Chemistry for Health Sciences

Four credits
Semester 2, AY2025
King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences
 6.1 Properties of Solutions
• Solution - homogeneous mixture of two or
more substances
• Solute – the component of a solution that is
present in lesser quantity. [More than one
solute could be present in solution].
• Solvent – the solution component present in
the largest quantity
• Aqueous solution - solution where the
solvent is water
 Examples of Solutions
• Although most common solutions are liquids,
solutions can be liquids, solids or gases
• Air (gas solution):- oxygen and several trace
gases are dissolved in the gaseous solvent,
nitrogen
• Alloys (solid solution):-brass and other
homogeneous metal mixtures in the solid state
• Focus on liquid solutions as many important
chemical reactions take place in liquid solutions
General Properties of Liquid Solutions
• Clear, transparent, no visible particles
• May be colored or colorless
• Nonelectrolytes solutions solutes do not dissociate
Example: C6H12O6 (glucose)
• Electrolytes solutions are formed from solutes that
are soluble ionic compounds
Example: Ionic Compounds
NaCl(s) ¾H¾®
¾
2O
Na + (aq) + Cl- (aq)
 Aqueous Solutions
Electrolytes and Extent of Ionization
• Aqueous solutions consist of a solute dissolved in water.
Classification of solutes:
1- Nonelectrolytes: Solutes that do not conduct electricity in
water because they do not form ions in solution.

Examples: C2H5OH – ethanol

C6H12O6 - glucose (blood sugar)
C12H22O11 - sucrose (table sugar)
 Aqueous Solutions: Nonelectrolytes
Glucose Sucrose
H2
H HO C

H C O H
H C OH H
C C
OH H
HO
H C O H
C C O
H OH

C H H C HO H2 C
O
OH
C H C
HO
HO C C OH H
C C CH2 OH

H HO HO H

Nonelectrolytes do not conduct electricity because they do not form

ions in solution.
 Aqueous Solutions: Strong Electrolytes
2- Strong electrolytes:
Conduct electricity extremely well in aqueous solutions
because they are completely ionized (100%) in water.

• Examples of strong electrolytes

1. HCl, HBr, HNO3, H2SO4 etc.

• strong soluble acids
2. NaOH, KOH, LiOH, Ca(OH)2 etc.
• strong soluble bases
3. NaCl, KBr, etc.
• soluble ionic salts
• ionize in water essentially 100%
 Aqueous Solutions: Strong Electrolytes
Strong Acids and Bases
• Strong acids or bases ionize 100% in water.
• Acids generate H+ in aqueous solutions.

Note: HCl is an example of gas solute in solution because HCl is a

gas, which dissolved in water to provide aqueous HCl

+ -
H
N
O
+
3H
O
2 H
O
(
3a
q
)+N
O
(
a
q
3)
or
+ -
H
N
O
3 H
(
a
q
) +
N
O(
a
3q
)
• Bases generate OH- in aqueous solutions
Aqueous Solutions: Weak Electrolytes
3- Weak electrolytes:
Conduct electricity poorly in aqueous solutions
because they are partially ionized in water.
1. CH3COOH (acetic acid)
• weak acids

2. NH3 (ammonia)
• weak bases
Aqueous Solutions: Weak Electrolytes
• Weak acids ionize partially (less than 10%)
in water.
– Typically ionize 10% or less!
– Example: CH3COOH, acetic acid
Aqueous Solutions: Electrolytes

• Strong electrolytes are substances that ionize

completely when dissolved in water.
• Weak electrolytes are substances that are only partially
ionized in water.
• Nonelectrolytes are substances that do not produce ions
when dissolved in water.
 Degree of Solubility
• Solubility - how much of a particular solute can
dissolve in a certain solvent at a specified
temperature
• Factors which affect solubility :
1- Polarity of solute and solvent
• The more different they are, the lower the solubility
2- Temperature
• Increase in temperature usually increases solubility
3- Pressure
• Usually has no effect
• If solubility is of gas in liquid, directly proportional
to applied pressure
 The Effect of Temperature on Solubility:
Solids in Liquids

Most solids become more soluble as temperature rises.

