable nouns: all, any, both, enough, few, fewer, a lot of/lots of, many, more,
most, no, either, several, some.
E.g.-Mugenzi is the one who committed all faults.
-He had brought any suggestions in the meeting.
-Mutesi eats both cakes.
-We gave them more pieces of advice.
•For uncountable nouns: all, any, enough, less, a lot of/ lots of, more, most, much, no, some.
E.g.-There is not enough salt in this food.
-Give me less sugar than that you have given Julia.
 -I ask him much money to finish his assignment.
Remember: a, an, another, both, each, every, few, many, neither, several, and whole can
never be used with uncountable nouns.

LESSON XIII: SUMMARY WRITING

1) Definition: a summary is a brief write up that sums up the whole story, text, essay, or a book.
It can be done on a certain topic (writing on it briefly).
2)The manner/ways in which a summary is written
A summary can be written in two ways:
(a) One-paragraph summary
(b)Multi-paragraph summary
3)THE PURPOSE OF A SUMMARY
The purpose of a summary is to give the readers in about 1/3 of the original length of a text.
Skills practiced:
•Note-taking/making
•Paraphrasing (using your own words and sentence structure)
4) BEFORE WRITING THE SUMMARY
For a text: read, re-read, mark and annotate the original for the text in order to understand it
well.
The layout of a summary
*On a text
One-paragraph summary
In the text/passage………………………………………………… (Title) or in this text/passage
when the title is not being mentioned, the author………………………… (his/her name) when
it has been mentioned, states, says, shows, illustrates, demonstrates
that………………………………………………………………………………………………
………
(Main idea/argument) ………………………………………………………………………
………
Multi-paragraph summary
In the text/passage………………………………………… (Title), the
author……………………………………… (his/her name), says
that………………………………………………………………………………………………
……, he/she illustrates
that………………………………………………………………………………………………
……., he/she also demonstrates
that……………………………………………………………………. Finally, he/she
states………………………………………………………………………

Note: when it is a topic you are going to write on a summary, it depends on which
information/deep understanding you have about it.
5) Characteristics of a summary
•Summary is written in your own words
•Summary contains only the ideas of the original text, don’t insert any of your own opinions,
interpretation or comments into it.
•If you want you can put a number of paragraph in which every idea comes from when you are
writing a multi-paragraph summary.

E.g.-In the 3rd paragraph/paragraph three (3), the author states that……………

LESSON XIV: COMPOSITION/ESSAY WRITING

A composition (academic essay) writing is a way of collecting together different ideas to make
one text which gives the message to the readers.
Before writing a composition
-There must be a topic to write on.
-Prepare an outline or diagram of your ideas.
-To have a critical thinking about how you are going to lengthen or expand your topic.
PARTS OF A COMPOSITION
It has four parts: a) Title
b) Introduction
c) Body/development
d) Conclusion
(a) Title
This is a short phrase that summarizes the entire topic. It can be in one or two phrases and it
must be underlined.
(b) Introduction
It is the starting part of a composition that defines the topic and show your entrance in writing.
It is one paragraph.
In this part:
-we define the topic (definition of the topic).
-we mention (show) the ideas or arguments that are going to be
Talked about in the body/development.
(C) Body/development
It is the second part of a composition in which ideas or arguments are talked about in
expanded manner (Detailed text). In this part:
-one idea = one paragraph
-3 ideas = 3 paragraphs
-Paragraph should have coherence (avoid contradiction or off-topic).
(d) Conclusion
This is the last part of a composition in which a writer says briefly what have been said in the
body. Simply, it is a one paragraph summary of the body.
In this part: a writer shows his side about the topic when necessary and give some pieces of
advice.
Ways of introducing body’s paragraphs.

●Firstly……………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………… ……..

●Secondly…………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………..

●Thirdly…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………….
●Lastly (finally)…………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………….
How to conclude a composition?
Conclusion signals: -To sum up
-To conclude
-To end
-In conclusion
-Finally
-In/at the end,
WRITING STYLES
-British style: to start writing at extremity of a paper.
●…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………..

●…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………
 ……………………………............................................................................................................
.................................
-American style: to start writing in the middle of the paper.
●……………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….
●……………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………..

