Neuroscience and

Perspective Psychiatry: Open Access

The Neuroscience of Memory: How the

Brain Stores and Retrieves Information

Emilia Thorup*
Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska
Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
Introduction *Author for correspondence:
emilia.tho@psyk.uu.se
Memory is one of the most fascinating functions of the brain, enabling humans to store, recall,
and learn from past experiences. From remembering where you left your keys to recalling
Received: 19-11-2024, Manuscript
childhood events, memory shapes our identity and influences behavior. But how does the brain No. NPOA-24-148651; Editor
accomplish this? The neuroscience of memory seeks to unravel this mystery by examining the assigned: 22-11-2024, PreQC No.
brain structures and processes involved in storing, consolidating, and retrieving information. NPOA-24-148651 (PQ); Reviewed:
Understanding memory at a neural level not only illuminates how we function daily but also 06-12-2024, QC No. NPOA-24-
offers insights into treating memory disorders like Alzheimer’s disease and amnesia. 148651; Revised: 17-12-2024,
Manuscript No. NPOA-24-148651
Description (R); Published: 24-12-2024, DOI:
10.47532/npoa.2024.7(6).297-299
Memory systems: Types and functions
Memory can be categorized into different systems based on the type of information processed and
the time span it covers. The brain uses various memory systems, each serving specific functions.
• Sensory memory: Sensory memory is the briefest form of memory, lasting only a few
milliseconds to seconds. It acts as a buffer for incoming sensory information (sights, sounds,
smells), allowing us to retain impressions of stimuli even after they have disappeared. Sensory
memory is subdivided into iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory) memory.
• Short-Term Memory (STM): Short-term memory holds information temporarily, typically
for 15 to 30 seconds. STM is limited in capacity, able to store around 7 items at a time.
Information in STM is either discarded or transferred to long-term memory through
processes like rehearsal or chunking.
• Long-Term Memory (LTM): Long-term memory stores information for extended periods,
from minutes to decades. LTM is more durable and has a much larger capacity than STM. It
can be divided into explicit (declarative) and implicit (non-declarative) memory.
Understanding how the brain moves information between these systems is crucial for grasping
how memory works on a neural level.
Brain structures involved in memory
Several key brain structures are involved in different aspects of memory, with specific regions
specializing in encoding, storing, and retrieving information.
• Hippocampus: The hippocampus is central to memory formation, especially in converting
short-term memories into long-term ones. Located within the medial temporal lobe,
the hippocampus is critical for episodic memory and spatial navigation. Damage to the
hippocampus can result in anterograde amnesia, the inability to form new memories.
• Amygdala: The amygdala plays a significant role in emotional memory. It works closely
with the hippocampus to encode emotionally charged experiences, making them more
memorable. For example, fear-inducing or emotionally positive events are often easier
to recall than neutral ones, due in part to the amygdala’s role in strengthening memory

297 Neurosci. Psych. Open Access. (2024) 7(6), 297-299

Perspective Thorup E.

consolidation through emotional tagging. LTP is primarily observed in the hippocampus,

which is crucial for memory formation. This process
• Prefrontal cortex: The prefrontal cortex
enables the brain to encode new information by
is involved in working memory and the
forming stronger neural connections. Conversely,
executive processes related to memory
Long-Term Depression (LTD), a process that
retrieval and manipulation. It helps us
weakens synaptic connections, plays a role in
organize, plan, and use information stored
forgetting or discarding irrelevant information.
in memory to guide decision-making. The
The balance between LTP and LTD ensures that
prefrontal cortex is especially active when
the brain efficiently manages the vast amount of
recalling semantic or episodic memories
information it encounters.
and is involved in attention and focusing
mechanisms. Disorders of memory
• Cerebellum and basal ganglia: These Various neurological and psychological conditions
structures are involved in procedural memory, can impair memory. These disorders arise from
which governs skills and habits like riding a damage to brain regions involved in memory
bicycle or typing. The cerebellum plays a role or dysfunction in the processes that regulate
in motor control and coordination, while memory formation, storage, or retrieval.
the basal ganglia help automate habitual
• Alzheimer’s disease: Alzheimer’s disease is
behaviors. This type of memory is typically
a progressive neurodegenerative disorder
implicit and operates outside of conscious
characterized by memory loss, confusion,
awareness.
and cognitive decline. It is associated with
• Thalamus: The thalamus acts as a relay the accumulation of amyloid plaques
center, transmitting sensory information to and neurofibrillary tangles in the brain,
the cerebral cortex. It is also important for particularly in areas like the hippocampus
attention and alertness, two factors that are and entorhinal cortex. Early symptoms
essential for encoding memories efficiently. involve difficulties with short-term memory,
while later stages affect long-term memory
• Entorhinal cortex: The entorhinal cortex
and other cognitive functions.
serves as a hub between the hippocampus
and the neocortex, facilitating the • Amnesia: Amnesia refers to the loss of
communication necessary for consolidating memory due to brain injury or disease. There
memories. It plays a role in both episodic and are two main types of amnesia: retrograde
spatial memory and is often one of the first amnesia, where individuals lose memories
brain areas affected in Alzheimer’s disease. formed before the onset of the condition,
and anterograde amnesia, where individuals
The process of memory formation
cannot form new memories. Anterograde
The formation of memories follows a series amnesia is often associated with damage to
of stages, from the initial encoding of sensory the hippocampus.
information to its long-term storage and later
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD):
retrieval. These stages are often referred to as
PTSD is a psychological condition that
encoding, storage, and retrieval.
arises after experiencing a traumatic event.
Neuroplasticity and memory Individuals with PTSD often have intrusive
memories and flashbacks of the trauma. The
Neuroplasticity, the brain’s ability to change
amygdala, which processes emotions, plays
and adapt, is a fundamental aspect of memory.
a key role in amplifying these emotionally
Synaptic plasticity, in particular, is the process
charged memories, while the hippocampus
by which connections between neurons are
may struggle with distinguishing past events
strengthened or weakened based on experience.
from the present.
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) is a form of
synaptic plasticity and is considered one of the • Korsakoff’s syndrome: This disorder is caused
primary mechanisms underlying learning and by chronic alcohol abuse and thiamine
memory. It occurs when repeated activation of (vitamin B1) deficiency. It primarily affects
synapses leads to an increase in synaptic strength, the hippocampus and thalamus, leading to
making it easier for neurons to communicate. severe memory deficits,including anterograde
amnesia.

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The Neuroscience of Memory: How the Brain Stores and Retrieves Information Perspective

The future of memory research the ethical and practical considerations of such
research are a subject of ongoing debate.
Advances in neuroscience, particularly
neuroimaging and Brain-Computer Interface Conclusion
(BCI) technologies, are providing deeper
insights into memory processes. Researchers The neuroscience of memory reveals the incredible
are exploring ways to enhance memory through complexity of how the brain encodes, stores,
neurostimulation techniques such as Transcranial and retrieves information. Through a network
Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) and Deep Brain of brain structures such as the hippocampus,
Stimulation (DBS). These interventions could amygdala, and prefrontal cortex, memory allows
help treat memory impairments in conditions us to navigate the world, learn from experience,
like Alzheimer’s and amnesia. and maintain our sense of identity. Advances
in neuroscience are shedding light on memory
In addition, there is growing interest in memory disorders and offering potential new therapies,
manipulation techniques, where scientists aim making it a promising field for future research.
to modify or erase specific memories, which
could have implications for treating PTSD or
addiction. While this field is still in its infancy,

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