Haliç University

Faculty of Engineering

EEE213

ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS

’’ Oscillators and Logic Circuits’’

Lecturer: Asst.Prof. Zehra Merve Cinan

 Topics
• Oscillators
 Positive Feedback
 Conditions for Oscillation
 Ladder Network Oscillator
 Wien Bridge Oscillator
• Logic Circuits
 Logic Functions
 Switch & Lamp Logic
 AND Logic
 OR Logic
 Logic Gates (Buffers, Inverters, AND Gates, OR Gates, NAND Gates,
NOR Gates, Exclusive-OR Gates, and Exclusive-NOR Gates)

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Oscillators

An oscillator is a circuit which produces a continuous,

repeated, alternating waveform without any input.
Oscillators basically convert unidirectional current flow
from a D.C. source into an alternating waveform which is of
the desired frequency, as decided by its circuit components.
The phenomenon of feeding a portion of the output
signal back to the input circuit is known as feedback. The
effect results in a dependence between the output and the
Typical Oscillator
input and an effective control can be obtained in the working
of the circuit. Feedback is of two types:
 Negative Feedback
 Positive Feedback

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 In negative feedback, the feedback energy (voltage or
current), is out of phase with the input signal and thus
opposesit. Negative feedback reduces gain of the amplifier.
It also reduce distortion, noise and instability, increases
bandwidth and improves input and output impedances. Due
to these advantages, the negative feedback is frequently used
Amplifier with negative feedback applied
in amplifiers.
In positive feedback, the feedback energy (voltage or
currents), is in phase with the input signal and thus aids it.
Positive feedback increases gain of the amplifier also
increases distortion, noise and instability. Because of these
disadvantages, positive feedback is seldom employed in
amplifiers. But the positive feedback is used in oscillators.
Amplifier with positive feedback applied

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Positive Feedback

An alternative form of feedback, where the output is

fed back in such a way as to reinforce the input (rather than
to subtract from it), is known as positive feedback.
The figure shows the block diagram of an amplifier
stage with positive feedback applied. Note that the amplifier
provides a phase shift of 180° and the feedback network
provides a further 180°. Thus the overall phase shift is 0°.
The overall voltage gain, 𝐺, is given by:

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 Amplifier with positive feedback applied

𝐺=
𝑉𝑖𝑛

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 By applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:

𝑉𝑖𝑛 ′ = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 + 𝛽𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴𝑉 × 𝑉𝑖𝑛

where 𝐴𝑉 is the internal gain of the amplifier.

𝐴𝑉 × 𝑉𝑖𝑛 ′ 𝐴𝑉 × 𝑉𝑖𝑛 ′ Amplifier with positive feedback applied

𝐺= =
𝑉𝑖𝑛 ′ − 𝛽𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑖𝑛 ′ − 𝛽 𝐴𝑉 × 𝑉𝑖𝑛 ′

𝐴𝑉
𝐺=
1 − 𝛽𝐴𝑉

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Conditions for Oscillation
We can say that the conditions for oscillation are:
 the feedback must be positive (i.e. the signal fed back
must arrive back in-phase with the signal at the input);
 the overall loop voltage gain must be greater than 1 (i.e.
the amplifier’s gain must be sufficient to overcome the
losses associated with any frequency selective feedback
network).
Hence, to create an oscillator we simply need an
Basic elements of a feedback oscillator
amplifier with sufficient gain to overcome the losses of the
network that provide positive feedback. Assuming that the
amplifier provides 180° phase shift, the frequency of
oscillation will be that at which there is 180° phase shift in
the feedback network.

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Ladder Network Oscillator
A simple phase-shift oscillator based on a three-stage
C-R ladder network is shown in the figure. 𝑇𝑅1 operates as a
conventional common-emitter amplifier stage with 𝑅1 and
𝑅2 providing base bias potential and 𝑅3 and 𝐶1 providing
emitter stabilization.
The total phase shift provided by the C-R ladder
network (connected between collector and base) is 180° at
the frequency of oscillation. The transistor provides the other
180° phase shift in order to realize an overall phase shift of
360° or 0° (note that these are the same). The frequency of
oscillation of the circuit shown in the figure is given by: Sine wave oscillator based on
a three-stage C-R ladder network

1
𝑓=
2𝜋 6𝐶𝑅

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Example: Determine the frequency (𝑓) of oscillation of a three-stage ladder network oscillator in which 𝐶 =
10 𝑛𝐹 and 𝑅 = 10 𝑘Ω.