UNIT5: HUMAN RIGHTS

LESSON XV: MODAL VERBS

1) Definition: a modal verb is a kind of auxiliary verb that facilitate the main verb for,
suggestion, potential, expectation, permission, ability, possibility and obligation.
They include: will, would, must, can, could….
Modal auxiliary verbs never change the form, but they have a different form for past tense.
Present tense past tense
Will………………………………………would
Can………………………………………could
Must/have to………………………. ought to + bare infinitive/had to
May………………………………………might
Shall………………………………………should/had better +bare infinitive
Need + to infinitive………………………. needed + to infinitive
Dare + to infinitive………………………. dared + to infinitive
RIGHT TENSES FORM OF MODAL VERBS
-Simple present: form: subject + modal verb + bare infinitive
-Present continuous: form: subject + modal auxiliary + be + bare infinitive + ing form
-Simple past: form: subject + modal verb + have + past participle of main verb
-Past continuous: form: subject + modal verb + have + been + bare infinitive + ing
Used to + bare infinitive is always used to express past things.
2)Usages of modal auxiliary verbs
●Will indicates a willingness to do something but is used to form a future tense, the negative
form is will not/won’t which indicates an unwillingness (refusal/reluctance) to do something.
E.g.-I will give another opportunity.
-We will play tomorrow.
-They will not/won’t eat cassava.
● Would indicates general or repeated willingness in the past, it also indicates preference in the
past.
E.g.-If you did not leave, I would still be taking care of you.
-Whenever I had to go there, they would throw a party.
-If I were you, I would do it.
● Can -could/may-might these modals express possibility and ability.
Can indicates ability
Could indicates ability with an opinion
E.g.-I can do it. (The subject is I is sure about his/her ability)
-I could do it. (The subject is I is not sure about his/her ability)
-They can go to school. (Present)
-They could go to school. (Past) Both of them also indicate possibility.
E.g.-The temperature can rise this month.
-It could rain later
May and might both indicate possibility but might can suggest that there is less possibility
than may.
E.g.-They may come back to school.
-They might come back to school.
 ●Must indicates necessity, it is used when something is required or essential.
E.g.-I must leave now because the rain is going to rain.
-You must study hard so as to succeed the National exam.
●Have to has the similar meaning to must but implies less urgency and it is always followed by
a bare infinitive.
E.g.-I have to leave now. (Present)
-He has to study hard.
-I had to leave then. (Past)
●Should indicates obligation. And probability when it is followed by have.
E.g.-You should come early. (Obligation)
-He should have reached by now. (Probability)
●Ought to/had better sometimes replace should and must, simply they have the same meaning.
E.g.-You ought to come home early.
-We ought to have good behavior.
-They had better leave this place.
Note: ●Modal auxiliary verbs can’t stand alone instead they always go with main verbs.
●They don’t undergo change according to the person, the conjugation is the same to all
persons.
E.g.-I must read He must read we must read……
-you must read she must read

LESSON XVI: VOICE

LESSON IV: VOICE
1) Definition: voice is the form a transitive verb takes to indicate whether the subject of
the verb performs or receives the action.

E.g.-John waters the plants. (the subject John performs or does an action)

-The sugarcane is eaten by a boy. (the subject sugarcane receives an action)

2) types of voice.

There are two types of voice in English:

A) active voice

B) passive voice

A) active voice

Indicates that the subject of the verb is acting or performing an action, the action is
included in the verb and the object receives that action.

Subject →a doer/a performer of an action

Verb →an action

Object →a receiver of an action

E.g.-the voters favour that candidate

S V O
(a doer) (action) (a receiver)
-the candidate addresses the crowd.
-the RNEC organizes the elections.

Note: the verbs used in active voice should be transitive (action) verbs.

B) Passive voice.
In passive voice we show what happened to the object. In this voice the subject and
object flip-flop or get interchanged. We take an auxiliary verb “to be” in active voice
tense plus past participle of main (given) verb preceded by the preposition “by”.

Form: Active voice →S + V + O

Passive voice →O+ V + S

Verb changing form: auxiliary verb “to be” in active voice tense + past participle of
main verb + by.

(i) Passive voice with simple present tense.

Form: am/is/are + past participle of main (given) verb.

E.g.-The voters favour that candidate.
→That candidate is favoured by the voters.

-The candidates address the crowd.

→The crowd is addressed by the candidate.

 -The RNEC organizes the elections
→The elections are organized by the RNEC.

-In democracy, the people elect up the leaders.

→In democracy, the leaders are elected up by the people.

-They vote me from a good group of people.

→I am voted from a good group of people. /by them

Note1: avoid omitting prepositions when using verbs require prepositions instead the
prepositions follow directly the verb.