 Saturation
• Saturated solution - a solution that contains the
maximum amount of dissolved solute at a particular
temperature

• Supersaturated solution - contains more solute than

can be dissolved at the current temperature
• How is this done?
• Heat solvent, saturate it with solute then cool slowly
• Sometimes the excess will precipitate out
• If it doesn’t precipitate, the solution will be
supersaturated. [This type of solution is inherently unstable.
With time, excess solute will precipitate, and the solution will
revert to a saturated solution.
Solubility of Gases: Henry’s Law
• Henry’s law – the number of moles of a gas
dissolved in a liquid at a given temperature is
proportional to the partial pressure of the gas
above the liquid [e.g. n  P].
• Gas solubility in a liquid increases with the
pressure of the gas and decreases with
increasing the temperature.

S P

S 1∕T
 Representation of Henry’s Law
• Gases are most soluble at low temperatures
• Solubility decreases significantly at higher
temperatures
– Carbonated beverages: CO2 solubility less when warm
– Respiration: facilitates O2 and CO2 exchange in lungs
6.2 Concentration Based on Mass
• Concentration - amount of solute dissolved
in a given amount of solution
• Concentration of a solution has an effect on:
– Physical properties
• Melting and boiling points
– Chemical properties
• Solution reactivity
1- Mass/Volume Percent (g/mL)
• Amount of solute = mass of solute in grams
• Amount of solution = volume in milliliters
amount of solute
concentration =
amount of solution
• Concentration is expressed as a percentage
by multiplying ratio by 100 = mass/volume
percent or % (m/V)
m g of solute
%  100%
V mL of solution
Calculating Mass/Volume Percent
Calculate the % (m/V) of 2.00  102 mL solution
containing 20.0 g sodium chloride
20.0 g NaCl = mass of solute
2.00  102 mL = total volume of solution

% (m/V) = (20.0 g NaCl / 2.00  102 mL) x 100%

= 10.0% (m/V)
 Calculate Mass of Solute from
Mass/Volume Percent
Calculate the number of grams of glucose in
7.50  102 mL of a 15.0% solution
m grams of solute
%  100%
V milliliters of solution

15.0 (m/V) = [X g glucose/(7.50  102 mL)]  100

X g glucose  100 = (15.0 m/V)(7.50  102 mL)
X g glucose = 113 g glucose
Examples You do it
1) A solution of heparin sodium, an anticoagulant for blood,
contains 1.8 g of heparin sodium dissolved to make a
final volume of 15 mL of solution. What is the
mass/volume percent concentration of this solution?

Answer = 12%

2) How many grams of NaCl are needed to prepare 250 mL of

a 1.5% (m/v) saline solution?

Answer = 3.75 g
2- Mass/Mass Percent
m g solute
%  100%
m g solution
• Mass/mass percent is most useful for
solutions of 2 solids whose masses are
easily obtained
• Calculate % (m/m) of platinum in gold
ring with 14.00 g Au and 4.500 g Pt
[4.500 g Pt / (4.500 g Pt + 14.00 g Au)]  100
= (4.500 g / 18.50 g)  100 = 24.32% Pt
3- Volume/Volume Percent
• Percent concentrations
– For liquid solutions, concentrations are expressed as
volume/volume percent concentration, (v/v)%.

Example: How many milliliters of methyl alcohol are needed

to prepare 75 mL of a 5.0% (v/v) solution?
Solution:
4- Parts per million (ppm) and parts per
billion (ppb)
Parts per million (ppm) or Parts per billion (ppb)
• When concentrations are very small, it is more convenient to
use parts per million (ppm) or parts per billion (ppb). The
“parts” can be in any unit of either mass or volume as long as
the units of both solute and solvent are the same:
Example
The maximum allowable concentration of chloroform, CHCl3, in
drinking water is 100 ppb. What is the maximum amount (in grams)
of chloroform allowed in a glass containing 400 g of water?