Solution:

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Example: Determine the frequency (𝑓) of oscillation of a three-stage ladder network oscillator in which 𝐶 =
10 𝑛𝐹 and 𝑅 = 10 𝑘Ω.

Solution:

1 1
𝑓= 𝑓= ≅ 650.1 𝐻𝑧
2𝜋 6𝐶𝑅 2 × 𝜋 × 6 × 10 × 103  × 10 × 10−9 𝐹

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Wien Bridge Oscillator

An alternative approach to providing the phase shift

required is the use of a Wien bridge network. Like the C-R
ladder, this network provides a phase shift which varies with
A Wien bridge network
frequency. The input signal is applied to A and B while the
output is taken from C and D. At one particular frequency,
the phase shift produced by the network will be exactly zero.
If we connect the network to an amplifier producing 0°
phase shift which has sufficient gain to overcome the losses
of the Wien bridge, oscillation will result.

Sine wave oscillator based on

a Wien bridge network
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 The minimum amplifier gain required to sustain
oscillation is given by:
𝐶1 𝑅2
𝐴𝑉 = 1 + +
𝐶2 𝑅1
In most cases, 𝐶1 = 𝐶2 and 𝑅1 = 𝑅2, hence the minimum
amplifier gain will be 3. The frequency at which the phase
shift will be zero is given by:
1 A Wien bridge network
𝑓=
2𝜋 𝐶1 × 𝐶2 × 𝑅1 × 𝑅2
When 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 and 𝐶1 = 𝐶2 the frequency at which the
phase shift will be zero will be given by:

1 1
𝑓= =
2
2𝜋 𝐶 × 𝑅 2 2𝜋𝐶𝑅

where 𝑅 = 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 and 𝐶 = 𝐶1 = 𝐶2.

Sine wave oscillator based on

a Wien bridge network
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Example: For a Wien bridge oscillator based on an operational amplifier, if 𝐶1 = 𝐶2 = 100 𝑛𝐹, determine the
output frequencies (𝑓) produced by this arrangement (a) when 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 1 𝑘Ω and (b) when 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 =
6 𝑘Ω.

Solution:

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Example: For a Wien bridge oscillator based on an operational amplifier, if 𝐶1 = 𝐶2 = 100 𝑛𝐹, determine the
output frequencies (𝑓) produced by this arrangement (a) when 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 1 𝑘Ω and (b) when 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 =
6 𝑘Ω.

Solution:
1
𝑓=
2𝜋𝐶𝑅
(a) when 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 1 𝑘Ω :
1
𝑓= ≅ 1592 𝐻𝑧 ≅ 1.592 𝑘𝐻𝑧
2𝜋 × 100 × 10−9 𝐹 × 1 × 103 

(b) when 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 6 𝑘Ω :

1
𝑓= ≅ 265.4 𝐻𝑧
2𝜋 × 100 × 10−9 𝐹 × 6 × 103 

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Logic Circuits

Logic circuits are used extensively in digital

electronics. The basic logic gates, AND, OR, NAND, and
NOR are designed to be interconnected into larger, more
complex, logic circuit arrangements. You need to understand
how these circuits operate in order to understand a wide
range of digital circuits and systems.

Logic Gates

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Logic Functions

Electronic logic circuits can be used to make simple decisions like:

If dark then put on the light.
&
If the temperature is less then 20 °C then connect the supply to the heater.
They can also be used to make more complex decisions like:
If ‘hour’ is greater than 11 and ‘24 hour clock’ is not selected then display the message ‘pm’.
All of these logical statements are similar in form. The first two are essentially:
If {condition} then {action}.
while the third is a compound statement of the form:
If {condition 1} and not {condition 2} then {action}.
Types of Basic Digital Logic Gates
Both of these statements can be readily implemented using straightforward electronic
circuits. Because this circuitry is based on discrete states and since the behaviour of the circuits
can be described by a set of logical statements, it is referred to as digital logic.