E.g.-Rwanda exports agricultural products to Europe.

→Agricultural products are exported to Europe by Rwanda.

-People elect the leaders from the citizens.

→The leaders are elected from the citizens by people.

Note2: When the object is a pronoun we can omit it.

E.g.-Somebody lifts the luggage. →The luggage is lifted.
-He teaches sciences. →Sciences are taught.

They love him that’s why they can vote him.

→He is loved that’s why he can be chosen.

Note3: When there is an adverb in active voice, it comes between an auxiliary and the
main verb except adverbs of time which comes at the end of a sentence in a passive
voice sentence, but when an adverb of time starts an active voice sentence it is still
being in its place.

E.g.-People elect the leaders happily.

→The leaders are happily elected by people.

-Every year, Rwanda organizes the elections of leaders.

→Every year, the elections are organized by Rwanda.

Pronoun changes

Active voice Passive voice

I…………………………………………me

You……………………………………..you
He……………………………………….him

She………………………………………her

It………………………………………….it

We………………………………………us

You……………………………………..you

They…………………………………….them

(ii) Passive voice with present continuous.

Rule: am/is/are + being + past participle of main/given verb
E.g.-Alpha is teaching English.
→English is being taught by Alpha.
-Many students are ignoring me.
→I am being ignored by many students.
-Fred is cleaning the windows.
→The windows are being cleaned by Fred.
(iii) Passive voice with present perfect.
Rule: has/have + been+ past participle of main/given verb
E.g.-The cat has broken a cup.
→A cup has been broken by the cat.
-Valentin has spread rumors.
→Rumors have been spread by Valentin.
(iv) Passive voice with simple past.
Rule: was/were +past participle of main/given verb
E.g.-Peter played football yesterday.
→Football was played by Peter yesterday.
-The cat killed the mouse.
 →The mouse was killed by the cat.
-Mary wrote two books last week.
→Two books were written by Mary last week.
(v) Passive voice with past continuous
Rule: was/were + being+ past participle of main/given verb
E.g.-Kato was playing football.
→Football was being played by Kato.
-The children were eating sweets.
→Sweets were being eaten by the children.
(vi) Passive voice with past perfect
Rule: had+ been+ past participle of main/given verb
E.g.-My father had killed mosquitoes.
→Mosquitoes had been killed by my father.
-Karangwa had fought a combat.
→A combat had been fought by Karangwa.
(vii) Two objects in passive voice
There are some verbs that use two objects direct object and indirect object:
Bring, show, lend, hand, teach, give, write, tell, pay, serve, owe, send, take, offer, sell
Rule: indirect object + verb + direct object + by + subject or Direct object + verb + to +
indirect object + by + subject.
E.g.-Peter has given me a pen.
→I have been given a pen by Peter.
→A pen has been given to me by Peter.
-The teacher sends John a message.
→John is sent a message by the teacher.
→A message is sent to John by the teacher.
(viii) Passive voice with modal verbs.
Rule: modal verb + be + past participle of main/given verb
E.g.-The teacher may punish the boys.
 →The boys may be punished by the teacher.
-You must take your shirt off.
→Your shirt must be taken off.
(ix) Passive voice with imperative mood.
Rule: let + subject + be + past participle of main/given verb
E.g.-Eat these sweet bananas.
→Let these sweet bananas be eaten.
-Beat these guys.
→Let these guys be beaten.
-Write that homework.
→Let that homework be written.
LESSONX VII: SPEECH
1. Definition: a speech is a kind of words spoken by someone in a particular place and at a
certain time.
2.Types of speech
There are two types of speech:
(a) Director quoted speech
(b) Indirect or reported speech
A. DIRECTOR QUOTED SPEECH
Direct speech is a speech which repeats or quotes the actual/exact words of the speaker.
When we use direct speech in writing, we place the words spoken in the quotation marks
“…………………..” and a comma or colon is placed before those quotation marks.,
“……………….” or: “………………..” In it there is no change.
E.g.-She says, “I will be there.”
-Peter has said, “We went to the market.”
-John said: “There is an elephant outside the house.”
-The teacher ordered: “Go outside.”
B. INDIRECT OR REPORTED SPEECH.
Indirect speech is a speech which changes totally the actual words of the speaker. Is speech
where someone repeats what is said by another.
 In it the quotation marks are removed and replaced by that and other changes occur.
E.g.-She said: “I saw him.”
→She said that she had seen him.
Remember: each type of speech has two types of verbs: introductory/reporting verb and the
main verb of the speech and the introductory verb is always unchanged.
Introductory/reporting verb: -say
-tell
-explain
E.g.-My mother told me: “You will go to the market.”