Solution:
6.3 Concentrations Based on Moles

• Chemical equations represent the relative

number of moles of reactants producing
products

• Many chemical reactions occur in solution

where it is most useful to represent
concentrations on a molar basis
 Molarity and Molality
• The most common mole-based concentration unit is molarity
• Molarity (M)
– Defined as the number of moles of solute per liter of solution

mol solute
M
L solution
• Molality (m)
– Defined as the number of moles of solute per kg of solvent
– The denominator is in kg solvent, not in kg solution

mol solute
m
kg solvent
 Calculating Molarity from Moles
• Calculate the molarity of 2.0 L of solution
containing 5.0 mol NaOH
• Use the equation
moles solute
M=
L solution
• Substitute into the equation:
M = 5.0 mol solute = 2.5 M
2.0 L solution
 Calculating Molarity From Mass Example
• If 5.00 g glucose are dissolved in 1.00  102 mL of
solution, calculate molarity, M, of the glucose
solution

• Convert from grams glucose to moles glucose:

5.00 g x 1 mol = 2.78 x 10−2 mol

180 g

• Convert from mL to L of solution:

1.00 x 102 mL x 1 L = 1.00 x 10−1 L

103 mL
 Calculating Molarity From Mass
Example - Continued
• If 5.00 g glucose are dissolved in 1.00  102 mL of
solution, calculate molarity, M, of the glucose
solution

• Substitute into the equation:

M = mol glucose
L solution

M = 2.78  10-2 mol glucose

1.00  10-1 L solution

M = 2.78  10-1 M
 Calculating Molality
What is the molality of a solution made by
dissolving 200 g of sugar (C12H11O22) in 500 g
water?
Answer =0.789 mol/kg

Determine the mass of calcium nitrate required to

prepare 3.50 L of a 0.800 M Ca(NO3)2 ; (MM = 164.0
g/mole).

Answer = 459.2 g
 Dilution of Solutions
Dilution is required to prepare a less
concentrated solution from a more
concentrated one
– M1 = molarity of solution before dilution
– M2 = molarity of solution after dilution
– V1 = volume of solution before dilution
– V2 = volume of solution after dilution

mol solute
M  moles solute = (M)(L solution)
L solution
 Dilution Equation
• In a dilution, will the
number of moles of solute
change?
– No, only fewer per unit
volume

• So, M1V1 = M2V2

• Knowing any three terms
permits calculation of the
fourth
 Calculating Molarity After Dilution

• Calculate the molarity of a solution made by

diluting 0.050 L of 0.10 M HCl solution to a
volume of 1.0 L

– M1 = 0.10 M molarity of solution before dilution

– M2 = Desired Result
– V1 = 0.050 L volume of solution before dilution
– V2 = 1.0 L volume of solution after dilution
 Calculating Molarity After Dilution
• Calculate the molarity of a solution made by
diluting 0.050 L of 0.10 M HCl solution to a
volume of 1.0 L
• Solve the dilution expression for M2
M1V1 = M2 (0.10 M) (0.050 L) = M2
V2 (1.0 L)

M2 = 0.0050 M
 Dilution of Solutions

Examples: You do it!

1. What volume of an 18.0 M sulfuric acid is required to make
2.50 L of a 2.40 M sulfuric acid solution?
Answer = 0.333L

1. Suppose we need to prepare 500 mL of 1.00 M acetic acid

(HC2H3O2) from a 17.5 M stock solution of acetic acid.
What volume of the stock solution is required?
Answer = 28.6 mL

1. If 10.0 mL of 12.0 M HCl is added to enough water to give

100.0 mL of solution, what is the concentration of the
solution?
36
Answer 1.20 mL