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Switch & Lamp Logic
In the simple circuit shown in the figure, a battery is connected to a lamp via a
switch. There are two possible states for the switch, open and closed, but the lamp
will only operate when the switch is closed. We can summarize this using the table.
Since the switch can only be in one of the two states (i.e. open or closed) at
any given time, the open and closed conditions are mutually exclusive. Furthermore,
since the switch cannot exist in any other state than completely open or completely Simple switch and lamp circuit
closed (i.e. there is no intermediate or half-open state) the circuit uses binary or ‘two-
state’ logic. The logical state of the switch can be represented by the binary digits, 0
and 1. For example, if logical 0 is synonymous with open (or ‘off’) and logical 1 is
equivalent to closed (or ‘on’), then: Simple switching logic

Switch open (off) = 0

Switch closed (on) = 1

We can now rewrite the truth table in terms of the binary states as shown in the
second figure where:
No light (off) = 0 Truth table for the switch and lamp
Light (on) = 1

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AND Logic

Now consider the circuit with two switches shown in the figure. Here, the lamp
will only operate when switch A is closed and switch B is closed. Since there are two
switches (A and B) and there are two possible states for each switch (open or closed),
there is a total of four possible conditions for the circuit, as can be seen in the table.
Since each switch can only be in one of the two states (i.e. open or closed) at AND switch and lamp logic
any given time, the open and closed conditions are mutually exclusive. Furthermore,
since the switches cannot exist in any other state than completely open or completely
closed (i.e. there are no intermediate states) the circuit uses binary logic. We can thus
represent the logical states of the two switches by the binary digits, 0 and 1.
Once again, if we adopt the convention that an open switch can be represented Simple AND switching logic

by 0 and a closed switch by 1, we can rewrite the truth table in terms of the binary
states shown in the last figure where:

No light (off) = 0
Light (on) = 1

Truth table for the switch and lamp

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OR Logic

In the figure, the lamp will operate when either of the

two switches is closed. There is a total of four possible OR switch and lamp logic

conditions for the circuit, as can be seen in the table.

Once again, adopting the convention that an open
switch can be represented by 0 and a closed switch by 1, we
can rewrite the truth table in terms of the binary states as Simple OR switching logic

shown in the figure.

Truth table for OR logic

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Example: Figure shows a simple switching circuit. Describe the
logical state of switches A, B and C in order to operate the lamp.
Illustrate your answer with a truth table.

Solution:

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Example: Figure shows a simple switching circuit. Describe the
logical state of switches A, B and C in order to operate the lamp.
Illustrate your answer with a truth table.

Solution:

In order to operate the lamp, switch A and either switch B or

switch C must be operated. The truth table is shown in the figure.

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Logic Gates

Logic gates are circuits designed to produce the basic logic

functions, AND, OR, etc. These circuits are designed to be
interconnected into larger, more complex, logic circuit
arrangements. For each gate, we have included its British Standard
(BS) symbol together with its American Standard (MIL/ ANSI)
symbol. We have also included the truth tables and Boolean
expressions (using ‘ + ’ to denote OR, ‘·’ to denote AND, and ‘−’ to
denote NOT). Note that, while inverters and buffers each have only
one input, exclusive-OR gates have two inputs and the other basic
gates (AND, OR, NAND, and NOR) are commonly available with
up to eight inputs.

Logic Gate Symbols

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Buffers

Buffers do not affect the logical state of a digital signal (i.e. a

logic 1 input results in a logic 1 output whereas a logic 0 input
results in a logic 0 output). Buffers are normally used to provide
extra current drive at the output but can also be used to regularize
the logic levels present at an interface. The Boolean expression for
the output, Y, of a buffer with an input, X, is:

Symbols and truth table for a buffer

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Inverters

Inverters are used to complement the logical state (i.e. a logic 1

input results in a logic 0 output and vice versa). Inverters also
provide extra current drive and, like buffers, are used in interfacing
applications where they provide a means of regularizing logic levels
present at the input or output of a digital system. The Boolean
expression for the output, Y, of a buffer with an input, X, is:

Symbols and truth table for an inverter

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AND Gates
AND gates will only produce a logic 1 output when all inputs
are simultaneously at logic 1. Any other input combination results in
a logic 0 output. The Boolean expression for the output, Y, of an
AND gate with inputs, A and B, is:
Symbols and truth table for an AND gate

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OR Gates
OR gates will produce a logic 1 output whenever any one, or
more, inputs are at logic 1. Putting this another way, an OR gate will
only produce a logic 0 output whenever all of its inputs are
simultaneously at logic 0. The Boolean expression for the output, Y,
of an OR gate with inputs A and B is:
Symbols and truth table for an OR gate

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NAND Gates
NAND (i.e. NOT-AND) gates will only produce a logic 0
output when all inputs are simultaneously at logic 1. Any other input
combination will produce a logic 1 output. A NAND gate, therefore,
is nothing more than an AND gate with its output inverted. The circle
Symbols and truth table for a NAND gate
shown at the output denotes this inversion. The Boolean expression
for the output, Y, of a NAND gate with inputs A and B is:

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NOR Gates
NOR (i.e. NOT-OR) gates will only produce a logic 1 output
when all inputs are simultaneously at logic 0. Any other input
combination will produce a logic 0 output. A NOR gate, therefore, is
simply an OR gate with its output inverted. A circle is again used to
Symbols and truth table for a NOR gate
indicate inversion. The Boolean expression for the output, Y, of a
NOR gate with inputs, A and B, is:

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Exclusive-OR Gates
Exclusive-OR gates will produce a logic 1 output whenever
either one of the inputs is at logic 1 and the other is at logic 0.
Exclusive-OR gates produce a logic 0 output whenever both inputs
have the same logical state (i.e. when both are at logic 0 or both are
at logic 1). The Boolean expression for the output, Y, of an Symbols and truth table for an exclusive-OR gate

exclusive-OR gate with inputs A and B is:

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Exclusive-NOR Gates
Exclusive-NOR gates will produce a logic 0 output whenever either one of the inputs is at logic 1 and the other is at
logic 0. Exclusive-NOR gates produce a logic 1 output whenever both inputs have the same logical state (i.e., when both
are at logic 0 or both are at logic 1). The Boolean expression for the output, Y, of an exclusive-NOR gate with inputs, A
and B, is:

𝑌 = 𝐴. 𝐵ത + 𝐵. 𝐴ҧ

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Example: A logic circuit is to be constructed that will produce a logic 1 output whenever two or more of its
three inputs are at logic 1.

Solution:

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Example: A logic circuit is to be constructed that will produce a logic 1 output whenever two or more of its
three inputs are at logic 1.

Solution:

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Example: Show how an arrangement of basic logic gates (AND, OR, and NOT) can be used to produce the
exclusive-OR function.

Solution:

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Example: Show how an arrangement of basic logic gates (AND, OR, and NOT) can be used to produce the
exclusive-OR function.

Solution:

These expressions can be obtained using two two-input AND gates and the result (i.e. P and Q) can then be applied to
an OR gate with two inputs. A and B can be produced using inverters.

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 Important Formulas Introduced in This Chapter
Overall Voltage Gain:
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐺=
𝑉𝑖𝑛

Gain with Positive Feedback:

𝐴𝑉
𝐺=
1 − 𝛽𝐴𝑉

Output Frequency of a Three-Stage C-R Ladder Network Oscillator:

1
𝑓=
2𝜋 6𝐶𝑅
Output Frequency of a Wien Bridge Oscillator:
1
𝑓=
2𝜋𝐶𝑅

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 Buffers & Inverters:

AND Gates:

OR Gates:

NAND Gates:

NOR Gates:

Exclusive-OR Gates & Exclusive-NOR Gates:

𝑌 = 𝐴. 𝐵ത + 𝐵. 𝐴ҧ

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 Asst.Prof. Zehra Merve Cinan
Faculty of Engineering
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering,
8th Block, Floor: 2
Office: 2521

zehramervecinan@halic.edu.tr

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