Rules
1) When the introductory verb is in present tenses such as: -simple present, present continuous,
and present perfect change everything but do not change the tense.
E.g.-Mary says: “I will come here.”
→Mary says that she will go there.
- “We were at Serena hotel.” Peter has said.
→Peter has said that they were at Serena hotel.
-Julia is telling me: “you had gone to the river.”
→Julia is telling me that I had gone to the river.
2) When the introductory verb is in past tenses change everything even the tense.
Changes
(i) persons
Direct speech indirect speech
I/you……………………………………………he/she
We/you…………………………………….…they
It………………………………………………it
Me/you…………………………………………him/her
Us/you…………………………………………them
(ii) possessives
My/your………………………………………his/her
Our/your………………………………………their
Mine/yours……………………………………his/hers
Ours/yours……………………………………theirs
(iii) reflexives
Myself/yourself……………………………………himself/herself
Ourselves/yourselves……………………………themselves
Itself………………………………………………………itself
(iv) demonstratives
This………………………………………………………. that
These………………………………………………………those
(v) places
Here.………………………………………………………….there
There…………………………………………………………there
(vi) time
Today…………………………………………………………. that day
Ago……………………………………………………………...before
Now……………………………………………………………..then/at once
Yesterday……………………………………………………. the day before
Tomorrow……………………………………………………the next day/the following day
Next day/week/month/year…………………………. the following day/week/month/year Last
day/week/month/year……………………………the previous day/week/month/year
The day before yesterday…………………………………two days before
The day after tomorrow……………………………………in two days/two days later
(vii) tenses
Simple present……………………………………………………simple past
Present continuous……………………………………………. past continuous
Present perfect……………………………………………………. past perfect
Simple past…………………………………………………………. simple past/past perfect
 (viii) mood
Imperative mood…………………………………………………infinitive mood
(ix)some verbs
Can………………………………………………………………………. could
Could……………………………………………………………………...could
Will………………………………………………………………………. would
Would……………………………………………………………………. would
Must………………………………………………………………………must/had to
May………………………………………………………………………. might
Might……………………………………………………………………. might
Shall………………………………………………………………………should
Should…………………………………………………………………...should
Ought to………………………………………………………………...ought to
Come………………………………………………………………………go
Note: •When the speaker reports his own words, change everything but do not change the
person.
E.g.-I said, “I am going to my friend’s house.”
→I said that I was going to my friend’s house.
Indirect questions
Rule1: when we have question words indirect questions such as: what, which, who, whom,
where, when, why…. were peat them in indirect question in the place
Of that, it ends with a full stop and it respects the normal word order: Question word + subject
+ verb +………………
E.g.-The teacher asked: “Which book are you going to read?”
→The teacher asked which book he/she/they were going to read.
-The police man asked the man: “Where did you go last night?”
→The police man asked the man where he went/had gone the previous night.
Rule2: when we have no question words indirect questions, we use if/whether in the place of
that, it ends with a full stop and it respect the normal word order:
If/whether + subject + verb +…………
E.g.- “Do you speak English?” he asked.
→He asked if he/she/they spoke English.
- “Did you know me?”, the teacher asked
→The teacher asked whether he/she/they knew/had known him.
-He wanted to know: “have you got a computer?”
→He wanted to know if he/she/they had got a computer.
-My mother asked him, “Will you come to visit me next week?”
→My mother asked him if he would come to visit her the following week.
Introductory verbs used in it are: ask, wonder, wanted to know
Indirect command (indirect speech in imperative mood)
Imperative mood →infinitive mood
There are two types of command: -positive command
-negative command
• POSITIVE COMMAND
E.g.-The teacher ordered, “Go outside.”
→The teacher ordered to go outside.
- “Come quickly.”, she ordered
→She ordered to go quickly.
• NEGATIVE COMMAND
In negative command the word not come before the infinitive.
E.g.-Rachel ordered: “Don’t make such a noise.”
→Rachel ordered not to make such a noise.
-He told me: “Don’t worry.”
→He told me not to worry.
Introductory verbs used in it are: order and tell

LESSON XVIII: PHONOLOGY

1) Definition: phonology is the study of the way sounds function in a language, including
phonemes, syllables structure, and stress.
2)-A syllable: is a smallest meaning less unit of a word interpreted as a single sound.
A syllable consists of: consonant + vowel but it can be a single vowel but a single consonant
cannot be a syllable.
-Syllable structure (sound structure): is the admissible arrangement of sounds in a word/how
syllables are arranged in a word.
E.g. words Syllable structure
-mango ma-ngo (2 syllables)

-impossible i-mpo-ssi-ble (4 syllables)

-uncountable un-cou-nta-ble (4 syllables)

-read Read (1syllable)

-put Put (1 syllable)

3) STRESS
a) Definition: a stress is the way in which the word has raising voice on its certain syllable.
The stress is put on a consonant not on a vowel. It can be put on a vowel when it starts a word
according to its reading way. The symbol of the stress is a very small vertical line /′/ which is
put on a stressed syllable.
E.g.-happy →happy
-everything →everything
-honest →honest
-united →u′nited
-impolite →impolite
Remember: a stress is put at a certain syllable related to the reading way of a word so be
careful about your reading.
B) THE PLACEMENT OF STRESS IN WORDS
(i)Two syllables ‘words: at this level the first and the second syllable maybe stressed.
E.g. ′enter a′pply
′Envy be′gin

′Follow pe′rmit

′Object co′rrect
 ′Perfect ob′tain
′Borrow
′Equal
′Sister
(ii) Three or more syllables’ words: at this level the first, the second or the third syllable
may be stressed.
E.g. ′quantity po′lice enter′tain men′tality
′Comedy a′rrive

′Country a′chieve

′Tragedy ma′chine
(iii) Suffixes that influence stress placement
With the following suffixes, the stress is placed at the syllable before which is before the
final syllable.
Ous: -ad′vantage →advan′tageous
-′courage →cou′rageous
Graphy: -′photo →pho′tography
-′echo →e′chography
Ial: -′proverb →pro′verbial
-′colony →co′lonial

LESSON XIX: IMPERATIVE MOOD

Imperative mood: makes a verb into a command or request, it always uses the second person
(singular or plural) as the subject of a sentence and most of the time the subject remains hidden
(simply no subject appears in imperative mood).
E.g.-Bring the bottle over there.
-Make me a cup of tea, please
-Go outside.
Note: imperative mood is always started by a bare infinitive/base form of verb.
LESSON XX: SPELLING RULES OF SIMPLE PAST OF
REGULAR VERBS AND THE PRONUNCIATION OF FINAL /ED/

Pronunciation of final “-ed” (regular verbs):

a) After an unvoiced consonant sound(sh/s/ch/p/k/f) we pronounce /t/

E.g. wash→ washed
Kiss→ kissed

Work→ worked
hope→ hoped
laugh→ laughed

b) After a vowel and voiced consonant sounds as (n, m, w, y) we pronounce /d/

E.g.
phone
→phoned
judge
→judged
lodge
→lodged
turn→ turned
play→ played
follow
→followed
farm→
farmed warm
→warmed

c)After /t/ and /d/ sounds we pronounce /id/

E.g. visit →visited
start → started
need →needed
lift→ lifted
crowd →crowded

LESSON XXI: IMPERSONAL PASSIVE VOICE.

The phrase “it is said……….” is an impersonal passive construction. It is used when there is
not a person as a subject of the sentence.

E.g.-They say that in India it is the girl who pays the dowry. (active voice)
→It is said that in India the girl pays the dowry. (impersonal passive)
-People say that children are afraid of ghosts.
→It is said that children are afraid of ghosts. (impersonal passive)

It is used with verbs of perception such as: say, think, believe, know, claim, understand,
suppose, expect, report, acknowledge, assume, estimate, consider….)

Form1: It is said + that + subject +……………………

•It is said that……………………..
•It is thought that……………….
•It is believed that………………
•It is known that…………………etc.

Form2: subject + verb to be in active voice tense + past participle of main/given verb + to +
bare infinitive of the second verb +……………………..
More examples
Impersonal passive in simple present tense
-The boys say that their parents gave them school fees.
→It is said that their parents gave them school fees.
→Their parents are said to give them school fees.

Impersonal passive in simple past tense

-They said that virgins were paid a lot of cows.
→It is said that virgins were paid a lot of cows.
→Virgins were said to be paid a lot of cows.
-Many students said that the teachers are good at English.
→It was said that the teachers are good at English.
→The teachers were said to be good at English.
It is used when the “that clause” is included in active voice sentence.

LESSON XXII: COULD

Could as a modal verb, is used to express possibility, past ability as well as to make suggestions
and requests. It is also commonly used in conditional sentences as the conditional form of can.
E.g.-Ghanaians could trade with other West Africans. (past possibility)
-Malians could still achieve great things. (possibility)
-Africans could choose to work or remain poor. (suggestion)
-If Mansa Musa lived, Malians could become the richest in the world.
(conditional)
-Could I borrow your history book to read about achievements of Africans?
(request)

LESSON XXIII: LINKING WORDS

Linking words are words used to add, organize information about something as well as
summarize.

Organizing and Ordering Information

a) Firstly/Secondly/thirdly/fourthly etc.
When you are going to make a series of points, you can use firstly and secondly for the first and
second points, thirdly and fourthly for the third and fourth points etc. or “in addition.”

b) Lastly/Finally
For your final point, you can begin the sentence with lastly or finally. These words show your
audience that you are almost at the end.

c)the former/the latter

You can use these words to refer back to two examples previously mentioned:
E.g. –Our company has two factories: one in Detroit and one in Atlanta. The former is
operating at 95% capacity and the latter at 65%.
In this case, “the former” =the factory in Detroit, and “the latter” = the factory in Atlanta.

-My house consists of two rooms. The former contains my clothes and the latter keeps in
food.

LESSON XXIV: QUESTIONS IN PASSIVE VOICE

As we remember that questions are divided into types:

-Interrogative form without question words.

-Interrogative form with question words.

a) Interrogative form without question words in passive voice
Rule: verb to be in active voice tense + object + past participle of main verb +by +
subject+?
E.g.-Does Kato play football?
→Is football played by Kato?
-Did the cat killed the mouse?
→Was the mouse killed by the cat?
-Has the teacher taught English?
→Has English been taught by the teacher?

b) Interrogative form with question words

Rule: question word +verb to be in active voice tense +object +past participle of main
verb +by +subject+?
E.g.-Where did they take the gold?
→Where was the gold taken?

LESSON XXV: PREPOSITIONS

1) Definition: a preposition is a word that links or shows the relationship between a noun and
other words.
2) Types of prepositions
(a) Prepositions of time after/later

Use after +phrase/noun.

E.g. -I’ll call you after I get home from work.
-Peter felt confident after the interview.
Use later alone (at the end of a sentence or phrase).
E.g.-I’ll call you later.
-First he bought a new car. Two weeks later, he bought a new motorcycle.

Note: You can say “later + time period” to refer to an unspecified time in the future.
E.g.-I’ll finish the project later this week.
-We’ll go on vacation later this year.
ago/before
Use a go to talk about past times in reference to the current moment.
E.g. –I graduated from college three years ago.
-Ten weeks ago we visited our grandparents.
Use before + the phrase/noun can be used to talk about past times in reference to another
moment in the past.
E.g.-He met her girlfriend before he returned to school.
-I want to leave before lunch. by/until
Use by to mean within a period during something.
E.g. –Please send me the information by Monday.
-I will complete the assignment by Friday.
-He is returning by 6 p.m.

Use until to indicate a specific or unspecific time up to a point.

E.g. -He’s staying in London until/till the 30th.
-They will not return until/till Friday.
-Wait for me until/till I return.
during
Both during means that something happens at the same time as something else.
Use during +noun
E.g. –Robert cried during the movie.
-They don’t talk during dinner. from…to/till/until
We use from +to/till/until to define the fixed time showing the beginning and end of something.
E.g. -Themuseumisopenfrom8AMto4PM.
-Jack will be on vacation from tomorrow until next Friday.
-I studied English from 2001 till 2004.
on/in/at
Use in for centuries, decades, years, seasons, and months:
•In the18th century
•In the 1960s
•In 2001
•In the summer
•In October

Use on for days:

•On Friday
•On March 15th
•On my birthday
•On the weekend

Use at for exact and specific time:

•I started working at 3:30. p.m.
•The movie starts at noon.
•The shop closes at quarter past eight.
Exceptions
At night
At Christmas
At Easter
At the moment

At present

Be careful with morning, afternoon, evening, and night!

•In the morning
•In the afternoon
•In the evening
•in five minutes
•In six days
•In two years
past/to
We can use these prepositions with minutes in relation to the hour:
•3:50 =Ten to four
•6:15 = Quarter past six
for/since
For is used for a period of time.
E.g. -I’ve been waiting for three hours.
-We’ve lived here for four years.
-She’s been working there for six months.

Since is used to reference a specific point in time.

E.g. -I’ve been waiting since ten o’clock.
-We’ve lived here since 2008.
(b) Preposition of place
above/on
Use above when the two objects are not touching.
E.g.-The sky is above my head.
-Hold your hand above your head.
Use on when the two objects are touching.

E.g.-The pillows are on the couch.

-The keys are on the table.

under/below/underneath/beneath
Use under when one object is covered by another.
E.g.-The cat is under the table.
-The book was under the chair.
Use below when one object is in a lower position than the other.
E.g.-I have a scar just below my right eye.
-Do you see the line below the paper?
Underneath and beneath are more formal words for “under” and “below.” behind/in
front of
Use behind to the far side of something (might be out of sight)
E.g.-The mouse is behind the box.
-He parked his car behind mine.
In front of means a position facing someone or something.

E.g.-The mouse is in front of the box.

-She was nervous in front of me.

between/among/beside (next to)

Beside and next to are the same, but beside is a little more formal.
E.g. –The car beside the cycle is mine.
-He is standing beside the shop.

Between means that the object is in the middle of two other objects.
E.g. –Alexis sitting between Robert and John.
-This matter is between you and him.
Among indicates something/someone to be in the middle of three or more other things.
E.g.-Alexis sitting among the patients.

-She is the best among them.

Near/near to
The distance between the two objects is small.

E.g.-The ball is near to the box.

-The ball is near the box.

in/inside/within/into
In and inside mean the same thing in most cases, something to be present in a place.
E.g.-The mouse is in the box. / The mouse is inside the box.
Into is actually a preposition of movement, not location. It means something is moving inside a
space.
E.g. –He came into the house.
-The police broke into the bar.

Within means “inside a limit.”

The limit can be in place, time, or some other scale.
E.g.-There are five malls within ten miles of here. (limit of place)
-She’s written three books within the last year. (limit of time)
-The law didn’t pass because of disagreements within the government. (limit of area/class
of people)

outside/out of
Outside refers to location. In this case, we cannot use “out.”

E.g.-The dog is outside the dog house.

Out of usually suggest movement, not just location. “Out of” must always be followed by a
noun.
E.g.-She ran out of the room.
–Get out of my house.
(C) PREPOSITIONS OF MOVEMENT
across/through
Across (near) is going from one side of an area, surface, or line to the other side.
E.g.-I drew a line across the paper.
-He went across the river.
-My house is across the bank.
Through is movement from one side of an enclosed space to the other side.
E.g.-The baseball went through the window.
-We drove through the tunnel.
-They came through the forest. (a travers)

up/down

Up means going up the stairs or a motion onwards a higher place or position

E.g.-We were climbing up the mountain.
-Put your hand(s) up.
Down means going down the stairs or a motion onwards a lower place or position
E.g.-He was walking down the river.

-Put down your pens.

Over/ Towards
To go over is to pass above something.
E.g.-I passed over the road towards that center.

Towards means a motion in the direction of something.

E.g.-Take five steps towards the post and stand there.

-The dog is running towards me.

OTHER PREPOSITIONS
Of: expresses the relationship of a part of something to it whole. It is the most used
preposition in English.
E.g. –He is a boy of 15.
-Some parts of his body were injured.
-The plays of Shakespeare will always be classic.

About means on the subject of/concerning of something/approximately.

E.g. –I was about to leave.
-Tell me about what you have done.

-We are about to start defining it.

For means with the subject or purpose of, it indicates the suiting of purpose for
something/someone.
E.g.-I will be here for you.
-I have it for my benefit.

With means accompanied by something/someone.

E.g.-I will be with you.
-Mary has bought some cabbages with them.
-He is playing with his sister.
By means as a means of something/someone, it often comes in passive sentences.
E.g.-Do you travel by bus?
-The letter was written by him.

PHASAL VERBS
Definition: a phrasal verb is a group of verb, noun, adjective plus preposition which has a
special meaning.

They are built of the following elements:

-verb + preposition
-Noun + preposition
-Adjective + preposition

Some of the mare:

To be keen on To depend on/upon
To insist on To be famous for
To be responsible for To be sure/certain of
To be jealous of To be supported of
To be surprised at To laugh/smile at
To listen to To suffer from
To fill in/with To prevent from
To be proud of To protect from
To look forward to To divide in/into
To be accused of To bisect into two parts only
To be afraid of To exchange for
To be angry with To fail in
To be ashamed of To be pleased with
To believe in To spend on
To take of To be superior to
To come/go by bus To be inferior to
To be good at To be junior to
To be accustomed to To arrive at
To succeed in To aim at
To look at (to see) To be careful of
To look for (to see) To consist of
To look after (to take care of) To die of
To be aware/conscious of To break down
To translate into To hold on
To be full of To be married to
To be crowded with To prefer to
To come/go in a house to come/go on foot To carry on
To have confidence in To be similar to
To be different from To wait on
To congratulate on

LESSON XXVI: INVERSION OF SUBJECT AND VERB

1) Definition: inversion of a verb before the subject is a common phenomenon in English

sentences. The natural order of words in a sentence is S + V + ……………….
Inversion order is V + S + ………………...
Generally, it is called inversion of subject and verb
E.g.-Is she a girl?
-Does he play football?
-Not only did the teacher go outside but he also enters in the office.
-Juliet goes to the market, and so do I.
Forms of inversion: main verb + subject/ Auxiliary verb + subject + main verb
2) Usage of inversion
It is most used in questions but there are a few other circumstances where it occurs.

(a) Inversion in questions

It is always used in interrogative sentences. In this case it is always ended by a question
mark(?)
E.g. –Is he going to the club?
-Did she eat potatoes?
-Where is the hotel?
-Who was that guy?

(b) Inversion in other expressions

•In affirmative and negative agreement only after: so, nor, and neither
E.g.-Alex went to the club, and so did I.
-Robert hasn’t reached yet, and neither have we.

-Peter is not a footballer, and nor are you.

•Beginning with only or not only

E.g.-Only if they came, would I go.
-Only after lunch can you play.
-Not only did they kill adults but they also killed the children
-Not only did Karangwa commit the faults but he also shouted in the classroom.
-Not only does the teacher beat us but he also insults us.

•Adverbials at the beginning of a sentence such as:

-hardly
-seldom
-scarcely
-No sooner
E.g.-Hardly had I reached there, he left.
–Seldom does the teacher finishes his work obviously.
-Scarcely had he gone to the market, I saw him.

LESSON XXVII: EXPRESSIONS: TO BE USED TO, TO GET

USED TO, TO LOOK FORWARD TO, WOULDRATHER …. THAN, INSTEAD
OF……., WOULD LIKE TO ……
1. TO BE USED TO
Be used to: is an expression which indicates your attitude towards something.
The synonym is “be accustomed to”
Form: be used to + gerund form
E.g.-I am not used to eating cassava.
-Athletes are used to doing hard works.
2. TO GET USED TO
Get used to: also indicates your attitude towards something.
Form: get used to + gerund form
E.g. –She must get used to living in this cold climate.
-Peter get used to revising English.
Note: as these are an expression formed with the verb “be” or “get” you can conjugate them in
any tense with any pronoun. And you can formulate questions and negatives.
E.g.-I am used to going to school. (present tense)
-She was used to living in the cold climate. (past tense)
-You will get used to smoking drugs. (future tense)
-Will I get used to finishing my task? (question)
-They were not used to violating rules. (negative)
3. TO LOOK FORWARD TO
This is an expression which is mostly used in letter writing especially when there is something
expected by someone.
Form: look forward to + verb + ing form/gerund form
E.g. –I look forward to hearing from you.
-Mary is looking forward to receiving your response.
-He looks forward to knowing the last decision.
Remember: this expression can change according to tense and person.
4. WOULD RATHER ……… THAN
This is an expression used to make a choice between two or more things.
Form: would rather + bare infinitive ……. + than + gerund form
E.g.-I would rather steal than begging a head of people.
-Robert would rather do it quickly than waiting for the orders.

-We would rather go in Uganda than staying in Burundi.

5. INSTEAD OF……
This is considered as a connector of contrast. It is always followed by a gerund form
Form: instead of + gerund form
E.g. –We went to the lake instead of doing what our parents told us.

-Instead of studying, John starts to shout in the class.

Note: as it is a connector it can come in the middle of a sentence or at the beginning of it. When
it is at the beginning we put a comma to separate two clauses.

6. WOULD LIKE TO……...

This is an expression used to make a polite language when wishing/asking/requesting a certain
service.
Form: would like to + infinitive
E.g. –I would like to apply for a post of driving.

-They would like to go in America unfortunately it was impossible.

THE END OF YEAR